Leo Tolstoy was born on September 9, 1828 in the Tula province (Russia) into a family belonging to the noble class. In the 1860s, he wrote his first major novel, War and Peace. In 1873 Tolstoy began work on the second of his most famous books, Anna Karenina.
He continued to write fiction throughout the 1880s and 1890s. One of his most successful later works is The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Tolstoy died on November 20, 1910 in Astapovo, Russia.
First years of life
September 9, 1828, in Yasnaya Polyana (Tula province, Russia), the future writer Leo Tolstoy was born. He was the fourth child in a large noble family. In 1830, when Tolstoy's mother, nee Princess Volkonskaya, died, the father's cousin took over the care of the children. Their father, Count Nikolai Tolstoy, died seven years later, and their aunt was appointed guardian. After the death of his aunt, Leo Tolstoy, his brothers and sisters moved to the second aunt in Kazan. Although Tolstoy experienced many losses in early age, later he idealized his childhood memories in his work.
It is important to note that elementary education in Tolstoy's biography was received at home, lessons were given to him by French and German teachers. In 1843 he entered the Faculty of Oriental Languages at the Imperial Kazan University. Tolstoy failed to excel in his studies - low grades forced him to switch to an easier Faculty of Law. Further academic difficulties led Tolstoy to eventually leave the Imperial Kazan University in 1847 without a degree. He returned to his parents' estate, where he planned to take up farming. However, this undertaking of his ended in failure - he was absent too often, leaving for Tula and Moscow. What he really excelled at was keeping his own diary - it was this lifelong habit that inspired Leo Tolstoy to most his works.
Tolstoy was fond of music, his favorite composers were Schumann, Bach, Chopin, Mozart, Mendelssohn. Lev Nikolaevich could play their works for several hours a day.
One day, Tolstoy's older brother, Nikolai, came to visit Leo during his army leave, and convinced his brother to join the army as a cadet in the south, in Caucasian mountains where he served. After serving as a cadet, Leo Tolstoy was transferred to Sevastopol in November 1854, where he fought in the Crimean War until August 1855.
Early publications
During his Junker years in the army, Tolstoy had a lot of free time. During calm periods he worked on autobiographical story titled "Childhood". In it, he wrote about his favorite childhood memories. In 1852 Tolstoy submitted the story to Sovremennik, the most popular magazine of the day. The story was gladly received, and it became Tolstoy's first publication. Since that time, critics have placed him on a par with already well-known writers, among whom were Ivan Turgenev (with whom Tolstoy became friends), Ivan Goncharov, Alexander Ostrovsky and others.
After completing the story "Childhood", Tolstoy began to write about his daily life in an army outpost in the Caucasus. The work "Cossacks" begun in the army years, he finished only in 1862, after he had already left the army.
Surprisingly, Tolstoy managed to continue writing during active battles in the Crimean War. During this time he wrote Boyhood (1854), a sequel to Childhood, the second book in autobiographical trilogy Tolstoy. In the midst of Crimean War Tolstoy expressed his view of the striking contradictions of the war through a trilogy of works " Sevastopol stories". In the second book of the Sevastopol Tales, Tolstoy experimented with relatively new technology: part of the story is presented in the form of a narration from the perspective of a soldier.
After the end of the Crimean War, Tolstoy left the army and returned to Russia. Arriving home, the author enjoyed great popularity on the literary scene of St. Petersburg.
Stubborn and arrogant, Tolstoy refused to belong to any particular philosophical school. Declaring himself an anarchist, he left for Paris in 1857. Once there, he lost all his money and was forced to return home to Russia. He also succeeded in publishing Youth, the third part of an autobiographical trilogy, in 1857.
Returning to Russia in 1862, Tolstoy published the first of 12 issues of the thematic magazine Yasnaya Polyana. In the same year, he married the daughter of a doctor named Sofya Andreevna Bers.
Major novels
Living in Yasnaya Polyana with his wife and children, Tolstoy spent much of the 1860s writing his first known novel, War and Peace. Part of the novel was first published in Russkiy Vestnik in 1865 under the title "1805". By 1868 he had produced three more chapters. A year later, the novel was completely finished. Both critics and the public have debated the historical validity of the Napoleonic Wars in the novel, coupled with the development of his stories, thoughtful and realistic, but still fictional characters. The novel is also unique in that it includes three long satirical essays on the laws of history. Among the ideas that Tolstoy is also trying to convey in this novel is the conviction that the position of a person in society and the meaning human life are basically derivatives of his daily activities.
After the success of War and Peace in 1873, Tolstoy began work on the second of his most famous books, Anna Karenina. It was partly based on real events during the war between Russia and Turkey. Like "War and Peace", this book describes some biographical events from the life of Tolstoy himself, this is especially noticeable in romantic relationship between the characters of Kitty and Levin, which is said to be reminiscent of Tolstoy's courtship of his own wife.
The first lines of the book "Anna Karenina" are among the most famous: "Everything happy families similar to each other, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. Anna Karenina was published in installments from 1873 to 1877, and was highly acclaimed by the public. The fees received for the novel rapidly enriched the writer.
Conversion
Despite the success of Anna Karenina, after the completion of the novel, Tolstoy experienced spiritual crisis and was depressed. The next stage of the biography of Leo Tolstoy is characterized by a search for the meaning of life. The writer first turned to the Russian Orthodox Church, but did not find answers to his questions there. He came to the conclusion that christian churches were corrupt and, instead of an organized religion, promoted their own beliefs. He decided to express these convictions by founding a new publication in 1883 called The Mediator.
As a result, for his non-standard and contradictory spiritual beliefs, Tolstoy was excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox Church. He was even watched by the secret police. When Tolstoy, driven by his new conviction, wanted to give away all his money and give up everything superfluous, his wife was categorically against it. Not wanting to escalate the situation, Tolstoy reluctantly agreed to a compromise: he transferred to his wife the copyright and, apparently, all deductions for his work until 1881.
Late fiction
In addition to his religious treatises, Tolstoy continued to write fiction throughout the 1880s and 1890s. Among the genres of his later work were moral stories and realistic fiction. One of the most successful of his later works was the story The Death of Ivan Ilyich, written in 1886. Main character struggles to fight death hanging over him. In short, Ivan Ilyich is horrified at the realization that he wasted his life on trifles, but the realization of this comes to him too late.
In 1898 Tolstoy wrote the novel "Father Sergius", piece of art in which he criticizes the beliefs he developed after his spiritual transformation. The following year, he wrote his third voluminous novel, Resurrection. Job received good feedback, but this success is unlikely to match the level of recognition of his previous novels. Other later works of Tolstoy are essays on art, these are satirical play titled "The Living Corpse", written in 1890, and a story titled "Hadji Murad" (1904), which was discovered and published after his death. In 1903 Tolstoy wrote short story After the Ball, which was first published after his death, in 1911.
Old age
During his late years, Tolstoy reaped the benefits of international recognition. However, he still struggled to reconcile his spiritual beliefs with the tension he had created in his family life. His wife not only disagreed with his teachings, she did not approve of his students, who regularly visited Tolstoy in family estate. In an effort to avoid the growing discontent of his wife, in October 1910 Tolstoy and his youngest daughter Alexandra went on a pilgrimage. Alexandra was a doctor for her elderly father during the trip. Trying not to flaunt your privacy, they traveled incognito, hoping to evade unnecessary inquiries, but sometimes this was to no avail.
Death and legacy
Unfortunately, the pilgrimage proved too burdensome for the aging writer. In November 1910, the head of the small Astapovo railway station opened the doors of his house for Tolstoy so that the ailing writer could rest. Shortly thereafter, on November 20, 1910, Tolstoy died. He was buried in the family estate, Yasnaya Polyana, where Tolstoy lost so many people close to him.
To this day, Tolstoy's novels are considered one of the best achievements literary art. "War and Peace" is often cited as greatest novel ever written. In the modern scientific community, Tolstoy is widely recognized as having a gift for describing the unconscious motives of character, the refinement of which he advocated by emphasizing the role of everyday actions in determining the character and goals of people.
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The writing
The work "War and Peace" was created by L. N. Tolstoy for seven years, from 1863 to 1869. The book required a lot of effort from the writer. In 1869, in the drafts of the Epilogue, Tolstoy recalled the "painful and joyful perseverance and excitement" that he experienced in the process of work.
In fact, the idea of the novel arose much earlier. In 1856 Tolstoy began writing a novel about a Decembrist returning from exile to Russia. At the beginning of 1861, the first chapters were already created, which the author read to I. S. Turgenev.
And in 1863, the year that is considered to be the beginning of the birth of War and Peace, work on The Decembrists continued. New romance was in direct connection with the original idea of the work about the Decembrists. The author himself explained the logic of the development of the creative idea in this way: “In 1856 I began to write a story with famous destination, a hero who was supposed to be a Decembrist, returning with his family to Russia. Involuntarily, I moved from the present to 1825, the era of my hero's delusions and misfortunes, and left what I had begun. But in 1825, my hero was already a mature, family man. To understand him, I had to go back to his youth, and his youth coincided with the glorious for Russia era of 1812 ... But for the third time I left what I started ... If the reason for our triumph was not accidental, but lay in the essence of the character of the Russian people and troops, then this character should have been expressed even more clearly in the era of failures and defeats ... My task is to describe the life and clashes of some people in the period from 1805 to 1856.
Thus, based on creative idea writer, "War and Peace", for all its majesty, is only part of the grandiose author's plan, a plan that covers the most important eras of Russian life, a plan that L. N. Tolstoy never fully realized. Interestingly, the original version of the manuscript of the new novel “From 1805 to 1814. A novel by Count L. N. Tolstoy. 1805 year. Part I" opened with the words: "Those who knew Prince Peter Kirillovich B. at the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, in the 1850s, when Peter Kirillich was returned from Siberia as white as a harrier, it would be difficult to imagine him as carefree, stupid and extravagant young man, as he was at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, shortly after his arrival from abroad, where, at the request of his father, he completed his education. So the author established a connection between the hero of the previously conceived novel "The Decembrists" and the future work "War and Peace".
At different stages of the work, the author presented his work as a wide epic canvas. Creating his "semi-fictional" and "fictional" heroes, Tolstoy, as he himself said, wrote the history of the people, looking for ways to artistically comprehend the "character of the Russian people." Contrary to the writer's hopes for the imminent birth of his literary offspring, the first chapters of the novel began to appear in print only from 1867. And for the next two years, work on it continued. They were not yet entitled "War and Peace", moreover, they were subsequently subjected to severe editing by the author ...
From the first version of the title - "Three Pores" - Tolstoy refused, because in this case the story had to begin with the events of 1812. The next version - "One thousand eight hundred and fifth year" - also did not correspond to the final plan. In 1866, the name appeared: "All is well that ends well", stating happy ending works. Obviously, this version of the name did not reflect the scale of the action and was also rejected by Tolstoy. And only at the end of 1867 did the name "War and Peace" finally appear. In the manuscript, the word "peace" was written with the letter "i". If we turn to the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl, we can see that the word “world” had a broader interpretation: “The world is the universe; one of the lands of the universe; our earth, globe, light; all people, all the world, the human race; community, society of peasants; gathering."
Undoubtedly, it was precisely this comprehensive understanding of this word that the writer had in mind when he included it in the title. Only in December 1869 was published last volume"War and Peace". Thirteen years have passed since the conception of the work about the Decembrist.
The second edition came out almost simultaneously with the first, in 1868-1869, so the author's revision was insignificant. But in the third edition in 1873 Tolstoy introduced significant changes. Part of his, as he said, "military, historical and philosophical discourses" was taken out of the novel and included in the Articles on the Campaign of 1812. In the same edition, the French text was translated into Russian by Tolstoy, although he said that "sometimes I felt sorry for the destruction of the French." This was due to the responses to the novel, where bewilderment was expressed in the abundance of French speech. In the next edition, the six volumes of the novel were reduced to four. And finally, in 1886, the last, fifth lifetime edition of Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" was published, which to this day is the standard. In it, the author restored the text according to the edition of 1868-1869. Historical and philosophical reasoning and the French text were returned, but the volume of the novel remained in four volumes. The work of the writer on his creation was completed.
Born into a noble family of Maria Nikolaevna, nee Princess Volkonskaya, and Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy in the Yasnaya Polyana estate in the Krapivensky district of the Tula province as the fourth child. The happy marriage of his parents became the prototype of the characters in the novel "War and Peace" - Princess Marya and Nikolai Rostov. Parents died early. Tatyana Alexandrovna Yergolskaya, a distant relative, was engaged in the upbringing of the future writer, education - tutors: the German Reselman and the Frenchman Saint-Thomas, who became the heroes of the writer's stories and novels. At the age of 13, the future writer and his family moved to the hospitable house of his father's sister P.I. Yushkova in Kazan.
In 1844, Leo Tolstoy entered the Imperial Kazan University in the Department of Oriental Literature of the Faculty of Philosophy. After the first year, he did not pass the transitional exam and transferred to the Faculty of Law, where he studied for two years, plunging into secular entertainment. Leo Tolstoy, naturally shy and ugly, gained a reputation in secular society as "thinking" about the happiness of death, eternity, love, although he himself wanted to shine. And in 1847 he left the university and went to Yasnaya Polyana with the intention of doing science and "achieving the highest degree excellence in music and painting.
In 1849, the first school for peasant children was opened on his estate, where Foka Demidovich, his serf, a former musician, taught. Yermil Bazykin, who studied there, said: “There were about 20 of us boys, the teacher was Foka Demidovich, a courtyard man. Under father L.N. Tolstoy, he acted as a musician. The old man was good. Taught us the alphabet, counting, sacred history. Lev Nikolaevich also came to us, also worked with us, showed us his diploma. I went every other day, every other day, or even every day. He always ordered the teacher not to offend us ... ".
In 1851, under the influence of his older brother Nikolai, Lev left for the Caucasus, having already begun to write Childhood, and in the fall he became a cadet in the 4th battery of the 20th artillery brigade stationed in the Cossack village of Starogladovskaya on the Terek River. There he completed the first part of Childhood and sent it to the Sovremennik magazine to its editor N.A. Nekrasov. On September 18, 1852, the manuscript was printed with great success.
Leo Tolstoy served three years in the Caucasus and, having the right to the most honorable St. George Cross for bravery, "conceded" to his fellow soldier, as giving a lifelong pension. At the beginning of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. transferred to the Danube army, participated in the battles of Oltenitsa, the siege of Silistria, the defense of Sevastopol. The then written story "Sevastopol in December 1854" was read by Emperor Alexander II, who ordered to take care of a talented officer.
In November 1856, the already recognized and well-known writer leaves military service and leaves to travel around Europe.
In 1862, Leo Tolstoy married seventeen-year-old Sofya Andreevna Bers. In their marriage, 13 children were born, five died in early childhood, the novels "War and Peace" (1863-1869) and "Anna Karenina" (1873-1877) were written, recognized as great works.
In the 1880s Leo Tolstoy survived a powerful crisis that led to the denial of the official state power and its institutions, awareness of the inevitability of death, faith in God and the creation of his own teaching - Tolstoyism. He lost interest in the usual aristocratic life, he began to have thoughts of suicide and the need to live right, be a vegetarian, engage in education and physical labor- he plowed, sewed boots, taught children at school. In 1891, he publicly renounced the copyright to his literary works written after 1880.
During 1889-1899. Leo Tolstoy wrote the novel "Resurrection", whose plot is based on a real court case, and biting articles about the system government controlled- on this basis, the Holy Synod excommunicated Count Leo Tolstoy from the Orthodox Church and anathematized him in 1901.
On October 28 (November 10), 1910, Leo Tolstoy secretly left Yasnaya Polyana, setting off on a journey without a specific plan for the sake of his moral and religious ideas of recent years, accompanied by doctor D.P. Makovitsky. On the way he caught a cold, fell ill with lobar pneumonia and was forced to get off the train at the Astapovo station (now Lev Tolstoy station). Lipetsk region). Leo Tolstoy died on November 7 (20), 1910 in the house of the head of the station I.I. Ozolin and was buried in Yasnaya Polyana.
Leo Tolstoy: The beginning of the journey. early prose
Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy was born on August 28 (September 9, new style), 1828, in the estate of Yasnaya Polyana, Tula province, into one of the most distinguished Russian noble families. "Counts Tolstoy - an old noble family, who, according to the legends of the genealogists, was from the honest husband Indrik, who left “from the Germans, from the Caesar lands” [from the Holy Roman Empire, from Austria. - A. R.] to Chernigov in 1353, with two sons and with a squad of three thousand people; he was baptized, received the name Leontius and was the ancestor of several noble families. His great-grandson, Andrei Kharitonovich, who moved from Chernigov to Moscow and received from the leader.<икого>book.<язя>Vasily the Dark nicknamed Tolstoy, was the ancestor of the Tolstoy (in the count branch of the Tolstoy family, Count Lev Nikolayevich is listed from the ancestor Indris in the 20th knee) ”(Biryukov P.I. Biography of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Ed. 3rd, corrected and added. M.; Pg., 1923. T. 1. S. 3.) On the maternal side, Lev Nikolayevich belonged to the ancient family of the Volkonsky princes. Belonging to the aristocracy will determine the behavior and thoughts of Tolstoy throughout his life. In youth and mature years he will think a lot about the special vocation of the old Russian nobility, which preserves the ideals of naturalness, personal honor, independence and freedom. (The "archaic" social and literary position of Tolstoy in the 1850s was traced in detail by B. M. Eikhenbaum: Eikhenbaum B. M. Lev Tolstoy. L., 1928. Book 1. 50s. S. 261-291).
Tolstoy very early, at the age of one and a half years, lost his mother Maria Nikolaevna, a very emotional and determined woman. Father, Nikolai Ilyich, a retired colonel, was distinguished by pride and independence in relations with government officials. For Tolstoy the child, his father was the embodiment of beauty, strength, passionate, reckless love for the joys of life. From him, Lev Nikolayevich inherited his passion for dog hunting. Many years later, Tolstoy would express the beauty and excitement of hunting on the pages of the novel “War and Peace” in the description of the persecution of the wolf by the hounds of the old Count Rostov.
In 1844 he entered the Faculty of Philosophy of Kazan University. He studied unsystematically, skipped lectures, and as a result was not allowed to take transfer exams. Not having received admission to pass the exam in history, Tolstoy in 1845 moved to another faculty - law. But even at this faculty they taught history, the lessons of which were boring and unpleasant for him. Tolstoy again begins to skip lectures on history. He was even punished for missing classes: a negligent student was placed in a punishment cell. But he indulged with all passion in secular amusements and revels. His seeming laziness, dislike of history is not evidence of narrow-mindedness. Once, a student Tolstoy remarked in a conversation with an interlocutor: “History ... is nothing but a collection of fables and useless trifles, interspersed with a mass of unnecessary numbers and proper names ...”. As if this phrase of Tolstoy is a manifestation of militant ignorance. It seems that he sought only to shock his acquaintance. However, in reality, everything is much more complicated. In the sciences, the young Tolstoy sought, first of all, practical meaning. He was not interested in knowledge that could not be applied in everyday life. And it is this kind of "useless" history that appears to Tolstoy. This view of science in general is characteristic of many people. new era formed in the 1840s. Not coincidentally, in the 1860s. Russian youth will survive the fascination with “nihilism”. "Nihilists" considered the practical benefits main value modern culture and despised abstract knowledge, not directly related to the daily needs of people. Tolstoy did not like "nihilism", first of all, he rejected the idea of revolution inherent in "nihilists". But he grew up in the same atmosphere of change, disillusionment with the old cultural property, as well as the ideologists of "nihilism". Denial of traditional historical science by Tolstoy the student with new force appear in the 1860s. in War and Peace.
During the years of study at Kazan University, Tolstoy carefully read the works of French philosophers, especially the works of the thinker and writer of the 18th century. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Rousseau saw in the achievements of civilization: in the development of sciences, technology, arts - the decline, the destruction of the original simplicity, the naturalness of human life. Rousseau's ideas greatly influenced the young Tolstoy.
Rousseau for Tolstoy is not only a subtle artist-psychologist, but also a thinker, whose ideas about the primordial good nature of man and the corrupting influence of civilization, opposed to the uncorrupted “natural state of a savage or commoner, remained dear to Tolstoy throughout his life.
Another favorite writer of Tolstoy was Stendhal. The poetics of battle scenes in Tolstoy's works - from the early Caucasian stories ("Raid", etc.) and the cycle about the defense of Sevastopol to "War and Peace" (a look at what is happening from the point of view of "a hero who does not understand anything") - resembles the description of the Battle of Waterloo in Stendhal's novel The Parma Monastery.
Already in the youthful diaries and early letters of Tolstoy, a living contradiction is felt between attachment, a passionate attraction to “natural” life, intoxication with the fullness of being and the joys of the flesh, on the one hand, and moral rigorism, exactingness, on the other. “Religion of the flesh” and “religion of the spirit” (expressions of D. S. Merezhkovsky - Merezhkovsky D. S. L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky: Life and work // Merezhkovsky D. S. L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Eternal companions. M., 1995. S. 7-350) will later constitute two poles of Tolstoy's creativity. Tolstoy's path is to a large extent precisely the movement from one pole to another. But the writer did not completely renounce the "religion of the flesh" even in the last years of his life.
On April 12, 1847, Tolstoy, disillusioned with university education, filed a petition for expulsion from the university. He went to Yasnaya Polyana, hoping to try himself in a new field - to improve the life of his serfs. Reality shattered his plans. The peasants did not understand the master, refused his advice and help. Tolstoy for the first time acutely felt the huge, insurmountable abyss separating him - the landowner, the master - and the common people. Social and cultural barriers between the educated class and the people will become one of the constant themes of Tolstoy's fiction and articles. He will describe his first unsuccessful experience of managing a few years later in the story “The Morning of the Landowner” (1856), whose hero Nekhlyudov is endowed with the features of Tolstoy himself.
Returning from Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy spends several years in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He analyzes in detail his actions and experiences in diaries, strives to develop a program of behavior, achieve success in various sciences and spheres of life, in his career. From self-analysis in Tolstoy's diaries grows his fiction. Tolstoy in diaries 1847-1852 carefully captures various experiences and thoughts in their complex and contradictory chains. He coldly analyzes the manifestation of selfish moods in high and pure feelings, traces the movement, the flow of one emotional state into another. Observations on oneself alternate with descriptions of the appearance, gestures and character of acquaintances, with reflections on how to create a literary work. Tolstoy focuses on the experience of psychological analysis of writers of the 18th century. Lawrence Stern and Rousseau, learns the methods of revealing experiences in the novel by M. Yu. Lermontov “A Hero of Our Time”. In March 1851, Tolstoy wrote "The History of Yesterday" - a passage in which he describes his feelings in detail. This is no longer just a diary entry, but a work of art.
In April 1851 he traveled to the Caucasus and in January 1852 entered military service in the artillery. In the Caucasus, there was a war between Russian troops and Chechens. Tolstoy participates in battles and works on the story "Childhood". Dissatisfied with the story, he revised its text four times. In July 1852, she was sent to the St. Petersburg magazine Sovremennik to its editor, the poet N. A. Nekrasov. Nekrasov highly appreciated the talent of the author. “Childhood” was published under the title “The Story of My Childhood” (this title belonged to Nekrasov) in the 9th issue of Sovremennik for 1852 and brought Tolstoy big success and the glory of one of the most talented Russian writers. Two years later, also in the 9th issue of Sovremennik, a continuation appears - the story “Boyhood”, and in the 1st issue for 1857 the story “Youth” was published, which completed the story of Nikolai Irteniev, the hero of “Childhood” and “Boyhood” ".
Tolstoy's three stories are not a consistent story of the upbringing and maturation of the protagonist and narrator, Nikolenka Irteniev. This is a description of a number of episodes of his life. B. M. Eikhenbaum drew attention to the fact that the events described in the story fit into two days, and a long period of time passes between these days (Eichenbaum B. M. Young Tolstoy // Eichenbaum B. M. On Literature. M. , 1987. S. 75-77). What others think is petty, unworthy of attention, and what others see as real events in Nikolenka's life, occupy an equal place in the mind of the hero-child himself. Tolstoy carefully captures the conflicting, opposing feelings of the hero. The immediate spiritual movements of Nikolenka Irtenyev are combined with a detached introspection, with observations of his own experiences. In "Childhood" Tolstoy discovers the multi-layered consciousness, in which opposing feelings, aspirations and thoughts coexist at the same time, sincerity coexists with the features of a kind of self-admiration, and sometimes pretense (The features of Tolstoy's psychologism are traced in detail by L. Ya. Ginzburg. - Ginzburg L. Ya. On Psychological Prose, 3rd edition, Moscow, 1999, pp. 267-293, 301-334, 372-394).
The depiction of the hero's feelings in "Childhood", "Boyhood" and "Youth" is reminiscent of the analysis of his own experiences in Tolstoy's diaries. The principles of depicting the inner world of characters outlined in the diaries and embodied in these three stories will pass into the novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina” and many other more later works Tolstoy.
At the same time as working on "Childhood", from May to December 1852, Tolstoy wrote the story "The Raid" about one of the minor episodes of the war in the Caucasus. Later, based on his impressions of the military events in the Caucasus, Tolstoy creates two more stories - "Cutting the Forest" and "How Russian Soldiers Die" (the first version of this story was called "Alarm"). In these stories, for the first time, a theme is expressed that will henceforth be unchanged, constant for Tolstoy. This theme: simplicity, naturalness as the highest value of true human life. “Always from a young age, and the older, the more, I appreciate one quality<...>above all - simplicity,” wrote Tolstoy in 1872. In the “Caucasian” stories, Tolstoy contrasted his mundane depiction of hostilities, the confusion of battle and senseless deaths with a romantic, poetic description of the battle as a majestic spectacle. Before Tolstoy, Russian literature was dominated by just such a romanticized perception of war and military exploits. This is how A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, a writer, whose works in the 1830s and early 1840s depicted battles in the Caucasus. enjoyed great fame. The simple, "everyday" depiction of war in Tolstoy's stories is the opposite of the romance of battles and exploits. It resembles a description of one of the battles Caucasian war in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Valerik”. Genuine heroism in the portrayal of Tolstoy is devoid of any kind of romantic theatricality or artificiality. true hero never thinks he is doing a feat. He has no desire for fame. Calm acceptance of one's own death for Tolstoy is a feature of a truly wise and worthy person.
The theme of simplicity and naturalness as highest value life and a dispute with the “front door”, beautiful image Tolstoy continued the war in the essays “Sevastopol in December” (1855), “Sevastopol in May” (1855) and “Sevastopol in August 1855” (1856). The essays describe episodes of the heroic defense of Sevastopol from the Anglo-French troops in 1855. Tolstoy himself participated in the defense of Sevastopol and spent many days and nights in the most dangerous place - on the fourth bastion, which was mercilessly fired upon by enemy artillery. Tolstoy's Sevastopol stories are not a panoramic description of the entire months-long giant battle outside the city, but sketches of several days from the life of its defenders. It is in the details: in the depiction of everyday life of soldiers, sailors, sisters of mercy, officers, townspeople - Tolstoy is looking for the true truth of the war.
The key motif of the Sevastopol stories is the unnaturalness and madness of war. Tolstoy shows the war with a third-party, "detached" look. In the essay "Sevastopol in December" Tolstoy describes not the beautiful correctness of the battle, but the terrible scenes of the suffering of the wounded in the hospital. The writer uses the technique of contrast, sharply confronting the world of the living and beautiful nature with the world of the dead - victims of the war. He describes a child picking wildflowers between decaying corpses and touching with his foot the outstretched arm of a headless corpse. Tolstoy acts as an accuser of people who violate the precepts of God, in self-blindness and in a frenzy shedding each other's blood. Tolstoy's Sevastopol stories are the grain of the future novel War and Peace.
In the autumn of 1859, Tolstoy opened a school for peasant children in Yasnaya Polyana. He studied history with children, gave them topics for writing. In 1862 the school was closed after a police raid. The reason for the search was the suspicion of the authorities that the students teaching at the Yasnaya Polyana school were engaged in anti-government activities. The writer formulated the conclusions from his activities in the Yasnaya Polyana school in an article with a “scandalous” title: “Who should learn to write from whom, peasant children from us or us from peasant children?” According to Tolstoy, folk art and culture is not inferior, but rather superior, to the culture and art recognized in an educated society. Peasant children keep the spiritual purity and naturalness lost in the educated estates. Their training in the values of "high" culture, Tolstoy believes, is hardly necessary. On the contrary, the writer himself, studying with them, found himself in the role not of a teacher, but of a student.
September 24 (old style), 1862 Tolstoy marries the daughter of a Moscow doctor Sofya Andreevna Bers. On September 25, Tolstoy writes in his diary: "Incredible happiness." Mutual misunderstanding, heavy quarrels, alienation from each other - all this is still in the distant future.
In 1863 Tolstoy published the story "The Cossacks", on which he began to work in the mid-1850s. The story, like many other works of Tolstoy, is autobiographical. It is based on the writer's Caucasian memories, first of all, the story of his unrequited love for a Cossack woman who lived in the Starogladkovskaya village. Tolstoy chooses a plot traditional for romantic literature: the love of a chilled, disappointed by life hero-fugitive from the disgusting world of civilization for a “natural” and passionate heroine. On this plot, poems by A. S. Pushkin were written “ Prisoner of the Caucasus” and “Gypsies”. "Gypsy" Tolstoy re-read while working on "Cossacks". But Tolstoy gives this plot a completely new meaning. The young nobleman Dmitry Olenin only superficially resembles a romantic hero: his weariness from life is not deep. He is drawn to the natural simplicity, the elemental life of the Cossacks, but remains alien to them. Olenin's interests, upbringing, and social position alienate him from the inhabitants of the Cossack village. Olenin eagerly absorbs the simple and wise thoughts of the old Cossack, hunter and former thief Uncle Eroshka: happiness, the meaning of life - in rapture with all its joys, in carnal pleasures. But he will never be able to become as simple, carefree, kind and evil, pure and cynical at the same time as Uncle Eroshka.
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Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy was born on the estate of Yasnaya Polyana in the Tula province into an aristocratic family. On his father's side, he belonged to an ancient family that was six hundred years old and gave Russia famous political and statesmen, and on his mother's side, to the Volkonsky family, who also became famous in serving the Fatherland. Tolstoy's father, Nikolai Ilyich, as a seventeen-year-old youth in 1812, decided to enter the military service and fought with Napoleon. He retired after Patriotic War and married Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya. The life of Yasnaya Polyana was shrouded in numerous family traditions and legends, which are rich in the stories of both families. These legends would later find a place in Tolstoy's works, especially in the epic novel War and Peace. Leo Tolstoy had three brothers - Nikolai, Sergei, Dmitry, and also a sister, Maria. The girl was only two years old when her mother died, and in 1837 Nikolai Ilyich also died, and the children were orphaned. In 1841, they were taken in by their father's sister, Pelageya Ilyinichna Yushkova, who lived in Kazan.
In 1844, Tolstoy entered the Faculty of Oriental Languages at Kazan University, but he did not take his studies seriously and failed his first-year exams. Thanks to the patronage of his aunt, he was transferred to the Faculty of Law, but soon left the university and went to Yasnaya Polyana. There he reads the works of Rousseau with passion and comes to the idea of correcting the world through the moral self-improvement of each person. Encouraged by this idea, he starts a diary where he analyzes the negative aspects of his character. This was the beginning of the mental work that Tolstoy would do all his life. He believes that understanding one's own weaknesses and shortcomings leads to their overcoming, liberation from them.
In the summer of 1851 Tolstoy's life changed dramatically. The elder brother Nikolai comes on vacation from the officer's service and takes Lev with him to the Caucasus. In the Cossack village of Starogladkovskaya, Tolstoy first encountered the world of free Cossacks, who never knew serfdom. This freemen enchanted Tolstoy, he felt a desire to leave everything and live the same simple and natural life as the Cossacks. Subsequently, he wrote the story "The Cossacks" (1863), in which he tells how difficult it is for a person of civilization to return to patriarchal simplicity, and the very opposition of the natural, natural way of life of ordinary people to civilization, borrowed from Rousseau, will go through almost all of Tolstoy's works.
In the Caucasus, Tolstoy begins to work on an artistic autobiography and writes the story "Childhood", which he sends to St. Petersburg to the then most popular magazine "Sovremennik", where it was enthusiastically received by Nekrasov himself and published in 1852. "Childhood" was the first part of the conceived tetralogy " Four epochs of development. Two more parts were implemented - the stories "Boyhood" and "Youth", and the idea of the fourth was only partially realized in the story "The Morning of the Landowner". The story "Adolescence" was published in 1854, and "Youth" - in 1857. Tolstoy's name was on a par with the names of the best Russian writers of that time. In his trilogy, Tolstoy displayed a new artistic view of the world. His hero looks at the environment not through the eyes of an adult who evaluates his childhood and children's spiritual experience, but through the eyes of a child with his unclouded consciousness, free from the prejudices of the adult world and therefore capable of impeccable moral assessments. Tolstoy argues that this childhood experience always lives in a person and is not canceled by the worldly experience of an adult. Such a view of the development of man, his spiritual world was a genuine discovery and brought fame to Tolstoy as an artist-psychologist. Tolstoy made the subject of his psychological research not the formed character of the hero, but the most complex connection in the soul of a person of various time slices, reflecting the stages of the formation of his personality and creating a unique image of each person. The childhood experience present in the soul of an adult can sometimes serve as an unmistakable criterion for him in choosing the exact behavior and even contribute to the self-improvement of a person. The child's soul has a property, dear to Tolstoy, to restore harmony with the surrounding world due to its purity and spontaneity, but the adult world clouds the child's worldview and extinguishes this ability, thereby leading a person to discord with the world and himself. This discord is especially painful in adolescence, difficult period personality development. Having lost the direct purity of the moral feeling, the soul of the lad becomes open only to the perception of the negative aspects of life and bad emotions. Having lost confidence in the world, a person focuses on himself, and therefore his spiritual ties with others are torn.
But even in these circumstances, the moral feeling does not completely die out in a person. The awakening of the soul is facilitated by the emergence of friendship and the ability for it. Youth, from Tolstoy's point of view, is like spring with its awakening, and therefore a person has a desire to restore lost ties with the world, a feeling of unity with it. But this is by no means a cloudless path. On the contrary, walking along it, a person is forced to overcome various obstacles, primarily related to spiritual contradictions.
In 1853, the Russian-Turkish war began, and in 1854, at his request, Tolstoy was transferred to the active army. Being in the besieged Sevastopol, Tolstoy observes the behavior of ordinary soldiers and sailors and is convinced of the colossal spiritual strength of the people, in their high patriotic feelings. Tolstoy tries to look at events through the eyes of a simple soldier. The experience gained at that time gave him great material for the epic novel "War and Peace", in addition, he wrote three stories that reflected his aesthetic and ethical ideal: "Sevastopol in December", "Sevastopol in May", "Sevastopol in August 1855" (1855, 1856). At the end of the story "Sevastopol in May", Tolstoy formulates his artistic credo: "The hero of my story, whom I love with all the strength of my soul, whom I tried to reproduce in all its beauty and who has always been, is and will be beautiful, is true."
At the end of 1855, Tolstoy arrived in St. Petersburg, already a well-known writer. His creative style developed in the works of the 50s. "The peculiarity of Count Tolstoy's talent," wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky, "is that he is not limited to depicting the results of the mental process: he is interested in the process itself, its forms, laws, dialectics of the soul, to put it in a definitive term." Tolstoy sought to show the process of the birth of a feeling or thought, their modification as a result of linkages with other feelings and thoughts, the whole hard way their formation and development. At the same time, he constantly emphasizes the inaccuracy and approximateness of any final definitions. Such an image mental life led to a new understanding of character. The thinnest psychological analysis leads Tolstoy to the idea that a person is a much more complex phenomenon than it seems at first glance, and that he always harbors the possibility of spiritual renewal. This ability for renewal and self-development is always in the center of Tolstoy's attention as an artist. In the movement of a person to a moral height, and not in changes in social or political systems he saw the possibilities of development and renewal of the world. A person's ability to moral self-improvement, according to Tolstoy, is life, and the task of literature is to teach "to love life," as he wrote in one of his letters.
The epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869). In the early 60s. Tolstoy conceives a novel about a Decembrist who, after an amnesty, returns from Siberia to Russia renewed by the reform of 1861. The idea is gradually expanding. Tolstoy wrote: “Involuntarily, I moved from the present to 1825, the era of delusions and misfortunes of my hero, and left what I had begun. But even in 1825, my hero was already a mature, family man. To understand him, I had to go back to his youth, and his youth coincided with the glorious for Russia era of 1812. Another time I abandoned what I had begun and began to write from the time of 1812, whose smell and sound are still audible and dear to us ... The third time I returned back from a feeling that, perhaps, , it will seem strange ... I was ashamed to write about our triumph in the fight against Bonaparte France, without describing our failures and our shame ... If the reason for our triumph was not accidental, but lay in the essence of the character of the Russian people and troops, then this character should have expressed itself even more vividly in an era of failures and defeats. So, returning from 1856 to 1805, from now on I intend to lead not one, but many of my heroines and heroes through the historical events of 1805, 1807, 1812, 1825 and 1856 dov".
Plunging into history, Tolstoy increasingly approached the present. He was looking for a moment in the historical past of Russia, similar to what the country experienced after 1861. The Patriotic War of 1812 caused an unprecedented unity of the whole people, which was so necessary in the post-reform era - the era of breaking the foundations of life. Artistic research this unity and the ways to achieve it, and is occupied by Tolstoy in "War and Peace". History became a tool with which to explore the present. Work on the novel lasted six years, and in the process its time frame of the work was limited to 1812-1824.
The book, published piecemeal in Russkiy Vestnik, was a huge success. It immediately became obvious that the work did not fit into the usual forms of the genre. The traditional novel, with its storyline based on the fate of the hero, could not contain the life of the whole country, which Tolstoy aspired to. It was necessary to overcome the main distinction, which seemed eternal and unshakable - the distinction between private and historical life. Tolstoy shows that the life of people is one and proceeds according to general laws in any sphere, whether it be the sphere of family or state, private or historical. Everyday life people are entangled in a whole network of conventions that subjugate a person, forcing him to be guided in his actions not by principles or feelings, but by generally accepted norms; a person is dependent on these conventions, which obscure and even replace the absolute and true values of life. The most important value, from the point of view of Tolstoy, is the universal connection, undermined in modern world enmity between people.
Just as unusual as the genre of the work was the composition. The absence of a single storyline forced Tolstoy to look for new methods of fastening the colossal building of the epic into a single whole. He changed the role of the episode. In the traditional novel, the episode was one of the links in the chain of events, united by causal relationships; being the result of previous events, it simultaneously became a prerequisite for subsequent ones. By retaining this role of the episode in the autonomous storylines of his novel, Tolstoy endowed it with a new property. The episodes in "War and Peace" were held together not only by a plot, causal connection, but also entered into a special connection, which Tolstoy himself, speaking of the novel "Anna Karenina", called the connection of "links". The artistic fabric of "War and Peace" consists of endless linkages. She holds together episodes not only from different parts, but even from different volumes, episodes in which completely different characters take part (for example, an episode from the first volume, which tells about the meeting of General Mack at the headquarters of the Kutuzov army, and an episode from the third volume - about the meeting of Alexander I's truce general Balashov with Marshal Murat). And there are a huge number of such episodes, united not by a plot, but by a connection, a connection of "links", in "War and Peace", which ensures artistic unity and integrity for a work with several hundred characters and many completely autonomous storylines.
In addition, in addition to ordinary characters, which are full-fledged realistic characters, Tolstoy created images of two characters who, also being realistic characters, bear a special burden, becoming almost symbolic images. These are the images of Kutuzov and Napoleon, personifying two opposite beginnings of life - the beginning that unites and the beginning that separates. And practically all the characters of "War and Peace" gravitate to these images to one degree or another, thus divided into people of "war" and people of "peace". Thus, Tolstoy's "War" and "peace" are two universal states human being, the life of society.
Napoleon, according to Tolstoy, embodies the essence modern civilization expressed in the cult of personal initiative and a strong personality. It is this cult that contributes to modern life disunity and general hostility. He is opposed by Tolstoy's beginning, embodied in the image of Kutuzov, a man who has renounced everything personal, does not pursue any personal goal and, because of this, is able to guess historical necessity and contributes to the course of history with his activity, while Napoleon only thinks that he manages historical process. But history develops according to its own laws, regardless of the will of people.
Kutuzov in Tolstoy personifies the principle of the people, while the people represent a spiritual integrity, poeticized by the author of War and Peace. This integrity arises only on the basis of cultural traditions and traditions. Their loss turns the people into a vicious and aggressive mob, whose unity rests not on common beginning, but at the beginning of the individualistic. Such a crowd is the Napoleonic army marching on Russia, as well as the people who tore apart Vereshchagin, whom Rostopchin dooms to death.
A society in which the beginning of the "war" has triumphed is disintegrating, losing unity, its representatives live by selfish interests. This is exactly how Tolstoy depicts the high society of St. Petersburg, the embodiment of the essence of which is the Kuragin family. General chaos is painful for the heroes of the novel. The situation of "peace", on the contrary, brings meaningfulness and unity to life, bringing personal interest into harmony with the general interest. Such a situation arises in Russia in 1812.
This universal unity will be what Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov are looking for. Them life paths testify to the search for overcoming personal and social discord, the desire for a reasonable and harmonious life. However, this does not remove the most important differences between them.
At the beginning of his life, Prince Andrei, having found an idol in Napoleon, separates himself from other people. His dream of the glory of a hero corresponds to the spirit of the Russian culture XVIII in., when the hero was certainly thought on a pedestal. Gradually, Tolstoy is preparing that revolution in the soul of Prince Andrei, which will take place on the Field of Austerlitz. In the course of hostilities, lofty dreams will collide with real life and the way of life of the war, and Andrey will discover the heroic beginning in the nondescript captain Tushin. Closed in a limited family world, Bolkonsky will be led out of a state of mental apathy by Pierre Bezukhov, who will visit his friend at a happy time for himself. Pierre at the height of his passion Masonic ideas I'm sure I've found the meaning of life. His enthusiasm will be transferred to Andrei, who will once again feel a taste for vigorous activity (two meetings of Prince Andrei with an old oak tree on the way to Otradnoye and back are symbolic). However, new life Andrew, flowing into higher spheres state bureaucracy, artificial. This will be revealed to Andrei through a meeting with Natasha Rostova at the ball. Natasha, as it were, brings the prince closer to earthly life, but Tolstoy immediately makes the reader feel that they are not meant for each other, that simple happiness is not for Bolkonsky.
The year 1812 will turn out to be a turning point in the life of both Natasha and Andrei Bolkonsky. During the Patriotic War, the prince will feel and understand the legitimacy of the existence of the interests of other people. This understanding will manifest itself in his vision of the reasons for success in the war, which, he believes, is determined not by the number of troops and their location, not by the number of guns, but by the feeling that every soldier will have. This is how Andrei Bolkonsky's ideas about the driving forces of history will change. But Prince Andrei is still unable to fully perceive the worldview of ordinary soldiers. At the moment of a mortal wound, he experiences a passionate impulse of love of life. It is significant that on the Field of Austerlitz the sky becomes a symbol of universal unity for him, and on the Borodino field - the earth. But the land was never given to Andrei. Heaven triumphed with its universal love, and not the earth, which manifested itself in a specific love for Natasha.
AT life quest Pierre Bezukhov also turning point will be 1812. But Pierre, in his desire to live common life will cross the line at which Prince Andrei stopped. The soldiers will accept him into their family, and he will feel like one of them. Pierre's spiritual rebirth is completed by captivity and acquaintance with Platon Karataev. In Karataev, Pierre will be conquered by love for the world without the slightest admixture of selfish feelings. Karataev will become for Tolstoy a symbol of the "peaceful" properties of the Russian peasant character, the personification of simplicity and truth. Communication with him will give Pierre a deeper understanding of the meaning of life, based on love for God, who is life, and life is God.
Having gone through the hardships of captivity and having accepted the Karataev view of the world, Pierre concludes that misfortunes on earth do not come from a lack, but from an excess, including an overwhelming predominance intellectual beginning in modern civilization, as a result of which a person loses immediacy in the perception of earthly existence.
Natasha Rostova exerts a renewing influence on the intellectual heroes of War and Peace. Natasha never thinks about the meaning of life and does not try to comprehend it in a rationalistic way. For her, this meaning is hidden in the very process of life and does not exist outside of it. Her image embodies the best properties of female nature, the harmony of spiritual and physical. Natasha's moral sense is natural, not abstract; she has the gift of intuition. Natasha's liveliness and spontaneity, her intuitive understanding of the true values of life attracts people to her. Countess Natasha has a truly Russian soul, which helps her feel naturally in the most different situations(remember her Russian dance in her uncle's house and the desire to help the wounded in the battle of Borodino, which was transmitted to all Rostovs).
At the same time, Natasha's spontaneity is fraught with danger and can push her to rash acts. Free from external conventions, she is able to transcend moral boundaries - this is the reason for her rapprochement with Kuragin. Both an excess of intellect, which muffles the immediate feeling of life in a person, and an elemental life force that is not controlled by the mind, are harmful. In the union of Natasha and Pierre Tolstoy tries to find a harmonious combination of these qualities.
The epilogue of "War and Peace" is a combination under the roof of the Lysogorsk house in one family of previously disparate principles, personified in the families of the Rostovs, Bolkonskys and Bezukhovs. The epilogue sounds like a hymn to the family, which, according to Tolstoy, the highest form unity between people.
The novel "War and Peace" was Tolstoy's answer to the cultural and spiritual situation that had developed in post-reform Russia, which required, as in 1812, the unity of all the forces of the people to overcome the crisis in which the country found itself.
The novel "Anna Karenina", on which Tolstoy worked in 1873-1877, is devoted to the study of the loss of spiritual ties between family members and, as a result, the disintegration of the family itself. Two storylines underlie this work: the story of the broken family of Anna Karenina and the born family of Konstantin Levin. Anna's marriage to the dignitary Karenin, who is spiritually alien to her, is not built on the basis of love and is inevitably doomed to collapse. Tolstoy condemns public morality, which forgives adultery, but does not forgive free and sincere love. The life of a family without love is dramatic, but the breakup of the family is no less dramatic.
The disintegration of the Karenin family, which, according to Tolstoy, marks the spiritual crisis of modern civilization, the disintegration of spiritual values, as well as the drama of Anna's love for Vronsky, are shown against the backdrop of the relationship between Kitty Shcherbatskaya and Levin, built on the basis of spiritual unity. Konstantin Levin is an autobiographical hero. For him, the fundamental principle of life is agricultural labor, to which he is devoted. He sees salvation from the lies of modern civilization in the moral rebirth of mankind.
Tolstoy outlined his views on the foundations of the modern social and state system in Russia and criticism of this system in a number of philosophical and religious works of the 80-90s: "Confession", "So what should we do?", "The Kingdom of God is within us", "What is my faith?" and others. In these works, he subjected to crushing criticism of all official social institutions, including the church. He created his own religious and ethical teaching, which found followers, who were called "Tolstoy". They left the cities, organized agricultural colonies and spread Tolstoy's teachings. Followers of Tolstoy appeared in many countries.
In 1899, the novel "Resurrection" was published - one of major works world realistic literature reflecting the broadest social and moral issues. Through the image of Prince Nekhlyudov, who broke with his class, the author shows the conflict of two worlds - the haves and the have-nots, raises the theme of a person's moral responsibility for his actions. The story of the spiritual fall of Nekhlyudov, associated with the rejection of a sense of shame and the transformation of a person into an impersonal, rude and selfish creature, as well as his slow and painful "resurrection", i.e. gaining a truly human essence, is plot basis novel. The feeling of guilt towards Katyusha Maslova gradually develops in Nekhlyudov into a feeling of guilt towards the destitute and suffering people, shame for himself - into shame for all the people of his circle. His own guilt appears to him as part of the common guilt of the entire nobility. Tolstoy advocates the inevitability of a radical transformation of all Russian life, but he sees this transformation only as non-violent.
Genius L.N. Tolstoy - an artist and thinker reflected life processes world importance in all their complexity and contradictions. And he himself was not an outside observer of them, trying to combine his own teaching with the way of life. The spiritual drama he was experiencing prompted him to secretly leave Yasnaya Polyana at the end of his days. On the way, he contracted pneumonia and died. Tolstoy's death was an event that shocked not only Russia, but the whole world.
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