Spatial and temporal characteristics in the work. Artistic time and space

The world of heroes (the reality of a literary work through the eyes of its characters, in their horizons = a narrated event) in the theory of literature is described in a system of categories: chronotope, event, plot, motive, type of plot. Chronotope - literally "timespace" = a work of art represents a "small universe". The concept of chronotope characterizes common features(characteristics) of the world depicted in the work. From the side of the hero (characters)- these are the inalienable conditions of his (their) existence, the action of the hero is his reaction to the state of the artistic world. By the author the chronotope is the author's value reaction to the world depicted by him, the actions and words of the hero. Spatial and temporal characteristics do not exist in isolation from each other, in the picture of the world the categories of space and time are basic, they determine other characteristics of this world = the nature of connections in the artistic world follows from the spatio-temporal organization of the work = from the chronotope. “Space is comprehended and measured time" = the reality of the artistic world looks different for the author, contemplating it from the outside and from another time, and the hero, acting and thinking inside this reality. Artistic space is not measured in universal units (meters or minutes). Artistic space and time is a symbolic reality.

Therefore, the artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: the Hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. In a fairy tale, a long time period. But despite this, the characters remain as young as they were at the beginning of the tale. Time in a work of art can be inverted - events do not occur in a "natural" sequence, but in a special space and time here, they are perceived as forms of consciousness, i.e. a form of human comprehension of being, and not its "objective" reproduction. (for example, Tolstoy's story "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" begins with the image of how the acquaintances of the hero, having learned about his death, come to say goodbye to the deceased. And only after that the whole life of the hero unfolds before the reader, starting from childhood. The space of any work of art is organized as a number of value oppositions: Opposition "closed - open".

In the novel Crime and Punishment, images of a closed space are directly associated with death and crime (the closet where Raskolnikov’s “idea” ripens is directly called a “coffin”, and he himself is correlated with the gospel Lazarus, who “has been stinking for three days now”).

Raskolnikov wanders around the city, moving farther and farther away from his closet-coffin = instinctively seeks to break the vicious circle of St. Petersburg, which in this regard is associated with the closet-coffin. It is no coincidence that Raskolnikov's renunciation of his "idea" takes place on the banks of the Irtysh, from where a look at the endless steppes opens. Opposite value orientation. For example, an idyll as a literary genre is organized by opposing the open, open space of the “big world”, as a world of anti-values, to the world of a closed space as a world of true values, in which they can only exist, and the hero’s exit outside this world is the beginning of his spiritual or physical death.Vertical organization of space. An example is Dante's Divine Comedy with its hierarchically ordered picture of the world.Horizontal organization of artistic space. Center to periphery ratio: landscape or portrait, with emphasis on details that come out to the center of the image. For example, the emphasis on the eyes of the hero (Pechorin), or the “red hands” of Bazarov. When the same historical event occupies a different place in the picture of the world: in Mayakovsky’s poem “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin”, Lenin’s death is the center of artistic space, and in Nabokov’s novel “The Gift”, the same event is said in passing “Lenin died somehow imperceptibly ".The opposition of "right" and "left".For example, in a fairy tale, the world of people is invariably located on the right, and on the left is the “other” world in everything, including, first of all, the value-opposite one. The same patterns can be found in the analysis of artistic time. The nature of artistic time is manifested in the fact that in a work of art the time of coverage of events and the time of events almost never coincide. Because such slowing down and speeding up of time is a form of assessment (self-assessment) of the hero's life as a whole. Events Embracing big period time can be given in one line, or not even mentioned, but simply implied, while events that take moments can be depicted in extreme detail (Praskuhin's dying thoughts in " Sevastopol stories») . Opposition of cyclic, reversible and linear, irreversible time: Time can move in a circle, passing through the same points. For example, natural cycles (change of seasons), age cycles, sacred time, when all events occurring in time realize some kind of invariant, i.e. changing only outwardly situation = behind the variety of events taking place in it, there is one and the same recurring situation, revealing their true and unchanging, repetitive meaning "A lamb on a hot day went to the stream to drink." When did this event happen? In the world of the fable, this question does not make sense, since in the world of the fable it is repeated at any time. . While in the world of a historical or realistic novel, this question is of fundamental importance. Historical time can act as an anti-value, it can act as destructive time, then cyclic time acts as a positive value. For example, in the book of the Russian writer of the 20th century. Ivan Shmelev "Summer of the Lord": here is life organized according to church calendar, from one sacred holiday to another - a guarantee of preserving authentic spiritual values,

and involvement in historical time is a guarantee of spiritual catastrophe as a separate human personality and the human community as a whole. A variant is widespread in the literature, when in the value hierarchy open time is valued higher than cyclic time, for example, in Russian realistic novel the degree of involvement of the hero in the forces of historical renewal turns out to be a measure of his spiritual value. The chronotope, being unified, is nevertheless internally heterogeneous. Within the general chronotope, there are private. For example, within the general chronotope of Gogol's "Dead Souls" one can single out separate chronotopes roads, estates, h we begin in the work the chronotope of a city, a country. So, in the general chronotope of Russia, given in "Eugene Onegin", the separation of the spaces of the village and the capital is significant. Chronotopes are historically changeable, the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of one historical era differs significantly from the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of another historical era. Chronotopes also have genre variability. = All the real variety of chronotopes of one and the same genre can be reduced to one model, one type.

In art, the categories of space and time are a specific system of signs that serve to embody and convey cognitive and evaluative artistic information. This dependence was first discovered and formulated by G. E. Lessing in the treatise "Laocoon, or On the Limits of Painting and Poetry". According to the philosopher, fine arts and poetry can artistically recreate bodies and actions, i.e. spatial and temporal relationships. As for the spatial arts, they are able to depict bodies directly, and actions - only indirectly, thanks to the depiction of the body in some fixed moment of movement. Temporal arts, on the other hand, are capable of depicting actions directly, and indirectly, bodies.

I. Kant considered time and space as a priori forms of sensory contemplation. The philosopher substantiated the position that the prerequisite for any experience is the ability of a person to organize his sensations in spatial and temporal terms.

Following the theoretical principles of G. E. Lessing and I. Kant, developing them, many cultural theorists give the following classification of arts: spatial (painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture), temporal (verbal and musical creativity) and space-time ( performing arts, dance, cinema). However, it should be borne in mind that any scheme is relative, since the boundaries between the arts are often violated.

Each kind of literature has its own laws of the relationship of time and space. IN classic drama place and time are determined by the specific principles of this type of verbal creativity. Since the performing arts involves the presentation of events, time must be concentrated to the duration of the dialogues, and space is limited to mise-en-scenes.

IN theater text compositional order is predetermined and finally fixed. “The limited space by a ramp or backstage,” writes Yu. M. Lotman, “with the complete impossibility of transferring the artistically real (and not implied) action beyond these limits, is the law of the theater. This closed space can be expressed in the fact that the action takes place in indoors(house, room) with the image of its boundaries (walls) on the scenery. The absence of walls from the side of the auditorium does not change the matter, since it has a non-spatial character: in the language of the theater, it is equivalent to the condition for constructing a verbal artistic text, according to which the author and reader have the right to know everything they need about the characters and events.

There is no intrigue in the poetics of the theater of the absurd, which gives the plays a static character. In the dramaturgy of the 20th century, which has acquired the status of an intellectual game, space and time insistently declare their relativity. In S. Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" the present and the past are presented at the same time, and the place of action in this aesthetic system does not require designation at all. The closed space of the stage fixes the boundaries of the human cosmos, the limit of the temporal and spatial extent of life, and the expectation of the characters creates the scenic tension of time.

Poetic time moves faster than real time. In works in which there are no events, the lyrical, non-fable time becomes the style-forming beginning, for which, according to E. Vinokur, the past and the future are "one and the same continuous present."

The structure-forming beginning of epic time, as a rule, is the combination of various time layers. Direct speech in the novel is synchronous with real time. Indirect speech can vary in pace depending on the author's artistic attitudes.

There are two timelines in the piece of music. First of all, it is objective time, measured by the duration of the work itself. Another type lies in the specific organization of sound material, reflecting the style of thinking of the composer and the era. In music, time cannot be analyzed in isolation from space. The uniform pulsation of rhythmic parts, the principle of contrast, the presence of the main and secondary themes create a chain of events that reflects the present, recollection and foreboding. Space in the works of classical music, due to its continuity, plays an exceptional formative role. Time in music is manifested in the change of chords, melodic peaks, rhythmic accents.

In musical experiments of the XX century. time breaks up into separate self-contained moments. Composers, in their desire to break the shackles of time, strive to free musical sound from associations, to make it an end in itself due to the destruction of intonation and the absence of harmonic tonal gravity. Modernist music focuses on one sound, how to extract it, and how long it lasts. The undividedness and uniformity of the musical fabric leads to a synthesis of the moment and eternity. The task of modernist music is to divide eternity into many unique moments.

Time and space in cinematography should not be reduced to the analysis of technical devices or to the peculiarities of dramaturgy. In the film, the director combines mental, physical and dramatic time. The technique of editing, the rhythmic change of frames contribute to the appearance in the mind of the viewer of the illusion of spatial unity.

The director, depending on the need, can concentrate the chronology, unfolding the action only in space. When necessary, the film is constructed as a chain of events, sometimes time is reduced to a single moment. A number of images are similar to the clarity of a literary phrase, marked by musicality, which allows you to express the most vague feelings. The author's attitude to events is often embodied using the methods of compressed time, the coincidence of times or the reverse course of time. The continuity of movement in the cinema and the impression of integrity arises due to the sequence of discrete shots.

V. E. Meyerhold denied the right of "photography" to be called art, since in mechanical copying there is no movement and measurement of time, which are the basis of cinema. The director claimed that "the screen is something located in time and space, and that it is the task of the actor of the future to develop the consciousness of time in the game."

Cinema is based on montage. The reception itself was opened by the literature of romanticism. Editing is one of the leading ways of constructing a film. Cinema experiments with the categories of space and time, violates the relationship between causes and effects, creates a paradoxical shift in event plans, achieving a sophisticated transfer of the director's intention.

The universality of aesthetic laws brings together different types of art and their perception.

To understand the specifics of art, it is necessary to take into account the time of reception of the work. Perception is subject to certain laws. Repeated carrying out of the theme with expectation and recognition of it, keeping the plot texture in memory for long sections of the form, metrical organization of sound material are patterns related to the time of perception of a musical work.

The piece of music is perceived as sequence of sounds movie - like consistent organization of personnel, static works of painting, sculpture and architecture in human perception unfold in time as sequence of images. The perception of spatial arts is marked by the following composition: the aesthetic complex of the work opens up to the viewer - the plastic subordination of profiles and projections, the combination of shadows and light.

The perception of the plastic arts implies the initiative of the viewer when considering the subject: the angle of observation, the speed of transition from one point to another, total duration perception.

This does not mean absolute arbitrariness and uncontrollability of perception. P. Florensky reflects on this in his work "Analysis of spatiality in artistic and visual works": "Nothing prevents me from tearing a ball of thread anywhere or anywhere to open a book, but if I want to have a solid thread, I look for the end of the ball and from it I'm already going through all the turns of the thread.In the same way, if I want to perceive the book as a logical or artistic whole, I open it to the first page and go according to the pagination sequentially. Fine work, of course, is accessible to my inspection from any place, starting and in any order, but if I approach it as an artistic one, then with an involuntary instinct I find the first thing to start with, the second one, the next one, and, unconsciously following its guiding scheme, I straighten it with an internal rhythm.

The work is constructed in such a way that this transformation of the scheme into rhythm is done by itself.

It is obvious that P. Florensky's thinking is aimed at a prepared viewer. Be that as it may, the perception of the plastic arts in any sequence ultimately creates a holistic view. Works of painting, sculpture, architecture are static, two-dimensionally or three-dimensionally plastic. They are excluded from the flow of time. Meanwhile, the act of perception - reading human experience into an artistic creation - overcomes the limitations of this or that type of art.

In various types of art, the categories of space and time manifest themselves in a special way. Being verbal and musical art marked by procedurality. The act of reading assumes a strict determinism due to the time of perception, which does not exclude the need to slow down or speed up reading or return to favorite places. The world of artistic images affects the reader, viewer and listener, breaks the spatial locality of the work and gives rise to various associations.

The categories of space and time in art have pictorial And expressive meanings. More than once, lyrical masterpieces have attracted composers. Music has influenced many works of world literature. The poets enthusiastically describe antique statues, translating perfect plasticity into the sphere of images and rhymes. "Prose of moods" and "musical prose" are marked by the intensity of the melodic atmosphere. In the picturesque arrangement of objects on the canvas, in the special study of the "light-air environment", a clear rhythm of space is felt. Musical themes evoke associations with the color range and color contrasts.

The undoubted relationship between music and painting makes it possible to liken a picturesque image to a harmonious sound. The composer, referring only to the ear, can evoke the same sensations that painting conveys with the help of paints. The Romantics insisted that architecture is frozen music. As for poetry, the definition of lyrical landscapes as "painting with words" has long ceased to be conditional - the images created by the great artists of the word are so bright and plastic.

A work of art is a source of information and is perceived differently. In this it differs from scientific texts, the information capacity of which is always strictly fixed and does not imply, as in communication with a work of art, the effect of empathy and sensual contemplation.

"What happens in the process of reading? - J. Carey talks about the role of time in shaping the reader's impressions. - At first, the reader perceives physiologically. In fact, only combinations of signs printed on paper appear before the reader. him something “with his on your own". Reading is a creative process, subject to the same rules, the same limitations, as the spiritual activity, by means of which a person contemplating a work of art turns a block of stone, colors applied to a canvas, i.e. things in themselves meaningless, into a meaningful impression.

Each era creates its own vision of the world, its own style of thinking and, accordingly, its own concept of time and space.

Ancient forms of thinking are marked by an anthropomorphic perception of time, endowing it moral sense. archaic time ahistorical, it is cyclical and needs no precise measurement, events are reduced to categories, and individual histories are archetypal. Life, being freed from chance, is included in the structure of eternity. The future in the mythopoetic tradition is identified with fate, the temporal duration of wanderings is measured by the space overcome.

In folklore, the time of events is determined by circumstances external to the hero. Folklore narration documents non-event time as "pauses" and expresses it with sacred numbers, indicating not so much the duration as the immeasurability (three, seven, ten, thirty-three).

The epic is based on the principles of cyclization. The chronology of epic tales is alien to reliable dates. "Empty" time does not change the heroes. They are not subject to aging. The hero begins to undergo changes only when he is included in the action.

The mythopoetic tradition becomes a fruitful source of many artistic solutions literature of the last centuries.

A work of art is the embodiment of philosophical and ethical-aesthetic quests that materialize in a composition, a system of images, in a spatio-temporal continuum, giving the plot the necessary dynamics, reasoning and recognizability. The original, fundamentally heterogeneous material of reality is comprehended by the author and proposed as a dynamic figurative and artistic phenomenon, which unfolds in the form of a successive series of stages and is implemented in the space-time continuum - the chronotope.

The category "chronotope" is introduced into the research arsenal of literary criticism Μ. M. Bakhtin, who developed the theory of the poetics of the novel in a historical perspective. The visual function of the chronotope is to make events visible and tangible. “About an event,” writes M. M. Bakhtin, “one can report, inform, and at the same time give precise instructions about the place and time of its accomplishment. But the event does not become an image.

This happens due to the condensation of the time of human life or historical event in certain areas of the art space. All abstract elements of the novel, not marked by artistic figurativeness, philosophical reasoning, generalizations and representations of various kinds of ideas are filled with "flesh and blood, are attached to artistic imagery through the chronotope.

The chronotope, according to Bakhtin, creates an image, and in this its pictorial function is manifested. General meaning The chronotope lies in the fact that the events in a work of art are characterized by a certain spatio-temporal interdependence. Event time can be marked by duration, discreteness or continuity, limit or infinity, closure or openness.

The concept of chronotope does not exhaust the scope individual work, it is associated with the aesthetic trends of the era, the author's style, the genre of works and is often marked by a direct relationship with the typology of reader reactions.

In art, time can shrink and stretch, stop, go back, spatial relationships can shift and deform. On this basis, the distance arises between art form and reality, which is usually referred to as artistic convention.

D.S. Likhachev wrote that "time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a work, subordinating its grammatical and philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks."

The problem of space-time relationships in the literature must be considered in connection with evolution artistic directions and styles. The classic principle of "three unities", which provoked fierce criticism from the theorists of romanticism, aimed to concentrate events to the utmost, to offer a clear portrait of what was happening, resisting the chaos of reality and the willfulness of the artist. "Letter on the Rule of Twenty-Four Hours" by Jean Chaplin, "Practice of the Theater" by François d'Aubignac, "Poetic Art" by Nicolas Boileau-Despreo are developing theoretical aspects classic poetics, set out the rules by which conditions are created for a differentiated disclosure of characters, ideas and a deep analysis of the collision of private motivation with a rational norm.

The philosophical and aesthetic practice of classicism made it possible to plotly organize the source material full of contradictions, to generalize the depicted reality, to present it in the form of a holistic dramatic conflict.

In classicism, space and time are created in accordance with plastic patterns that have clear and open lines for aesthetic contemplation. The frightening multidimensionality of objects is brought into line with the stylistic norm. The spatial reasoning of conflicts is intended to confirm the artistic and figurative persuasiveness. In this sense, the subsequent polemic with the limitations of classic aesthetics is a dispute between romanticism and a culture that has chosen temporal-spatial convention as an independent value, providing artistic practice with theoretically solid arguments.

Classicists often transfer the action of works into the past, seeing in historical heroes personification of the virtues and vices of his time. This decision characterizes all narrative aesthetics, but for classicism the principle of analogy is important, which allows illustrating the idea of ​​the over-time existence of the conflict between duty and passion.

The classicist idea of ​​an obligatory aesthetic "discipline" will be developed in the artistic creativity and literary-critical activity of representatives of the early Enlightenment. Supporters of normative poetics and opponents of "unlimited freedom" in creativity rely on the idea of ​​measure, harmony and law. Meanwhile, the Age of Enlightenment expresses a skeptical attitude towards the desire of classicism to reasonably order the world. The authors of the novels strive to portray life in the realities of life itself: in its prejudices, dynamics, conflicts, epic temporal and spatial extent.

Romanticism defends the artist's right to free initiative in the artistic embodiment of the contradictions of a rebellious spirit. Writers extremely freely comment on the temporal circumstances of the characters' lives, correlate the eternal and the temporal, create an eschatological image of time, which measures the fatal pace of inevitable death. The idea of ​​the doom of titanic passions encourages romantics to narrow the time and space limits of the character's existence. The rebellious youth is defeated in a clash with the world. All attempts to overcome loneliness and longing are doomed. And even a journey does not change anything in a soul marked by disappointment. The authors depict the tragedy of the hero, reducing his physical representation in the world to a psychological reflection of what is happening. Such a subjective view of the image radically narrows reality itself, often making it unreal.

Romantics often resort to the reception of an asymmetric image of the universe. Writers interrupt the normal course of events that are not significant for the conflict with flashes of concentrated time, the metric of which is intended to reveal dramatic climaxes restless spirit.

Comprehension of the tragic ups and downs of fate in romantic art is often carried out in terms of musical aesthetics. Music allows you to overcome space-time boundaries, turn to the past and look into the future, promises to fulfill hopes and fatally programs fate. An active appeal to Platonic ideas is embodied in the development of the theory of "two worlds" and "double vision", which expands the space of romantic works: any plot situation is related to the world of ideas, the specifics of life turns out to be a simplified sketch of an ideal program of the world order.

Romantic irony relieves tension between the real and ideal worlds, it is assigned the role of expressing the author's doubt in the triumph of harmony and revealing the ability of a romantic reader to be equal to the ideal.

Romantics not only discover the wealth of oral folk art, but are also the first to begin to study folklore. Turning to folklore helps to expand the established boundaries of plots, and also introduces fantastic elements into culture that allow you to look into the future and find in it the personification of an ideal, or an impending tragedy.

Romantics, in search of harmony, turn to the image of the patriarchal past, not overshadowed by the influence of a soulless civilization. The past beckons with a utopian sense of the unattainable and is painted in idyllic tones. An original view of history is offered by W. Scott. The writer is not limited to the traditional opposition of the past to the present. Turning to the history of England, the author of "Ivanhoe" uses the principle of analogy, discovering in the past the circumstances that determined the specific historical perspective of the country.

In the aesthetics of realism, spatio-temporal representations are focused on a scrupulous reproduction of reality.

In realism, space and time become one of the means of conveying the thoughts and feelings of the characters and the author, but their main purpose is a figurative generalization of reality.

AS Pushkin traces the connection between individual time and eternity. M. Yu. Lermontov contrasts the present and the past, modernity saddens the poet, encourages him to draw gloomy pictures of the future. For F. I. Tyutchev, life is a fragile moment, marked by a tragic sense of the finiteness of life. N. A. Nekrasov strives to objectify the poetic content of his works, inscribing signs of real historical time into the lyrics.

A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, recreating a holistic and visible picture of human experiences, use effective techniques to "stop" time or when it is necessary to increase its duration.

D. S. Likhachev, reflecting on the poetics of artistic time, makes an important generalization: “On the one hand, the time of a work can be “closed”, “closed in itself”, taking place only within the plot, not connected with events taking place outside the work , with historical time. On the other hand, the time of a work can be "open", included in a wider flow of time, developing against the background of a precisely defined historical era. "Open" time of a work implies the presence of other events occurring simultaneously outside the work, its plot ".

In the works of N. V. Gogol, the structure of time and space becomes one of the main means of expression. In Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka real and fantastic spaces collide. Closed in its geographical specificity, "Petersburg Tales" become a metaphor for the world, destructive for a person, and the city depicted in "The Government Inspector" appears as an allegory of bureaucratic Russia. Space and time can manifest themselves in everyday scenes or in the marked boundaries of the characters' existence. IN " Dead souls"the image of the road as a form of space is identical to the idea of ​​the path as moral standard human life.

I. A. Goncharov in the novel "Oblomov", emphasizing the unhurriedness of the calendar of patriarchal existence, refers to the comparison of the hero's life with the "slow gradualness with which the geological modifications of our planet occur." The novel is based on the principle of open time. The author deliberately neglects the clear metrics of the narrative, slows down the passage of time, persistently returning to the description of the patriarchal idyll.

The depicted time and the time of the image in artistic texts may not coincide. So, the novel "Oblomov" reproduces several episodes from the life of the protagonist. Those points on which the author considered it important to dwell are presented in detail, others are only indicated. Nevertheless, such a principle of organizing a work as a result leads to the creation of a holistic picture of a person's life.

L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace", reflecting on the laws of human society, refers to the mythopoetic tradition, which is based on the idea of ​​the cyclical development of the universe. The philosophical purpose of such a decision is the idea that everything in the world, chaotic and contradictory, is subject to the eternal human desire to comprehend harmony.

In the novel "War and Peace" the flow of time is determined by the law of non-linear transformations, which is embodied in the intersection of "real time" and "literary time". In the work of L. N. Tolstoy, a special role is played by chronological order. The writer carefully dates each chapter and even notes the time of day.

In the lines describing the experiences of the characters, the author of the epic manages to achieve the rhythmic tension of the narrative and the dynamic change of emotional states. The thoughts of the heroes either speed up, or seem to freeze, and, accordingly, time itself accelerates its movement or petrifies in anticipation.

A work of art belongs to special types of exploration of reality. Artistic image only indirectly connected with the image of reality. The writer must always take into account in his work the spatio-temporal boundaries of reality, correlate them with the chronology of the created text. Often in a literary work, physical time and plot time do not coincide.

As an example, one can refer to the poetics of the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky. The writer puts his characters in crisis situations, the implementation of which requires an exceptionally long time. The events described in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, especially some scenes, do not fit into the framework of real time. But it is precisely such a chronotope of the novel that conveys the tension of the thoughts and will of the characters, caught up in the drama of life situations.

Readers may get the impression that the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky are based on different time plans. This feeling stems from a tense intertwining of events, discussions, confessions, facts, internal monologues And internal dialogues. In fact, the writer's works are marked by the unity of time, and all artistic material is offered in an integral space of simultaneous implementation.

The aesthetics of naturalism in the reproduction of space and time chooses the technique of a rigid spatio-temporal presentation of the material. E. Zola, E. and J. Goncourt record the facts of reality, correlate them with the voice of nature, revealing the conditionality of the intuitive actions of the characters by the eternal laws of nature.

Symbolism overcomes the objectivity of phenomenal existence, metaphors and symbols expand the horizons of human existence. With the help of "lyrical alchemy" C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé compare reality with the irrational meanings of the world, prove that the symbol embodies the ideal plan, the essence of things that were, are or someday will certainly declare yourself.

Yu. M. Lotman noted that "the artistic space in a literary work is a continuum in which characters are placed and an action is performed. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space. There is some truth in such perception, because even when exposed its function of modeling extra-spatial relations, artistic space necessarily retains, as the first plane of the metaphor, an idea of ​​its physical nature.

According to the degree of conventionality, the categories of space and time can be relative and specific in a literary work. So, in the novels of A. Dumas, the action takes place in France of the 17th century, but the real historical place and time is only a pretext for the re-creation of heroic types. According to W. Eco, the main thing in this approach to the past is that it is "not here and not now."

Gogol's principles of realistic typification belong to the "concrete" principle of mastering reality. The image of the provincial city of N. is not at all a symbol of the Russian province, it is a symbol of bureaucratic Russia, an allegory of widespread lack of spirituality.

For the perception of a literary work, the difference between fictional and real topoi is not fundamental. The main thing is that Petersburg in the Russian novel, and the city of S. (A.P. Chekhov's story "The Lady with the Dog"), and the city of Kalinov (A. Ostrovsky's play "Thunderstorm") - all of them artistically embody the author's idea and are symbols of peace who have lost the concept of morality.

The conventionality and stereotype of literary time is manifested in the calendar of seasonal preferences. Winter is the most dangerous time of the year for the embodiment of intimate emotions. Many characters of romanticism reflect inconsolably in winter and recall the old glorious time that has gone into oblivion. A rare hero of romanticism in winter will be brought out of the scrap by love needs. Time and space are subject to the laws of strict regulation. The images of a snowstorm, a winter cold in literature are correlated with the struggle of infernal forces and often become, especially in realistic literature, allegories of social violence. No less common are winter landscape sketches, the purpose of which is to glorify the intrinsic value of life.

The normativity of classicism in the depiction of resurgent nature - an appeal to ancient images, pathetic comparisons - is overcome by a sentimentalist conviction in the identity of nature and soul. Romanticism saturates the description of the awakening world with objectivity, expressive details, and a rich color palette.

Nature awakening from its winter sleep provides convincing interiors for revealing the first feeling. Spring favors the birth of love. A hubbub reigns in the forests, restless birds are absorbed in the construction of housing. The world tirelessly prepares for a date with passion.

The heroes of romantic poetry, faithful to the imperative call of nature, with a heart full of hope, rush into the whirlwind of spring delusions. Lyric poetry ascribes to spring the most sincere and exciting emotions. In the spring, as literature proves, it is simply necessary to fall in love. Heroes feel their belonging to the general unrest. Nature and the soul awaken from sorrow. The time has come to experience for yourself what you read, saw in a dream and cherished in dreams. Descriptions of the joy of innocent love sensations, languishing nights, and many-speaking sighs become dominant in literary plots. The metric of experiences is formed in accordance with the violent natural metamorphoses. Poetry enthusiastically describes the first thunder, the May thunderstorm - signs of a symbolic exposition of the renewal of nature and the birth of love.

Summer in literary works, as a rule, comes unnoticed and does not give the promised joys. Literature does not favor mise-en-scenes illuminated by bright sunlight. Everyone sincerely is afraid of publicity. For a love story, twilight is preferable. Evening walks evoke thoughts of eternity. Distant stars - the only witnesses of timid feelings - are watching the lucky ones. The very mise-en-scene of the evening meeting, as the works of romantics and A.P. Chekhov show, is built in such a way that the plot of recognition could come true.

The autumn plot declares the need to complete everything started in the spring and summer. The love-everyday mythology of literature warns of this. English cemetery poetry is permeated with autumn moods. It is at this time of the year that the most painful events occur in the works of neo-romanticism. The range of "autumn" activity of the heroes is extremely poor. Realistic poetry condemns social injustice, A romantic heroes in autumn, they tend to put an end to love punctuation.

The literary category of time is marked by a wide range of artistic solutions. Literature actively uses images that are symbols of the measurement of time: an instant, a minute, an hour, a pendulum, a dial. In poetry, the opposition of the symbols of the measurable and the exorbitant - the moment and eternity - is widespread.

The interpretation of the space-time continuum in the works of the last century is ambiguous.

Literature of the 20th century marked by a special attitude to the category of time, to the phenomenon of reconstruction of what happened. Beginning with the "Confessions" of Blessed Augustine, the introduction of present and future plans into the past becomes one of the methods of confessional and memoir literature. Integration of the future into the present allows you to analyze what happened, to see it in a time perspective. V. Shklovsky, reflecting on the nature of the memoir genre, noted: “A person who begins to write memories has two dangers. The first is to write, inserting yourself today. Then it turns out that you always knew everything. The second danger is, remembering, to remain only in the past "Run through the past like a dog runs along a wire with its dog's chain on. Then a person always remembers the same thing: he remembers the petty things. Trampling on the grass of the past, he is attached to it. He is deprived of the future. One must write about the past, not inserting today's self into the past, but seeing the past from today."

At the beginning of the XX century. the genre of autobiography itself in the parameters outlined by Augustine and culminating in J.-J. Rousseau begins to demonstrate his insincerity. The fate of the autobiographical genre is changing.

The modernist experience of M. Proust shows that the author is faced with the fact of the need to choose what to prefer: an inspired presentation of life or the registration of a certain image of reality in the space of words. In other words, Proust does not tell the story of his life, but aims to find ways and mechanisms to reveal the past. Otherwise, time may be "lost". The narrative technique of "automatic writing" becomes the leading tool for penetrating into what once happened. It is she who, according to Proust, allows you to open and streamline the images of the departed.

The theory of "automatic writing" casts doubt on the possibility of reproducing the empirical content of the original reality. The fact of life, whatever it may be, competes with the self-sufficiency of writing. As a result, tension arises between the word, which is aware of the world, and the event, which initially does not have an artificial form of perpetuation and therefore needs a word. What is the source of "acquired" time - a fact or a word - is a Proustian question, unequivocally decided by the writer in favor of the word.

After the artistic experiments of M. Proust, a special philosophical and aesthetic configuration is created in literature, in which the very parameters of the narrative structure tested for centuries undergo a qualitative metamorphosis. The idea of ​​the feasibility of traveling to the past - auto(I) bio(life) graphile(writing) - being forced out autograph, insistently proving the priority of writing over fact of life.

As a result, the idea of ​​the self-sufficiency of the word and the mysteries of the organization of the novel's narrative born from it begin to triumph over any reality in life. Therefore, it turns out to be fundamentally impossible to comprehend real experience and to complete it. M. Proust experiments with narrative time. The writer, studying in detail the mechanisms of recall, splits the hero's biography into a series of subjective images, excluding the objective course of history from the narrative. Following the task of restoring the lost, the writer ignores some impressions, poetically comprehends others. The hero's conflict with objective time leads to the fact that it begins to break up into many self-valuable absolutized moments, each of which destroys the physical reality of the previous one, marking it with hypertrophied subjectivity.

In the literature of the XX century. narrative time and real time, as a rule, do not coincide. J. Joyce in the novel "Ulysses" compares different time layers. The inhabitants of Dublin are related to the Homeric characters, psychological world the hero is associated with ancient eras. The eternal, embodied in plots, genres, words, shines through in the modern. This type of narration illustrates the idea of ​​the infinity of the existence of culture, embodied in the soul and consciousness of a person.

W. Wulf refuses the classical interpretation of time, reduces it to the study of intuition. Different episodes in the stream of consciousness lose their determinism, past and present demonstrate their unity. Dos Passos develops the theory of mechanical memory. Time in the works of W. Faulkner does not move. In novels American writer there is no linear order of events and correlation of episodes. Heroes exist in the time of their memories. And that is why the cause-and-effect relationships familiar to classical narratives turn out to be mystified.

The concept of the future in the literature of the XX century. inseparable from the idea of ​​the reversibility of time and space. This view is based on F. Nietzsche's idea of ​​"eternal return", which outlines the connection of time with the transition of possibility into reality and vice versa. Moreover, this recurrence is not accidental, but natural, as it reflects the essence of systemic processes.

GG Marquez in the romance "One Hundred Years of Solitude" unfolds the narrative in the space of reality and historical time, which are subject to the laws of the already created. Everything that happens and will happen to the heroes has not only happened, but is even described in a book, to read which means to come to the final plot of life. The classical comparison of a book with life takes on a completely non-metaphorical meaning in Marquez's poetic system.

M. Bulgakov in "The Master and Margarita" proves the connection of the past with the present and the future. "Manuscripts do not burn" is an expressive illustration of well-known romantic concepts, the controversy with which will be presented in U. Eco's novel "The Name of the Rose".

Postmodernist writers, refusing to self-sufficient recording of history, from the task of endowing it with exceptional ethical content, make the idea of ​​the impossibility of adequately understanding the meanings of things and concepts dissolved in time the key to interpreting what happened. U. Eco argues that only names remain from things that have gone into the past, which, due to their historical and cultural oversaturation with meanings, disorientate modern reader doom to failure any attempt to offer an uncontested interpretation of what happened.

The future is often used as an artistic device for revealing certain phenomena of reality. In science fiction, especially in the dystopian genre, the present is projected onto the future, time travel enhances the absurdity of phenomena that are still being born in modern times. The future, thus, explains the present day, expands its perception and understanding.

Many artistic experiments of the 20th century are persistent in their desire to convey the indivisibility of the time-spatial plans experienced by man. As a result, each time section of the works unites the already realized past, the directly experienced present and the future that has not yet been actualized.

The categories of artistic space and time depend on the evolving artistic consciousness, specific attitudes creative method, psychological and ideological positions of the artist and specific tasks that the authors put in their works.

§ 10. Time and space

Fiction is specific in the development of space and time. Along with music, pantomime, dance, stage direction, she belongs to the arts, the images of which have a temporal extension - they are strictly organized in time of perception. The originality of its subject is connected with this) as Lessing wrote: in the center of a literary work - actions, i.e., processes occurring in time, for speech has a temporal extension. Detailed descriptions of immovable objects located in space, Lessing argued, turn out to be tedious for the reader and therefore unfavorable for verbal art: "... the juxtaposition of bodies in space collides here with the sequence of speech in time."

At the same time, spatial representations also invariably enter the literature. In contrast to what is inherent in sculpture and painting, here they do not have direct sensual authenticity, material density and visibility, they remain indirect and are perceived associatively.

However, Lessing, who considered literature to be designed to master reality primarily in its temporal extent, was right in many respects. The temporal beginnings of verbal imagery are more specific than spatial ones: as part of monologues and dialogues, the depicted time and the time of perception more or less coincide, and scenes dramatic works(as well as related episodes in narrative genres) capture time with direct, immediate certainty.

Literary works are permeated with temporal and spatial representations, infinitely diverse and deeply meaningful. Here there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth, maturity, old age), historical (characteristics of the change of eras and generations, major events in the life of society), cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar (change of seasons, everyday life and holidays) , daily (day and night, morning and evening), as well as ideas about movement and stillness, about the correlation of the past, present, and future. According to D.S. Likhachev, from epoch to epoch, as ideas about the variability of the world become wider and deeper, the images of time are becoming increasingly important in literature: writers are becoming more and more aware, more and more fully capturing the “variety of forms of movement”, “mastering the world in its temporal dimensions.

No less diverse are the spatial pictures present in the literature: images of space closed and open, earthly and cosmic, really visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity near and far. Literary works have the ability to bring together, as if to merge together spaces of the most diverse kind: “In Paris, from under the roof / Venus or Mars / They look at what is on the poster / A new farce has been announced” (B.L. Pasternak. “In the boundless spaces, the continents are burning …”).

According to Yu.M. Lotman, "the language of spatial representations" in literary creativity "belongs to the primary and main". Turning to the work of N.V. Gogol, the scientist characterized the artistic significance of spatial boundaries, directed space, everyday and fantastic space, closed and open. Lotman argued that the basis of imagery " Divine Comedy» Dante makes up ideas about the top and bottom as the universal principles of the world order, against which the movement of the protagonist is carried out; that in M.A. Bulgakov's "Master and Margarita", where the motif of the house is so important, "spatial language" is used to express "non-spatial concepts.

The temporal and spatial representations captured in the literature constitute a certain unity, which, following M.M. Bakhtin is called chronotope(from other - gr. chronos - time and topos - place, space). “The chronotope,” the scientist argued, “determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality.<…>Temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature<…>always emotionally-valuable. Bakhtin considers idyllic, mystery, carnival chronotopes, as well as chronotopes of the road (path), threshold (the sphere of crises and fractures), castle, living room, salon, provincial town (with its monotonous life). The scientist speaks about chronotopic values, the plot-forming role of the chronotope and calls it a category of formal content. He emphasizes that artistic and semantic (actually meaningful) moments are not amenable to spatial and temporal definitions, but at the same time, “any entry into the sphere of meanings is accomplished only through the gates of chronotopes.” It is legitimate to add to what Bakhtin said that the chronotopic beginning of literary works is able to give them a philosophical character, to "bring" the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world - even if the heroes and narrators are not inclined to philosophizing.

Time and space are imprinted in literary works in two ways. Firstly, in the form of motifs and leitmotifs (mainly in lyrics), which often acquire a symbolic character and designate one or another picture of the world. Secondly, they form the basis of the plots to which we turn.

Transforming space The next stage in geographical fiction can be considered the transition from plots describing unknown or lost worlds to works based on the active development, use and change of the natural environment. And this time