Artistic space and time. Space and time in fiction

Analysis of artistic space and time

none piece of art does not exist in the space-time vacuum. It always has time and space in one way or another. It is important to understand that artistic time and space are not abstractions and not even physical categories, although modern physics also gives a very ambiguous answer to the question of what time and space are. Art does deal with a very specific spatio-temporal coordinate system. G. Lessing was the first to point out the importance of time and space for art, which we already spoke about in the second chapter, and theorists of the last two centuries, especially the 20th century, proved that artistic time and space are not only a significant, but often defining component of a literary work.

In literature, time and space are the most important image properties. Miscellaneous images require different space-time coordinates. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" we encounter with unusually compressed space. Small rooms, narrow streets. Raskolnikov lives in a room that looks like a coffin. Of course, this is no coincidence. The writer is interested in people who find themselves in an impasse in life, and this is emphasized by all means. When Raskolnikov gains faith and love in the epilogue, space opens up.

Each work of modern literature has its own spatio-temporal grid, its own coordinate system. At the same time, there are some general patterns of development of artistic space and time. For example, until the 18th century, aesthetic consciousness did not allow the author to "intervene" in the temporal structure of the work. In other words, the author could not begin the story with the death of the hero, and then return to his birth. The time of the work was "as if real". In addition, the author could not disrupt the course of the story about one hero by an "inserted" story about another. In practice, this led to the so-called "chronological inconsistencies" characteristic of ancient literature. For example, one story ends with the hero returning safely, while another begins with loved ones mourning his absence. We encounter this, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. In the 18th century, a revolution took place, and the author received the right to “model” the narrative, not observing the logic of lifelikeness: a lot of inserted stories, digressions appeared, chronological “realism” was violated. Contemporary author can build the composition of the work, shuffling the episodes at his discretion.

In addition, there are stable, culturally accepted spatial and temporal models. The outstanding philologist M. M. Bakhtin, who fundamentally developed this problem, called these models chronotopes(chronos + topos, time and space). Chronotopes are initially permeated with meanings, any artist consciously or unconsciously takes this into account. As soon as we say about someone: "He is on the verge of something ...", as we immediately understand that we are talking about something big and important. But why exactly on the doorstep? Bakhtin believed that threshold chronotope one of the most common in culture, and as soon as we “turn it on”, the semantic depth opens up.

Today term chronotope is universal and denotes simply the existing spatio-temporal model. Often at the same time, “etiquettely” refers to the authority of M. M. Bakhtin, although Bakhtin himself understood the chronotope more narrowly - precisely as sustainable model that occurs from work to work.

In addition to chronotopes, one should also keep in mind the more general patterns of space and time that underlie entire cultures. These models are historical, that is, one replaces the other, but the paradox of the human psyche is that a model that has “obsolete” its age does not disappear anywhere, continuing to excite a person and giving rise to artistic texts. AT different cultures there are quite a few variations of such models, but there are several basic ones. First, this is a model zero time and space. It is also called motionless, eternal - there are a lot of options here. In this model, time and space lose their meaning. There is always the same thing, and there is no difference between "here" and "there", that is, there is no spatial extension. Historically, this is the most archaic model, but it is still very relevant today. Ideas about hell and heaven are built on this model, it is often “turned on” when a person tries to imagine existence after death, etc. The famous “golden age” chronotope, which manifests itself in all cultures, is built on this model. If we remember the ending of The Master and Margarita, we can easily feel this model. It was in such a world, according to the decision of Yeshua and Woland, that the heroes ended up in the world of eternal good and peace.

Another model - cyclic(circular). This is one of the most powerful space-time models, supported by the eternal change of natural cycles (summer-autumn-winter-spring-summer ...). It is based on the idea that everything returns to normal. There is space and time there, but they are conditional, especially time, since the hero will still come to where he left, and nothing will change. Easiest illustrate this model with Homer's Odyssey. Odysseus was absent for many years, the most incredible adventures fell to his lot, but he returned home and found his Penelope still just as beautiful and loving. M. M. Bakhtin called such a time adventurous, it exists, as it were, around the heroes, without changing anything either in them or between them. them. The cyclical model is also very archaic, but its projections are clearly perceptible in contemporary culture. For example, it is very noticeable in the work of Sergei Yesenin, who has the idea of ​​a life cycle, especially in mature years, becomes dominant. Even the dying lines known to everyone “In this life, dying is not new, / But living, of course,, not newer" refer to ancient tradition, to the famous biblical book of Ecclesiastes, built entirely on a cyclical model.

The culture of realism is associated mainly with linear a model when space seems to be infinitely open in all directions, and time is associated with a directed arrow - from the past to the future. This model dominates everyday consciousness modern man and is clearly visible in a huge number of literary texts recent centuries. Suffice it to recall, for example, the novels of Leo Tolstoy. In this model, each event is recognized as unique, it can only happen once, and a person is understood as a constantly changing being. Linear model opened psychologism in the modern sense, since psychologism presupposes the ability to change, which could not be either in the cyclic (after all, the hero must be the same at the end as at the beginning), and even more so in the model of zero time-space. In addition, the linear model is associated with the principle historicism, that is, a person began to be understood as a product of his era. An abstract "man for all time" simply does not exist in this model.

It is important to understand that in the mind of a modern person, all these models do not exist in isolation, they can interact, giving rise to the most bizarre combinations. For example, a person can be emphatically modern, trust a linear model, accept the uniqueness of every moment of life as something unique, but at the same time be a believer and accept the timelessness and spacelessness of existence after death. In the same way, literary texts can reflect different systems coordinates. For example, experts have long noticed that in the work of Anna Akhmatova there are two parallel dimensions, as it were: one is historical, in which every moment and gesture is unique, the other is timeless, in which any movement freezes. The "layering" of these layers is one of the hallmarks of Akhmatov's style.

Finally, modern aesthetic consciousness is increasingly mastering another model. There is no clear name for it, but it would not be a mistake to say that this model allows for the existence parallel times and spaces. The meaning is that we exist differently depending on the coordinate system. But at the same time, these worlds are not completely isolated, they have points of intersection. The literature of the twentieth century actively uses this model. Suffice it to recall M. Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita. Master and his beloved die in different places and different reasons: Master in crazy house, Margarita at home from a heart attack, but at the same time they are die in each other's arms in the Master's closet from Azazello's poison. Different coordinate systems are included here, but they are interconnected - after all, the death of the heroes came in any case. This is the projection of the model parallel worlds. If you have carefully read the previous chapter, you will easily understand that the so-called multivariate the plot - the invention of literature in the main twentieth century - is a direct consequence of the establishment of this new spatio-temporal grid.

Spatial features of the text. Space and image of the world. Physical point of view (spatial plans: panoramic image, close-up, moving - stationary picture of the world, external - internal space, etc.). Features of the landscape (interior). Space types. Valuable value of spatial images (spatial images as an expression of non-spatial relations).

Temporal features of the text. Action time and story time. Types of artistic time, the meaning of temporary images. Vocabulary with temporary meaning. The main chronotopes of the text. Space and time of the author and the hero, their fundamental difference.

Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal: nature, things, events, people in their external and internal existence, etc. The natural forms of existence of this world are time and space. However art world, or world of art, always to some extent conditional: it is image reality. Time and space in literature are thus also conditional.

Compared to other arts, literature is the most free to deal with time and space.(It can compete in this area, perhaps, only with the synthetic art of cinema). The "non-materiality of ... images" gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space to another. In particular, events that occur simultaneously in different places can be depicted; for this, it is enough for the narrator to say: "In the meantime, something happened there." Transitions from one time plan to another are just as simple (especially from the present to the past and back). The earliest forms of such temporal switching were flashbacks in stories. actors. With the development of literary self-awareness, these forms of mastering time and space will become more sophisticated, but it is important that they have always taken place in literature, and, therefore, constituted an essential element of artistic imagery.

Another property of literary time and space is their discontinuity. With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature turns out to be able not to reproducethe wholeflow of time, but choose the most significant fragments from it, marking the gaps with formulas like: “several days have passed”, etc. Such temporal discreteness (which has long been characteristic of literature) served as a powerful means of dynamization, first in the development of the plot, and then in psychologism.

Fragmentation of space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly it has an independent character.

Characterconventions of time and space highly dependent onfrom the family literature. The lyrics, which represent the actual experience, and the drama, played out before the eyes of the audience, showing the incident at the moment of its completion, usually use the present tense, while the epic (basically a story about what has passed) is in the past tense.

Conditionality is maximum atlyrics it may even completely lack the image of space - for example, in A.S. Pushkin's poem “I loved you; love still, perhaps ... ". Often the space in the lyrics is allegorical: the desert in Pushkin's "Prophet", the sea in Lermontov's "Sail". At the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing the objective world in its spatial realities. So, in Lermontov's poem "Motherland" a typical Russian landscape is recreated. In his poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd ...” the mental transfer of the lyrical hero from the ballroom to the “wonderful kingdom” embodies the oppositions that are extremely significant for the romantic: civilization and nature, artificial and natural man, “I” and “crowd” . And not only spaces, but also times are opposed.

Conditionality of time and space indrama connected mainly with its orientation towards the theatre. With all the diversity in the organization of time and space, drama retains some general properties: no matter how significant the role of narrative fragments in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action, the drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.

Much more opportunities for epic kind , where the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the depicted life and the reader. The narrator can "compress" and, on the contrary, "stretch" time, or even stop it (in descriptions, reasoning).

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention time and space in literature (in all its varieties) can be divided into abstract and concrete, especially this distinction is important for space.

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes taking place in it. To analyze a work, it is important to determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator in many cases characterizes style works, writer, direction. For example, Gogol's space is usually filled to the maximum with some objects, especially things. Here is one of the interiors in " Dead souls»: «<...>the room was hung with old striped wallpaper; pictures with some birds; between the windows there are small antique mirrors with dark frames in the form of curled leaves; behind every mirror there was either a letter, or an old pack of cards, or a stocking; wall clock with painted flowers on the dial...” (ch. III). And in Lermontov's style system, the space is practically not filled: it contains only what is necessary for the plot and the depiction of the inner world of the characters, even in "A Hero of Our Time" (not to mention romantic poems) there is not a single detailed written out interior.

The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events.. Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Mayakovsky have an extremely busy time. Chekhov, on the other hand, managed to sharply reduce the intensity of time even in dramatic works, which, in principle, gravitate towards the concentration of action.

The increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time, and vice versa: a weak saturation of space is combined with time full of events.

Real (plot) and artistic time rarely match, especially in epic works, where playing with time can be a very expressive device. In most cases, artistic time is shorter than "real" time: this is the manifestation of the law of "poetic economy". However, there is an important exception related to the image psychological processes and subjective time character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts, unlike other processes, proceed faster than the speech flow, which forms the basis of literary imagery, moves. Therefore, the image time is almost always longer than the subjective time. In some cases, this is less noticeable (for example, in Lermontov’s Hero of Our Time, Goncharov’s novels, Chekhov’s stories), in others it is a conscious artistic device designed to emphasize the richness and intensity of spiritual life. This is typical for many writers-psychologists: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Faulkner, Hemingway, Proust.

The depiction of what the hero has experienced in just a second of "real" time can take up a large amount of narrative.

In literature as a dynamic, but at the same time visual art, quite complex relationships often arise between “ real and artistic time.« Real» time in general can be equal to zero, for example, with various kinds of descriptions. This time can be called eventless . But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, literature really captures events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationship of people, or the situation as a whole. it plot , or plot , time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable being, actions and deeds that are repeated from day to day, from year to year. Events as such at such a time no. Everything that happens in it does not change either the character of a person or the relationship of people, does not move the plot (plot) from plot to denouement. The dynamics of such a time is extremely conditional, and its function is to reproduce a sustainable way of life. This type of artistic time is sometimes called "Chronically-everyday" .

The ratio of eventless and eventful time largely determines tempo organization of artistic time of the work , which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception. So, Gogol's Dead Souls, in which eventless, "chronicle-everyday" time, give the impression of a slow pace. A different tempo organization in Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment, in which eventful time (not only externally, but also internal, psychological events).

The writer sometimes makes time last, stretches it to convey a certain psychological state of the hero (Chekhov's story "I want to sleep"), sometimes stops, "turns off" (L. Tolstoy's philosophical excursions in "War and Peace"), sometimes makes time move back.

Important for analysis iscompleteness andincompleteness artistic time. Writers often create in their works closed time, which has both an absolute beginning and, more importantly, an absolute end, which, as a rule, represents both the completion of the plot and the resolution of the conflict, and in the lyrics, the exhaustion of a given experience or reflection. Starting from the early stages of the development of literature and almost up to the 19th century. such temporal completeness was practically obligatory and constituted a sign of artistry. The forms of the end of artistic time were varied: this was the return of the hero to his father's house after wanderings (literary interpretations of the parable of the prodigal son), and the achievement of a certain stable position in life, and the "triumph of virtue", and the final victory of the hero over the enemy, and, of course, same, the death of the protagonist or the wedding. At the end of the XIX century. Chekhov, for whom the incompleteness of artistic time became one of the foundations of his innovative aesthetics, spread the principle open final and unfinished time on dramaturgy, those. to that literary genre in which it was most difficult to do this and which urgently requires temporal and eventual isolation.

Space, like time, can shift at the will of the author. art space created by applying the image angle; this happens as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is carried out: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa. Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial.

The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a definite tendency towards complication. in the 19th and especially in the 20th century. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic device; begins a kind of "game" with time and space. Its meaning is to compare different times and spaces, to reveal both the characteristic properties of "here" and "now" and the general, universal laws of being, to comprehend the world in its unity. Each culture has its own understanding of time and space, which is reflected in literature. Since the Renaissance, culture has been dominated by linear concept time associated with the concept progress.Art time too for the most part linearly, although there are exceptions. For culture and literature late XIX- early 20th century had a significant impact natural sciences concepts time and space, associated primarily with the theory of relativity by A. Einstein. Fiction literature reacted to the changed scientific and philosophical ideas about time and space: it began to present deformations of space and time. Most fruitfully mastered new ideas about space and time Science fiction.

Titles denoting time and space.

With all the conventionality of the “new artistic reality” created by the writer, the basis of the artistic world, as well as the real world, is its coordinates - time and place, which often indicated in the titles of works. In addition to cyclic coordinates (names of the time of day, days of the week, months), the time of action can be indicated by a date correlated with a historical event (“The ninety-third year” by V. Hugo), or by the name of a real historical person with whom the idea of ​​​​a particular era ("Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX" P. Merime).

In the title of a work of art, not only “points” on the time axis can be indicated, but also entire “segments”, marking the chronological framework of the narrative. At the same time, the author, focusing the reader's attention on a certain time period - sometimes it is only one day or even part of a day - seeks to convey both the essence of life and the “clot of life” of his characters, emphasizes the typical nature of the events he describes (“Morning of the landowner” L.N. Tolstoy, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn).

The second coordinate of the artistic world of the work - the place - can be indicated in the title with varying degrees of specificity, a real (“Rome” by E. Zola) or a fictional toponym (“Chevengur” by A.P. Platonov, “Solaris” by St. Lem), defined in in the most general form (“The Village” by I.A. Bunin, “Islands in the Ocean” by E. Hemingway). Fictional toponyms often contain an emotional assessment that gives the reader an idea of ​​the author's concept of the work. So, for the reader, the negative semantics of the Gorky toponym Okurov (“Okurov Town”) is quite obvious; the town of Okurov near Gorky is a dead backwater in which life is not seething, but barely glimmering. The most common place names, as a rule, testify to the extremely wide meaning of the image created by the artist. So, the village from the story of the same name by I.A. Bunin is not only one of the villages of the Oryol province, but also a Russian village in general with a whole complex of contradictions associated with the spiritual disintegration of the peasant world, the community.

Titles denoting the scene of action can not only model the space of the artistic world (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. Radishchev, “Moscow - Petushki” by V. Erofeev), but also introduce the main symbol of the work (“Nevsky Prospekt” by N.V. Gogol, "Petersburg" by A. Bely). Toponymic titles are often used by writers as a kind of bond that unites individual works into a single cycle or book (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol).

Main literature: 12, 14, 18, 28, 75

Further reading: 39, 45, 82

Artistic time and art space the most important characteristics of the artistic image, providing holistic perception artistic reality and organizing the composition of the work. The art of the word belongs to the group of dynamic, temporal arts (in contrast to the plastic, spatial arts). But the literary and poetic image, formally unfolding in time (as a sequence of text), with its content reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological, value aspect. Such traditional spatial landmarks as “house” (an image of a closed space), “space” (an image of an open space), “threshold”, “window”, “door” (the border between one and the other) have long been the point of application of comprehending forces in literary and artistic (and more broadly cultural) models of the world (the symbolic richness of such spaces, images is obvious, such as the house of Gogol's "old-world landowners" or Raskolnikov's coffin-like room in Crime and Punishment, 1866, F.M. Dostoevsky, like a steppe in "Taras Bulba", 1835, N.V. Gogol or in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov). symbolic and artistic chronology(movement from spring and summer heyday to autumn sadness, characteristic of the world of Turgenev's prose). In general, the ancient types of value situations, realized in spatiotemporal images (chronotope, according to M.M. Bakhtin), are “idyllic time” in father's house, "adventurous time" of trials in a foreign land, "mystery time" of descent into the underworld of disasters - one way or another preserved in a reduced form by the classical literature of the New Age and modern literature(“station” or “airport” as places of decisive meetings and clearings, choice of path, sudden recognition, etc. correspond to the old “crossroads” or roadside tavern; “laz” - to the former “threshold” as a ritual crossing topos).

In view of the iconic, spiritual, symbolic nature of the art of the word spatial and temporal coordinates of literary reality are not fully concretized, discontinuous and conditional (the fundamental unrepresentability of spaces, images and values ​​in mythological, grotesque and fantastic works; the uneven course of plot time, its delays at the points of descriptions, retreats, parallel flow in different storylines). However, here the temporary nature makes itself felt. literary image, noted by G.E. Lessing in "Laocoon" (1766), - the convention in the transfer of space is felt weaker and is realized only when trying to translate literary works into the language of other arts; meanwhile, the conventionality in the transfer of time, the dialectic of the discrepancy between the time of the narration and the time of the events depicted, compositional time with the plot are mastered by the literary process as an obvious and meaningful contradiction.

Archaic, oral and generally early literature is sensitive to the type of temporal confinement, orientation in the collective or historical account of time (as in the traditional system literary genera lyric is “present”, and epic is “long gone”, qualitatively separated from the life time of the performer and listeners). The age of myth for its keeper and narrator is not a thing of the past; the mythological narrative ends with the correlation of events with the present composition of the world or its future fate (the myth of Pandora's box, of the chained Prometheus, who will someday be released). The time of a fairy tale is a deliberately conditional past, a fictitious time (and space) of unheard-of things; ironic ending (“and I was there, drinking honey-beer”) often emphasizes that there is no way out of the time of a fairy tale during its rendering (on this basis, one can conclude that more late origin fairy tales versus myths).

As the decay of archaic, ritual models of the world, marked by features of naive realism (observance of the unity of time and place in the ancient drama with its cult and mythological origins), in spatio-temporal representations that characterize literary consciousness, the degree of conditionality increases. In an epic or fairy tale, the tempo of the narration could not yet sharply outstrip the tempo of the events depicted; an epic or fairy-tale action could not unfold simultaneously (“in the meantime”) on two or more sites; it was strictly linear and, in this respect, remained faithful to empiricism; the epic narrator did not have a field of vision expanded in comparison with the usual human horizon; at each moment he was in one and only one point of the plot space. "Copernican coup" produced by the modern European novel in spatio-temporal organization of narrative genres, consisted in the fact that the author, along with the right to unconventional and frank fiction, acquired the right to dispose of novel time as its initiator and creator. When fiction removes the mask of a real event, and the writer openly breaks with the role of a rhapsodist or chronicler, then there is no need for a naive-empirical concept of event time. Temporal coverage can now be arbitrarily wide, the pace of narration can be arbitrarily uneven, parallel “theatres of action”, reversal of time and exits to the future known to the narrator are acceptable and functionally important (for purposes of analysis, explanation or entertainment). The boundaries between the compressed author's presentation of events, which speeds up the passage of plot time, the description, which stops its course for the sake of reviewing space, and the dramatized episodes, the compositional time of which "keeps up" with the plot time, become much sharper and are realized. Accordingly, the difference between the unfixed (“omnipresent”) and the spatially localized (“witness”) position of the narrator, which is characteristic mainly of “dramatic” episodes, is felt more sharply.

If in a short story of a novelistic type (a classic example is “ Queen of Spades”, 1833, A.S. Pushkin) these moments of the new artistic time and artistic space are still brought to a balanced unity and are in complete submission to the author-narrator, who talks with the reader, as it were, “on the other side” of the fictional space-time, then in In the "big" novel of the 19th century, such unity fluctuates markedly under the influence of emerging centrifugal forces. These “forces” are the discovery of everyday time and habitable space (in the novels of O. Balzac, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov) in connection with the concept of the social environment that forms the human character, as well as the discovery of a multi-subject narrative and transfer of the center of space-time coordinates in inner world heroes in connection with the development psychological analysis. When long-term organic processes come into the narrator's field of vision, the author runs the risk of facing the impossible task of reproducing life "from minute to minute." The way out was to transfer the sum of everyday circumstances that repeatedly affect a person beyond the time of action (exposition in Father Goriot, 1834-35; Oblomov’s dream is a lengthy digression in Goncharov’s novel) or distribution throughout calendar plan works of episodes shrouded in the course of everyday life (in the novels of Turgenev, in the "peaceful" chapters of the epic of L.N. Tolstoy). Such an imitation of the “river of life” itself with particular persistence requires the narrator to have a guiding supra-event presence. But, on the other hand, the opposite, in essence, process of “self-elimination” of the author-narrator is already beginning: the space dramatic episodes increasingly organized from the "observation position" of one of the characters, the events are described synchronously, as they play out before the eyes of the participant. It is also significant that chronicle-everyday time, in contrast to the event-based (in the source - adventure) does not have an unconditional beginning and an unconditional end ("life goes on").

In an effort to resolve these contradictions, Chekhov, in accordance with his general idea of ​​​​the course of life (the time of everyday life is the decisive tragic time human existence) merged eventful time with everyday time to an indistinguishable unity: episodes that happened once are presented in a grammatical imperfect - as repeatedly repeated scenes of everyday life that fill a whole segment of the everyday chronicle. (This folding of a large “piece” of plot time into a single episode, which simultaneously serves as both a summary story about the past stage and an illustration to it, a “test” taken from everyday life, is one of the main secrets of Chekhov’s famous brevity.) From the crossroads In the classic novel of the mid-19th century, the path opposite to Chekhov's was paved by Dostoevsky, who concentrated the plot within the boundaries of a critical, crisis time of decisive trials, measured in a few days and hours. The chronicle gradualness here is actually depreciated in the name of the decisive disclosure of the characters in their fateful moments. In Dostoevsky’s intense turning point corresponds to the space illuminated in the form of a stage, extremely involved in events, measured by the steps of the characters - the “threshold” (doors, stairs, corridors, lanes, where you can’t miss each other), “accidental shelter” (tavern, compartment), “ hall for a gathering, ”corresponding to situations of crime (crossing), confession, public trial. At the same time, the spiritual coordinates of space and time embrace the human universe in his novels (the ancient golden age, the French Revolution, "quadrillions" of space years and versts), and these instantaneous mental cuts of world existence prompt us to compare Dostoevsky's world with the world " Divine Comedy"(1307-21) Dante and "Faust" (1808-31) I.V. Goethe.

In the spatio-temporal organization of a work of literature of the 20th century, the following trends and features can be noted:

1. The symbolic plane of the realistic spatio-temporal panorama is accentuated, which, in particular, is reflected in the inclination towards nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, by M.A. Bulgakov; the county of Yoknapatofa in the south of the USA, created by the imagination of W. Faulkner; the generalized "Latin American" country of Macondo in the national epic of the Colombian G. Garcia Marquez "One Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967). However, it is important that artistic time and artistic space in all these cases require real historical and geographical identification, or at least convergence, without which the work is incomprehensible;
2. The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable is often used, which is excluded from the historical account, which often corresponds to the uncertainty of the scene (“The Trial”, 1915, F. Kafka; “The Plague”, 1947, A. Camus; “Watt”, 1953, S. Beckett );
3. A remarkable milestone in modern literary development- appeal to the character's memory as an internal space for the development of events; the intermittent, reverse and other course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall (this takes place not only in M. Proust or W. Wolf, but also in writers of a more traditional realistic plan, for example, in H. Böll, but in modern Russian literature by V.V. Bykov, Yu.V. Trifonov). Such a setting of the hero's consciousness makes it possible to compress the actual time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection;
4. Modern literature has not lost a hero moving in an objective earthly expanse, in a multifaceted epic space of collective historical destinies - what are the heroes " Quiet Don"(1928-40) M.A. Sholokhov," Life of Klim Samgin ", 1927-36, M. Gorky.
5. The “hero” of a monumental narrative can become historical time itself in its decisive “nodes”, subordinating the fate of heroes to itself as private moments in an avalanche of events (A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s epic “The Red Wheel”, 1969-90).

L. S. LEVITAN

Space and time in the play by A. P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard"

The definition of the features of Chekhov's drama on the basis of the analysis of The Seagull, Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters is not fully applicable to last play Chekhov. Much of it turns out to be new and unusual for Chekhov the playwright.

So, in particular, is the case with the plot of comedy. Unlike others Chekhov's plays the unity of action in it is achieved by the presence of a permanent, strong plot bond - the fate of the cherry orchard. Anxiety for the future of the cherry orchard concerns, to one degree or another, each of the characters in the play, they talk about cherry fat all the time, argue, and mourn; associated with his image theater solutions: scenery, color, light and sound in the performance; the cherry orchard does not disappear from the stage for a single moment: if it is not seen, then it is heard about.

The stage space is limited to a manor, a garden, a field near the garden; concentration, the locality of the place of action is emphasized by the very title of the play. For the first time in Chekhov, the name is associated not with the hero (or heroes), but with their habitat, the name of which acquires double meaning. Per concrete way garden, owned by Ranevskaya and Gaev, another image constantly shines through, generalized, symbolizing the concepts of beauty, happiness, ideal, and the fate of each character and his moral world. The Cherry Orchard is the highest criterion of beauty, which reveals the measure of the spiritual and moral in a person. And this measure is not only different for different people, but also changeable socio-historically, changing from generation to generation.

The innovation of Chekhov's drama is manifested primarily in the choice of a new conflict, showing the "general shifts of time." The wording of T. K. Shah-Azizova seems to be the most accurate: in The Cherry Orchard, "... the movement of time from speeches passes into the action itself."

Indeed, in Chekhov's play, as in any dramatic work action takes place only in the present, it is momentary. And at the same time, it is incredibly condensed, the whole historical era tied together in one knot. Time is calendar-accurate, and at the same time it continuously pulsates, expanding and contracting, capturing layers of the past and prospects for the future in a complex rhythmic pattern, organized in different ways in each action of the comedy.

Consider how time passes in the first act.

The very first lines establish a connection between the present and the past: a train that was two hours late. This is a concrete, real train, this is a “short-term”, everyday connection, but this is already a connection with the past, elapsed time, even if it is recent. Lopakhin's next remarks extend this connection five years ago (“Lyubov Andreevna lived abroad for five years”), and then another fifteen or twenty years (“when I was a boy of about fifteen”) and again return the reader to five years of separation. The first words of Ranevskaya resurrect a much more distant time: “I slept here when I was little ...”

With the extended, emotional and psychological scale of counting time “the scale of memories” - another interacts - local, plot: Anya, who returned with her mother, left in Lent, in snow and frost; this is mentioned twice: first in Dunyasha's remarks, then in Anya's. And Dunyasha's message, located between these replicas, introduces another, even more fractional, compressed time dimension - not years, not months, but days: "On the third day, Pyotr Sergeyevich arrived." And we remember the rhyming temporary situation: “I bought myself boots on the third day,” said Epikhodov.

The roll calls of short periods of time are replaced by roll calls of its increasingly larger segments. Anya recalls: “Six years ago my father died, a month later my brother Grisha drowned in the river.” These memories are again followed by a wider swing of the temporary pendulum - into the past, into the childhood of the fifty-year-old Gaev: "Once you and I, sister, slept in this very room." Time, as it were, swings between the present and the past - and with an ever wider amplitude.

Firs recalls how the master traveled to Paris on horseback, how dried cherries were sent in carts to Kharkov and Moscow. These reminiscences introduce the notion not only of a long past time, but also of the pace of its passage. Traveling on horseback and traveling by train are different eras, different attitudes; it is precisely as an expression of a historical turning point that the theme railway in Russian literature the second half of XIX century.

"Yes, time runs”, Lopakhin notes. But if it goes, it pulls into the future, at first still quite tangible and concrete: “I have to go to Kharkov now, at five in the morning” (Lopakhin); “Tomorrow morning I will get up and run to the garden” (Anna); “Tomorrow, pay interest on the mortgage ...” (Pishchik). The prospect is gradually emerging, but still not far off: Lopakhin will return in three weeks, the auction is scheduled for the twenty-second of August.

And again the pendulum swung back to the distant happy past: “I slept in this nursery, looked at the garden from here, happiness woke up with me every morning, and then it was exactly like that, nothing has changed.” Yes, the beauty of the cherry orchard has remained the same, but everything else has changed: the secret of how to dry cherries has been lost, and Gaev has grown old, and in just five years Petya has “peeled off” and turned ugly, and the nanny has died, and Anya and Dunyasha have grown up, and, it seems, , only the old bookcase remained unchanged.

So, the principle of depicting time in the first act is as follows: the past is closely connected with the present; the action all the time scurries between the present and the past, and in these transitions the scale of the countdown of time changes, the time intervals become either short, everyday, or larger, covered with lyricism; each mention of a change in time is repeated twice, after a short period of stage action, as if echoing in the mind of another person. The past appears in the first act as bright, beautiful, full of meaning, although at times bitter. The image of a blossoming cherry garden becomes an expression of light and beauty, which connects the past and the present with the joy of meeting, recognizing close, devoted people. What warm words say to each other Anya and Ranevskaya, Ranevskaya and Varya, Anya and Gaev, Lopakhin and Ranevskaya, Ranevskaya and Trofimov, Varya and Anya, Anya and Dunyasha! Caress, love, friendly participation permeate the whole atmosphere of the first act: everyone is happy to see each other, everyone is touched by the meeting, caress each other: Ranevskaya kisses her brother, Anya, Varya, Dunyasha, Petya, Firs, Gaev - Anya and Varya, Anya - mother and uncle , Varya - Anya ... Every fifth remark of the first act indicates: “kisses”, “kisses hands”, “hugs”, “caresses” ... And, imbued with this atmosphere of love and tenderness, we are far from immediately aware that the word "love" from the very beginning of the comedy acquires a duality: repeated, persistent, sincere outpourings are accompanied, like a shadow, by an ironic echo. Dunyasha will say about Epikhodov: “He loves me madly”, “He loves me, he loves me so much!” Anya talks about Lopakhin's love for Varya, Gaev - that the man loves him, Gaev, Anya - that everyone loves and respects Gaev. That is, we are talking about either funny, “non-pretentious” love, or about something that does not exist at all.

The prose of life breaks into poetry, beauty comes into collision with profit, benefit, and Lopakhinsky's ax is already raised over the flowering cherries. Actually, the action began with a prosaic, comical one: Dunyasha with his pretensions to refinement and delicacy, Epikhodov with his ridiculous speeches, Lopakhin, who specially came to meet Ranevskaya - and fell asleep, and fell asleep - because he began to read. The ironic accompaniment of lyrical outpourings is Gaev's recitations, Varya's kitchen news, Pishchik's semi-coherent speeches ... Life moves in a common stream in which poetry and prose are inseparable from each other.

But where is she moving? It remains unknown. The prospects for the future are uncertain, the hopes for a way out of difficulties are illusory (“And there, look, something else is shining not today or tomorrow ...” - Simeonov-Pishchik; “If only God could help!” - Varya). And Gaev's intention to go for money on Tuesday, and Lopakhin's assumption that. a summer resident in twenty years will take care of the household, are perceived as equally unrealistic. And yet there is hope for the future. Life still seems bright, its disorder is reparable. And final words Trofimova, addressed to Anya: “My sun! Spring is mine! - they talk not only about Trofimov, not only about Anya, but about the desire of all the heroes of the play to embrace the world - bright, spring, joyful - and be happy along with this flourishing world.

In the second act, the ratio of times is different. Time appears, firstly, in a more generalized and large scale, and secondly, in parallel organized storylines.

The movement of large periods of time is already shown by the remark that opens the second act: on the one hand, a long-abandoned chapel, scattered stones that were once the grave of the Elites; on the other side - telegraph poles, the road to the station, a big city.

Memories different heroes plays about the past this time turn out to be equally sad: Charlotte's youth passed bleakly and homelessly, the share of the teenager Lopakhin was marked by beatings and rudeness, Ranevskaya's love story looks dramatic and at the same time unattractive (as the words of the story about him contradict its delicacy and grace: agreed, rudely , robbed, abandoned, got along with another ...). Only Firs is satisfied with the past; the servile meaning of his elegiac memoirs is ironically emphasized by Lopakhin's apt remark: “Before, it was very good. At least they fought."

And here the dramatic memories are accompanied by Chekhov's grin: let's remember the cucumber that Charlotte eats when she takes it out of her pocket, Epikhodov's singing, Dunyasha's "nerves", Yasha's impudent remarks. The name of Bokl in the mouth of Epikhodov, the poems of Nekrasov and Nadson in the mouth of a drunken passerby are comical.

The movement of time from the unfortunate past to the future is thus aesthetically justified. What. does it promise the future? The closest one is, as in the first act, either prosaic and threatening (everything, the same twenty-second of August, hanging with a sword of Damocles), or ghostly untenable (Lopakhin's marriage to Var, Gaev's acquaintance with the general).

But in the second act, the future already appears on another plane, as a perspective, as a distant bright future of mankind. It appears in the alluring far away in Trofimov's speeches, causing Anya's delight: “Forward! We march irresistibly towards the bright star that burns far away! Forward! Keep up, friends!"

How to deal with these speeches?

Between Trofimov's lengthy monologues, Trofimov's own remark is quite unexpectedly wedged in: “I am afraid and do not like very serious physiognomies, I am afraid of serious conversations. We'd better shut up!" Petya Trofimov is clearly not able to keep silent, and much in his speeches is close to the cherished thoughts of other Chekhov's heroes - in the stories "On Service", "Teacher of Literature", "A Case from Practice", "A House with a Mezzanine". But not all of Trofimov's speeches sound convincing.

Trofimov calls to work. But does any work ennoble a person? In The Cherry Orchard, Ranevskaya, Gaev, Anya and Simeonov-Pishchik are among the “non-working elements”, but they are surrounded by working people serving them: Yasha and Firs are lackeys, Dunyasha is a maid, Epikhodov is a clerk, Charlotte is a governess, Varya - housekeeper. However, who can be ethically and aesthetically satisfied by Yasha's "work" or Varya's "dreary bustle"? Lopakhin works from morning to evening, gets up at five o'clock in the morning - does he elevate him? labor activity"? And Trofimov himself is a worker, a student, but does his work bring the future closer? The winglessness of the work of the characters in The Cherry Orchard is obvious, because it has no connection with the great goal for which a person works.

And Trofimov's denial of the beauty and absolute value of the cherry orchard in the name of atonement for the sins of the past is completely untenable. It is terrible to say (this thought seems to have been expressed by no one), but Trofimov's speeches about the cherry orchard to some extent raise and direct Lopakhin's axe. If the garden personifies the serf-owning past, if the faces of slaves look from each tree, it’s not a sin to cut down these trees, it’s not for nothing that Anya, under the influence of Trofimov’s speeches, no longer loves the cherry orchard as before. There is something in Trofimov’s thought from the theories that Pisarev once sinned (“destruction of aesthetics”) and which in the near future will echo in the proletarian slogans (“In the name of our tomorrow we will burn Raphael ...”).

So, the past must go away - but is the future so full of inexplicable happiness, the proximity of which Petya Trofimov feels and Anya is waiting for?

The third act is the most dramatic both in its content and in its construction. The time of action is precisely determined: Gaev is expected with the daytime train, and he arrives in the evening. The painful expectation is filled with comic episodes: an inopportunely started ball, Charlotte's tricks, vaudeville scenes with Epikhodov, Pishchik, Petya. And this contradiction is resolved by a climax, in which not just the estate passes from one hand to another (Varya threw the keys, and Lopakhin picked it up), but a confluence of eras occurs: the grandfather and parents of Ranevskaya with their guests hover like ghosts in the old house, the grandfather and father of Lopakhin invisibly they are present at its triumph, - and grandchildren and great-grandchildren are called to witness the future, and life opens ahead in which Anya promises to plant a new garden ... Only when it grows up, this garden, and for whom?

The French director Jean-Louis Barrault, who staged The Cherry Orchard in 1954 at the Marigny Theater, called this work a play about time that passes, a play that opened the way for us to a penetrating perception of passing time. Barro believed that since the past, present and future are combined in each of us, Gaev, Lopakhin and Trofimov constantly live in each person.

It is important, however, to emphasize that in this "triad" there is not only something that separates the characters into different historical times, but also what brings them together, making possible mutual respect, sympathy, friendly communication. The basis for the compatibility of heroes is what N. Ya. Berkovsky designated as “internal reserves for a different life than the one that is familiar to them and painful for them ... The spiritual material of the future is accumulated in Chekhov’s people,” since “light penetrates into the Cherry Orchard” from tomorrow,” in other words, a premonition of a revolutionary shift that is about to take place.

That is why social, concrete historical certainty is characteristic of the characters in The Cherry Orchard.

Frivolity and irresponsibility, selfishness and carelessness of Ranevskaya, Gaev, Simeonov-Pishchik are undoubted Oblomov's generic traits, a legacy of serfdom. The social nature of Lopakhin is also clear. But to see only a class principle in Chekhov's heroes means to see in Chekhov an epigone of the seventies, repeating his backsides in thirty years. Lopakhin is not the “grimy” Gleb Uspensky, who froze from satiety: “Longer ba ... With sour ba why ...” And for Lopakhin, the concepts of benefit and benefit are in contact with the concepts of beauty: “I bought an estate, more beautiful than which there is nothing in the world”; "forty thousand clean" received for the poppy - but "when my poppy was in bloom, what a picture it was!"

Dream of happiness for grandchildren and great-grandchildren, understanding of beauty and spaciousness native nature- all this is in Lopakhin along with his predation and tactlessness. And this determines the drama of his situation, which he is fully aware of: “Oh, if only all this would pass, if only our awkward, unhappy life would somehow change.” These experiences are not like the self-satisfied ecstasy of the new owner. Lopakhin's contradictions are also manifested in the fact that his efficiency itself is detrimental. Hire Epikhodov, who cannot take a step without breaking or crushing something, and expect that everything will be in order under his supervision; buy an eight-ruble bottle of champagne, so that Yasha drank it all up, and even haughtily remarked that champagne was “not real”!

Humanity, as you know, laughingly parted with its past, and in the current owner of the cherry orchard, which has just taken over, doom is already visible.

On the other hand, social types that are receding into the past have the right to compassion, because there is truth behind them: universal, eternal values ​​- humanity, intelligence, understanding of beauty.

There are these values ​​in Petya Trofimov. Incorruptible honesty, disinterestedness, awareness of the need for social change, purity of thoughts - attract sympathy to him. But the superficiality of his judgments is definitely felt. One cannot but agree with Ranevskaya’s mild reproach: “You boldly look ahead, and is it not because you don’t see and don’t expect anything terrible, since life is still hidden from your young eyes?” The reader will be convinced of the validity of this doubt very soon - in the fourth act.

The fourth act is by no means an epilogue to the play. It continues the necessary development dramatic action. The "readiness" of the heroes was determined, embodied in real movements, the divergence of feelings turned into a divergence of destinies. Everyone is leaving - even geographically - for different places: in Yashnevo - Varya, in Kharkov - Lopakhin, in the city - Anya and Gaev, in Moscow Trofimov, in Paris - Ranevskaya with Yasha, into the unknown - Charlotte. This is how the plot circle closes: the action began with the fact that the train was late, the play ends with the fact that they are afraid to miss the train; the play began with the appearance on the stage of Dunyasha, Lopakhin, Epikhodov, then Firs, - the servants will remain on the estate, and new owner will run into.

The fourth act of the play is the most controversial. Its ending seems unexpected; following the example of other Chekhov's plays, we would expect "a combination of everyday and lyrical" in a monologue similar to the one that ends the third act. Our expectation seems all the more legitimate because the image of Anya, her words, cheerful and joyful, or admiring her ended both the first and second actions. But the play ends not with a monologue, not even with the invocative exclamations of Anya and Trofimov, but with the stammering speech of the dying Firs. What is the meaning here?

The appearance of Firs in the final is motivated by the plot: they forgot about him, he was not sent to the hospital. This plot situation becomes an expression of the guilt of the new, the young against the old, obsolete - but still alive! And the image of Anya is invisibly present in this situation.

In the literature about Chekhov, Anya from The Cherry Orchard is often compared with Nadia from the story The Bride as representatives of the force that is destined to "turn life around" for good. There are memories of a conversation with Chekhov, who thought of Nadia's future as a path to revolution. Often, Anya is also “made up” to this conversation. But there are no grounds for this. Nadya is an adult (she is twenty-three years old), she independently decides to break with her former life and in the finale she is higher than not only her relatives, but also Sasha, who once helped her take the first step into the future. “Live, cheerful” - these epithets make Nadia related to Anya, but seventeen-year-old Anya is still a child, she is by the will of circumstances, and not by free choice leaves the cherry orchard and is not yet ready for responsible decisions. Carried away by the words of Petya Trofimov, Anya talks and dreams of a happy future, she attracts universal sympathy, everyone loves her - but it is Anya who commits the most cruel act in the play! It is her fault that Firs is forgotten in the boarded-up house.

Ranevskaya inquires about Firs several times, and Anya asks Yasha: “Was Firs sent to the hospital?” Even the cynical and impudent Yasha gives an answer not in the affirmative, but evasive: “I spoke in the morning. Sent, you have to think. " The case obviously needs to be checked, and Anya turns to Epikhodov, who at that time is passing through the hall: “Semyon Panteleich, please inquire whether Firs was taken to the hospital.” But Yasha was offended: “In the morning I told Yegor. Why ask ten times! - and Anya felt embarrassed to insist on her own. When Varya’s voice was heard outside the door: “Did Firs get taken to the hospital?” - Anya answered: “They took her,” and even the fact that they did not take the letter to the doctor did not alert her. Of course, Anya would have been horrified if she knew what she had done, she would have regretted nothing to atone for her fault; but the fact remains: Anya's delicacy, her inexperience and impracticality led to inhumanity, and it is clearly premature to hope that Anya will reorganize her life and that of other people.

Thus, in the finale of the play, the problem of the relationship of times is revealed in yet another way: we measure the possibility of fulfilling ardent dreams about the future with the price that must be paid for this in the present. And from this point of view, one of the main plot motifs ends in the finale - the motif of the cherry orchard as a spiritual and aesthetic value. Anya's attitude to Firs is associated with Anya's - and Trofimov's - attitude to the cherry orchard: "Petya and Anya, who part with the garden easily and cheerfully, are not the closest people to Chekhov, and it is unlikely that a truly new life lies behind them."

It is no coincidence that Chekhov "deprived" these young people of the feeling of love: they are friendly, but, contrary to Varya's fears, they do not fall in love with each other. They see it as an expression of their freedom, their break with the traditions of the past. But Petya's proud statement: "We are above love!" - it sounds comical (I remember how the nihilist Bazarov once denied love).

As for the other characters in the play, they are below love, in the truest sense of the word. The mutual sympathy of Lopakhin and Varya is such a weak and sluggish feeling that only Anya - out of inexperience - and Ranevskaya - out of a desire to arrange the Barin's fate, can call it love. Yasha’s attitude towards Dunyasha cannot be called anything other than “appetite” (“Cucumber!”), And Dunyasha is not capable of deep feelings, but of mannered sensitivity: “Dunyasha (powders, looking in the mirror). Send a letter from Paris. After all, I loved you, Yasha, I loved you so much! I am a gentle creature, Yasha!

What is left of love excitement? The absurdly expressed love of the absurd Epikhodov for the stupid Dunyasha. And - the heavy doom of Ranevskaya's feelings for a petty villain ("This is a stone on my neck, I go to the bottom with it, but I love this stone and cannot live without it").

Drawn by this feeling, Ranevskaya leaves her homeland for a foreign land. A decisive gesture in the first act: “This is from Paris. (Tears telegrams without reading.) It's over with Paris ... ”- turned out to be the same fiction as the plans to save the cherry orchard. Ranevskaya, who arrived from Paris, returns to Paris - to a strange world, which for her, as well as for Anya, is cold and uncomfortable.

So the drama of Ranevskaya's fate receives spatial expression in the plot. And again, as in other situations, the drama is set off by a satirical accompaniment: Ranevskaya is accompanied by Yasha, for whom Paris is the promised land, and Russia is “an uneducated country” (in which both Dunyasha and Epikhodov are in solidarity with him).

Why is there no real, deep and sublime love in The Cherry Orchard, unlike other plays by Chekhov, why is there no love line in the plot of the play? Because love does not solve anything and does not save anyone, because love alone is not enough for a person's happiness, it is already impossible to close oneself in it. A few years ago, Chekhov thought differently. Suppose that Nina Zarechnaya, wise in life, would have answered Treplev's love - Treplev would not have had to shoot himself, his life would have gained meaning. But what new things would the love of Anya and Petya Trofimov bring to life? Or Yasha's marriage to Dunyasha?

The fourth act ends at the break of epochs: "Farewell, old life! Hello, new life!..” Physically perceptible, moment by moment, it passes, flows away, drop by drop, irretrievably time passes: “There are only forty-six minutes left before the train! .. in twenty minutes to go to the station”; “In about ten minutes, let's get into the carriages already ...” “Another five minutes you can ...” “I will sit for one more minute”; "AT last time look at the walls, at the windows ... "

But after all, from such drops, such moments, the whole life of a person is made up, which “know to yourself passes” (Lopakhin), And not a single minute of it will return and will not be repeated. The last monologue of Firs, crowning the whole play, sums up his life of almost a hundred years. What has he done over these long years, what has he left to people and what can he be satisfied with, glancing over the rushing life with a farewell glance? “Life has passed, as if it had not lived.” Such is the result of the life of any fool, - but aren't all the characters who have passed through the stage stupid (to one degree or another)? What is their life given to, what is its meaning? “Who am I, why am I unknown ...” - these words of Charlotte refer to all the characters in The Cherry Orchard. None of them is capable of planting a new cherry orchard, no one is worthy of standing on a par with a flowering garden, but most of them already dream of such a person, a giant in his deeds and spiritual beauty.

Chekhov does not solve questions, but the question “Why do you live? And what will you leave behind? he puts before every hero of his play and before every reader and spectator. "From the obscure, broken, confused life, where everything turns into fatigue and failure, there is not whining, not whimpering, but something active, but devoid of the element of struggle, - longing for a better life”, - this is how Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko.

The present flows from what was laid down in the past. The future is determined by what people do in the present. And every minute a person is responsible for what he thinks, does and creates.

Such is Chekhov's artistic testament.

6. Space and time by Tarkovsky And yet the road leading home turned out to be too long, As if Poseidon, while we were there Wasting time, stretched the space. I. Brodsky The category of time is the key for Tarkovsky in his approach to cinema in general. Tarkovsky

From the book Culture ancient rome. In two volumes. Volume 2 author Shkunaev Sergey Vladimirovich