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Introduction

In the development of each style there comes a phase when internal contradictions between the established traditional methods of shaping and the continuously changing requirements of life to the subject, to the content of architectural and design tasks, it is impossible to further resolve using the means of this style. These contradictions accumulate for a long time, little by little slowing down the development of style and gradually leading it to aging, decay, decay. On the ruins of the old, often in close connection with it, slowly, evolutionarily grows a new style. It is this course of events that is most typical of the style change process.

However, a rapid, avalanche-like growth of contradictions is also possible, rapidly causing the need to break down the old and establish a new trend. Such a less common case is the situation that led to the fall of the Baroque architectural style in Russia and the establishment of classicism. At the same time, this situation makes it possible to clearly see some aspects of the process of changing styles, which, with a longer evolutionary path, lose their sharpness of outline.

1. Classicism and Baroque: two styles of the same era

The long coexistence of classicism and baroque can hardly be considered an accident. Such synchronicity indicates their interconnectedness, which, of course, does not eliminate significant differences in the features and genesis of the two styles. Baroque was the direct heir of the Renaissance, but the heir was clearly disappointed. Here is what, for example, A.F. Losev about Montaigne: “His “Experiments” are devoid of any system, sprinkled with ancient quotes, although from antiquity only the Stoics were close to him, and then only skeptics became close to him.” Montaigne was the forerunner of Descartes, but here we should note the mention of stoicism and skepticism as directly related to the Baroque style. If classicism proceeded from Augustianism in the form of a secularized dualism between nature and man, which should be removed by the monism of submission to some single (but not the only possible) form, then the Baroque proceeded from the universality of the Stoicist Logos, unity in the form of an organism saturated with the breath of pneuma. In the context of the same Augustianism, it emphasized the psychological complexity of the individual personality. In the view of the world, instead of the rigid monophonic hierarchy of universalism inherent in classicism, a polyphonic universalism of plasticity arose, declaring the possibility of multiple variations of the same form or theme. The non-stop running of Bach's fugue accompanies the "Faustian" man. As a phenomenon, the historical baroque preceded classicism, but in terms of a further perspective on the change of styles, it should be recognized as the heir rather than the predecessor of classicism. It is well known that the emergence of the Baroque is associated with the Counter-Reformation. The canons and goals of the Jesuit order found their expression precisely in the Baroque style. Suffice it to recall the main Jesuit temple of Il Gesu in Rome (1568-1584), built according to the project of G. Vignola. This, perhaps, is the first typical project in the history of architecture, implemented in the spaces from Paraguay to Livonia. The main feature of the Baroque - its deceptiveness, simulativeness gave him the opportunity to turn into his fans and enemies the "soldiers of Jesus" - Protestants, with their inherent cult of labor. “Baroque - as J. Deleuze notes - invents an endless production or an endless process of work. The problem is not how to complete the fold, but how to continue it, cross the ceiling with it, direct it to infinity ”Therefore, complex forms and counterpoint, behind which the symmetry of numbers and functions is hidden, turned out to be able to glorify the virtues of the Puritans (for example, the oratorio G . F. Handel "Judas Maccabee"). Appeal to the Old Testament plots is also characteristic of Baroque literature. "Paradise Lost" by J. Milton and "The Greatest Monster of the World" by P. Calderon. The theme of catastrophe, arising from the collision of free will and the Law, dominates the tragic genre of the era. At the same time, the understanding of the Law is very eclectic: it can be Old Testament, Gnostic and rationalistic. In the latter case, a coincidence with classicism is found. The Gnostic features of the Baroque found their expression in the passion for astrology and alchemy, as evidenced not only by the literature of the era. So I. Kepler never hid his commitment to astrology, it even served him as a means to earn a living. I. Newton preferred to remain silent on this score, as well as on his antitrinitarianism. However, the Newtonian program of physics is saturated not only with mathematics (in its rationalistic Cartesian understanding), but also with the spirit of alchemy, from which its creator managed to extract many scientific ideas.

His famous response to the absolutely justified reproaches of the Cartesians in the revival of the magical principle - "I do not invent hypotheses" - is nothing but a truism.

The combination of rigid principles of classicism and flexible baroque can be seen in all subsequent styles. The dominance of one over the other is determined only by tactical considerations, which should ensure the greatest efficiency. “Do you know,” says the Balzacian Vautrin, this “Napoleon of penal servitude,” addressing the young Rastignac, “how they make their way here? It is necessary to crash into this human mass with a cannonball or penetrate like a plague. Classicism can be compared with the first, Baroque with the second. Both of them were the tools of the New Age for the formation of the New Man. So the dominant of classicism can be seen in modernity with its projects of the futurists and Le Corbusier, his pathos of the serious. Postmodern prefers baroque techniques. Switches to the language of binary codes and deterministic chaos. Shows concern for the environment and covers the world with a web of information networks, simulating the "unbearable lightness of being."

2. Russian baroque

Baroque is an era great for its grandiose destructions and equally grandiose creations, it has remained in history a turning point in the development of world art. At the same time, the Baroque art style entered the lives of people in countries such as Italy, Spain or Austria forever. Baroque has become the lifestyle of entire peoples and cultures to such an extent that, for example, Rome, despite its universal significance as the Eternal City, will now always be perceived as baroque. Spanish literature or German philosophy and music, in our view, is primarily baroque. Therefore, we will never be able to establish where the Baroque style begins and where it ends. It is only possible to determine the basic principles and patterns of shaping, the trends of historical development. In order to avoid ambiguity and contradictions in the interpretation of the term "Baroque", it is better to use not short, but more detailed formulations. The term "Baroque" in Russia could not be established for a long time. For example, back in mid-nineteenth V. Russian criticism, while overthrowing the style of Classicism in architecture, nevertheless, "did not see an alternative to the columns and the dome." The merits of the Neo-Gothic and "Neo-Renaissance" styles were discussed, but the word "Baroque" was avoided. The architect A. Bryullov, during a pensioner's trip to Italy in 1822, was indignant at the "perverted taste" and absurdity of F. Borromini's buildings. Only in the 1880s. the researcher of ancient Russian architecture N. Sultanov introduced the term "Russian Baroque", denoting the pre-Petrine architecture of Rus' in the 17th century. Since then, there has been a stable concept, according to which the first phase of the "Russian Baroque" style took shape in the 1640s. and this style developed "in a continuous sequence, up to the works of V. I. Bazhenov that completed it."

According to D. Likhachev's definition, "Russian baroque took over many of the functions of the Renaissance, because ... the real Renaissance had not previously been able to fully manifest itself in Rus'." This conclusion follows from the "special density" of the development of artistic styles in Rus', which fundamentally distinguish their spiritual content from Western European prototypes. "Russian baroque as a whole, fulfilling its renaissance function, historically opposed the Middle Ages, and not the Renaissance. Hence its cheerfulness and its moderation, alien to the pathos of Western Baroque." The term "Russian Baroque" is not accepted by everyone, in any case it is conditional and should be quoted. In formal qualities, this style is closer to Mannerism; it distinguishes the stages of the "Golitsyn" and "Naryshkin baroque" - the architecture of the "Russian pattern" of the late 17th century, the "Petrine baroque" of the first quarter of the 18th century, the "mature Russian baroque" of the Elizabethan time. The latter style was most vividly embodied in the work of the outstanding architect F. B. Rastrelli the Younger in St. Petersburg. During these years, Russia was rapidly catching up with Europe, and compositional techniques were combined in the original architecture created by Rastrelli. European Classicism, Baroque and French Rococo (see Elizabethan Rococo). Therefore, the researchers rightly point out that the preservation of the elements of Classicism, the rationalism and pragmatism of the architecture of the time of Peter the Great ensured the ease and naturalness of the transition to Classicism of the second century. half of XVII I century, "almost bypassing the stage of true-European Baroque".

3. Classicism in Russia

Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and measure, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its kind of antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency of the aesthetic experience of the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Such concepts as society and personality, man and nature, elements and consciousness, in classicism become polarized, become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the cardinal worldview and stylistic differences) to the Baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals.

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometrism of a three-dimensional form. The constant appeal of classicist architects to heritage antique architecture meant not only the use of its individual motives and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortresses) the concept of the "ideal city", created its own type of residence (Versailles). In the 2nd floor. 18th century new planning techniques are emerging that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, inseparable bond with nature are inherent in buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism of the 18th - early. 19th centuries

The heyday of Russian classicism belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already at the beginning of the 18th century. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to urban planning experience French classicism 17th century (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plasticity, enrichment and the dynamics of forms inherent in baroque and rococo. The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classical types of the capital's palace-estate and a large comfortable residential building, which became models in wide construction suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), new type chamber palace (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of "regulating" urban plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of 18-19 centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Gaumont, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, "classical Moscow" was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.

4. Some Features of the Critical Period between Baroque and Classicism in Russian Architecture

architectural classicism baroque urban planning

Characteristics of each developed style presents no particular methodological difficulties. Another thing is analysis turning point between two specific styles, contradictory in its essence. How does such a fracture occur? We are not so much interested in the question - what causes it in a general sense, but in clarifying the basic patterns in the change of styles. In search of such regularities, we will consciously allow for some polemical sharpening of the formulations in order to bring out the proposed point of view more sharply. The transition from baroque to classicism was one of the fastest in changing styles of domestic architecture. The end of the 1750s is still the heyday of the Baroque. The middle of the 1760s was already the time of the wide spread of classicism. For an extremely short period of five to seven years, a complete change in aesthetic tastes takes place. Russian baroque architecture of the 18th century. was a historically conditioned, complex and peculiar phenomenon, which absorbed many traditions of Russian architecture of the 17th century, and a number of features of domestic architecture of the immediately preceding period - i.e. early XVIII century, and the influence of contemporary architecture of the main European countries. These very different components, however, formed a strong alloy, which possessed features of unique originality. Both directions did not yet know their future names then, but the essence of stylistic differences, their boundaries are clearly visible in the examples of the best buildings created or designed almost in the same years. The emphatically juicy decorativeness and dynamism of the Baroque forms are opposed by the slightly dry rationalist architecture of early classicism. The most prominent buildings of Russian baroque - Winter Palace B. F. Rastrelli and the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral of S. I. Chevakinskrgo, so typical in their overflowing bravura, were completed by 1762. At the same time, already in 1760, A. F. Kokorinov was designing a Pleasure House near Oranienbaum - a work in which the principles of a new direction in architecture dominate. The plan, silhouette, the entire volume of the structure are very compact, with emphasized dominance. horizontal lines. The details are made in classical forms oh and ratios. In the same year, A.F. Kokorinov, together with Zh.B. M. Wallen Delamotte create the first version of the project of the Great Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg. In this version, which became the basis for the final decision made two years later, the idea of ​​a majestic business building in its simplicity with a measured rhythm of two-story arcades dissected by modest pilasters of the Tuscan order was already laid down. In 1763-1764. projects are being developed for the Academy of Arts (A. F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Vallin Delamotte), Orphanages in Moscow (K. I. Blank) and St. Petersburg (Yu. M. Felten) - the first structures specially designed for educational purposes. Of these, the building of the Academy of Arts is the best work initial period Russian classicism. Being located on a responsible site, with its main facade facing the main waterway of the capital - the Neva River, it contributes to the architectural organization of a significant segment of the embankment. The building plan is based on a well-thought-out functional training process for artists: the main working areas are located along the outer perimeter of the building and around a huge circular courtyard, which provides them with good lighting. The surface of the walls is abundantly dissected, but the articulations with clearly defined order proportions are mainly planar in nature. A period of decline, gradual degradation did not precede the change in style. On the contrary, just at the moment of its highest flowering, the baroque turned out to be untenable for solving new problems, and buildings in the classicist style immediately appeared with surprising speed. Such speed in changing styles is not typical. It is, as already mentioned, a distinctive feature of this very turning point - from baroque to classicism - and was caused by a general situation when artificially slowed down historical development began to make up for lost time. The concept of baroque as an integral style ceased not only to dominate architecture, but in general to have any significant influence on its further development. Separate features of the old system, although they appeared for some time in certain elements of the structures of early classicism, were only remnants that were gradually obsolete. Only in the provinces did Baroque forms continue to exist by inertia almost until late XVIII V. The historical prerequisites for a change in style include material and ideological factors. As the most important, it should be noted the significant increase in the military and political power of Russia, accompanied by the rapid growth of its economic potential.

No less important prerequisites for a change in style were the ideas of enlightenment, humanism, the ideals of the natural man, characteristic of all progressive thinking of the 18th century. The call to reason as the main criterion and measure of all achievements was heard louder and louder. The ideas of rationalism have been widely developed since the second half of the century.

In architecture, all these factors led to major changes. The economic prosperity of the country caused a rapid growth in construction in all areas. Changes in the ideological order required a significant expansion of architectural themes, a different figurative content. Never-before-seen themes and tasks arose continuously.

Meanwhile, Baroque architecture was distinguished by thematic narrowness. The sphere of architecture as an art was limited mainly to palace and religious construction. If it was necessary to create structures for a different purpose, then they were developed in the same, close to the palace, ceremonial, highly solemn forms, an example of which is the project of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg, proposed by F. B. Rastrelli in 1757.

The development of baroque forms along the path of their further complication could continue for quite a long time, but the very range of application of such forms could not be expanded in any way. The possibilities of style came into conflict with reality. This determined his fate.

By the middle of the 18th century, there was a need to create various types of new public buildings or such buildings that had no artistic significance during the Baroque period - for example, industrial, warehouse, commercial buildings. New tasks also arose in housing construction. Finally, the city as a whole as a social unit received a significantly different characteristic than before and, in this regard, required a different planning and volumetric solution.

All this growth of demands took place on the scale of a gigantic country.

Traditional creative methods could not cope with such tasks. But this kind, although simpler, tasks already arose before architects at the beginning of the 18th century. The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by clear and practicable decisions based on clear rationalistic principles. The traditions of rationalism appeared in Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, of course, not for the first time. These traditions have lived for a long time, but there were epochs that were especially favorable for their development, and such times when rationalism existed latently in architecture as a residual phenomenon of the previous period. Russian baroque of the second quarter of the 18th century. also did not escape the influence of the Petrine architecture that preceded it, and the rationalism of the latter entered some separate elements into the stylistic features of a direction that was opposite to it in essence.

Even in the work of the leading baroque master Rastrelli, elements of rationalism can be seen. So, for example, the fantastically rich and complex in form decoration of the palace buildings of this architect does not violate the simplicity and clarity of plans.

In the works of D. V. Ukhtomsky and S. I. Chevakinsky, rationalistic tendencies are even more noticeable. It is worth remembering Ukhtomsky's project for the Invalid Home in Moscow, or the belfry of St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in St. Petersburg, whose clear clarity of architecture is so different from the ebullient gaiety of the cathedral itself that some scholars did not even want to recognize it as the work of Chevakinsky. Both architects were students of I.K. Korobov, whose activities partially coincided with the Baroque period. However, among the masters of this time, Korobov, one of the glorious pensioners of Peter the Great, retained the most rationalistic orientation of his work. It was through Korobov that the traditions of rationalism were continued in the works of his numerous students and in the work of the youngest of them, A.F. Kokorinov, they were revived in a different artistic quality, rethought in the spirit of the tasks of the new architectural direction.

Rationalism as a striving for clarity, comprehensibility, logicality of the architectural image - everything as a whole and its individual components - became the main factor in the formation of a new style. Its principles demanded a particularly harmonious, logically coherent artistic concept. Such a concept had already been created earlier in the classical schools of architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. The architects began to carefully study the heritage of antiquity (in its Roman interpretation, the only one available at that time) and the Renaissance. Close attention to the classics became, as it were, a secondary factor in the formation of the architecture of early Russian classicism.

Naturally, in the Russian conditions of those years, the study of the classical traditions of shaping could only take place through acquaintance with the theoretical works of Vitruvius, Andrea Palladio, Vignola, and with uvrazh, in which measured drawings or sketches of architectural monuments were placed. The insufficiency of this method of acquaintance was realized very soon. It is characteristic that if the young B. F. Rastrelli at one time traveled abroad no further than Germany, where he only got acquainted with the experience of contemporary German architecture, then already in the first half of the 1750s the idea arises of sending the promising gezel Kokorinov to Italy for the study of the architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. Since 1760, the newly founded Academy of Arts began to regularly send its best pupils abroad, and charged them with the duty of familiarizing themselves with the monuments of architectural classics.

Finally, another factor influencing the formation of a new style in Russia was the connection of Russian architecture with the contemporary architecture of other countries, among which France was at that time the leading country in all areas of ideology.

For Russian architecture, connections with French architecture became very significant as early as the first quarter of the 18th century, when J.-BA Leblon, invited to Russia, created here not only one of the fundamental planning projects for St. determined the physiognomy of the young Russian capital.

The tendencies of rationalism, characteristic of that branch of French architecture, of which Leblon was a representative, coincided with the main direction of Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century. The change in the orientation of architecture in the post-Petrine period also led to a change in the nature of ties with French architecture. Rococo tricks began to enjoy the success, which in France itself by that time had suffered a serious defeat. Competition for the design of the main facade of the Church of St. Sulpicia in Paris heralded a turn in the development of architectural ideas. It was at this competition that the principles of Rococo decorativeism, brought by J. O. Meissonier to the highest degree of sophistication, were rejected, and preference was given to the strict and classically clear composition of J. N. Servandoni, which was then, basically, implemented in 1733-- 1745

The development of social life in the 1750s led Russian architecture to focus on the advanced achievements of French architects. An important milestone in the victory of classicism in France was the competition for the creation of Place Louis XV in Paris. As a result of several consecutive rounds of the competition (late 1740s - early 1750s), the project of J.A. Gabriel won, which marked the approval of new views on urban planning principles. For the first time in world history, the city square was decided in relation to and connection with the entire space of the city.

The success of J.-J. Soufflet at the St. Genevieve in Paris and Gabriel's construction of the intimate palace mansion Petit Trianon in Versailles already meant the final victory of the new trend in French architecture.

In Russia, the works of architectural theorists M. A. Laugier, J. F. Blondel, and others were studied with interest and attention. Blondel's idea was too obvious French national flavor and was still far from the consistent implementation of classical forms, which, among other reasons, played a role in the rejection of the project. But this was already an accident in the general course of history. From the end of the 1750s, it was the advanced French architecture that became closest to Russian architecture in terms of goals and aspirations.

Using the example of the transition from baroque to classicism, one can try to deduce some general patterns in the change in architectural styles.

The newly emerging style meets new requirements, and in this sense its path is always original and unexplored. The more innovative this neophyte is, the broader must be the traditions on which he relies. But at the same time, the emerging direction relates with quite understandable antagonism to the methods of its predecessor, which at a certain moment revealed their inconsistency. Therefore, each new style seeks support in the traditions of art not of the immediately preceding period, but of a more distant past, and above all in the traditions of the “grandfathers”. After all, the previous style also denied the direction that existed before it, which is why every time the "grandfather" traditions become the main source of borrowing.

Indeed, the Russian baroque architecture of the second third of the 18th century is much closer in spirit to the buildings of Rus' at the end of the 17th century than to the architecture of the era of Peter I.

For the same reason, the desire for enlightenment, utilitarianism and all-encompassing rationalism, characteristic of Petrine architecture, found its independent continuation in the architecture of classicism. Such an original building for a complex of scientific institutions as the Kunstkamera, conceived under Peter I, did not receive any further development as a new type of building, not even repetitions, at least simplified ones. Meanwhile, the architecture of classicism began precisely with the creation of a structure of this kind: the building of the Academy of Arts combined the highest art center, a museum, an educational institution of the “three most noble” arts with a boarding school and even a theater attached to it, artists’ workshops and residential apartments for teaching staff.

The Petrine era did not pay much close attention palace buildings, but attached great importance to utilitarian construction, raising it to the level of real architecture. The Admiralty in St. Petersburg was decided not just as an industrial enterprise combined with a defensive structure, but as a monument to the naval power of Russia. The building was very low and the material - half-timbered - was not at all monumental, but the very idea of ​​​​a wide, 400 meters spread structure, marked in the center by a tower with a spire, was the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bgreat architecture.

One of the great masters of the Russian Baroque, S. I. Chevakinsky, in his position as an architect of the Admiralty Colleges, designed and built many utilitarian structures for the domestic fleet. But among these works of his there are no buildings similar to the Admiralty, significant in their architectural design. Having built the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, Chevakinsky created a joyful, jubilant hymn by means of architecture. Nevertheless, in utilitarian buildings, the era did not require anything from him but strength and usefulness.

It is characteristic that in the early 1760s, having started the project of a timber warehouse building on the island of New Holland in St. Petersburg, Chevakinsky developed a new technology for storing timber, and also created a construction plan, but did not cope with the figurative solution of the facades, and this part of the work was entrusted to the architect of the new direction - Wallen Delamotte.

Rationalism, which forms the basis of the concept of classicism, also found an echo in the traditions of architecture of the early 18th century, although, as noted earlier, Russian baroque architecture itself to some extent used these traditions.

Here I would like to emphasize that the most important traditions never die. They develop in an upward spiral. With each subsequent turn, part of the movement, relatively speaking, passes in the shadow. The prevailing style at that time only tolerates such a "shadowed" tradition, and often uses it even in the opposite sense.

Conclusion

Each newly emerging direction is characterized by an antagonistic attitude towards its predecessor. Moreover, one can apparently argue that the birth of a new style is accompanied by an obligatory rejection of the directly close traditions of the past. On the other hand, the new style is widely based on deeper traditions, in the creative understanding of which the basis for its further development is laid. What is the difference between baroque and classicism

In the art and architecture of the 18th century, two fundamental styles prevailed - baroque and classicism. It is no coincidence that they coexisted side by side for a long time, in the same era. It is impossible not to note their close relationship, although there are also a lot of characteristic features inherent only in a particular direction. What is the difference between baroque and classicism, and how, when looking at a painting or a building, to determine what style they belong to? What is baroque and classicism

Baroque is an artistic style that originated in Italy and was widespread in European art until the middle of the 18th century.

Classicism is an artistic style characteristic of the art of Europe and especially pronounced in the second half of the 18th century.

Comparison of baroque and classicism

IN what is the difference between baroque and classicism?

Baroque and classicism are antagonistic trends, although they also have a lot of common features because they were formed in the same era.

TheDifference.ru determined that the difference between Baroque and Classicism is as follows:

1. Baroque differs by violence and dynamism of forms. Classicism is characterized by harmony and balance of all details.

2. Baroque focuses on luxury, splendor, brilliance, pomposity, richness of decoration. Classicism appreciates restraint and simplicity of lines, the decor is used very carefully.

3. Baroque uses spatial illusions that distort proportions and give scale. Classicism is based on the harmony of proportions, originating in the ancient tradition.

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Empire and Baroque

Empire and baroque seem to be completely different styles, but they have something in common - emphasized theatricality, decorativeness. Baroque arose in the 16th century under the influence of the reformist movement, the weakening of the influence catholic church, strengthening secular power.

Baroque reflects the desire for wealth and luxury and their outward expression. The birthplace of the style was Italy, where the baroque appeared as a result of the development of the Renaissance. From Italy, the style spread throughout Europe, where it dominated until the 18th century. In some baroque countries, in force different reasons developed at a slow pace: for example, in Germany and Austria, due to the Thirty Years' War, large-scale construction was practically not carried out, and the style began to appear in architecture only in the second half of the 17th century.

If the ideal of the Renaissance was a harmoniously perfect person, a person for whom there are no contradictions between the personal and the public, then the man of the 17th century is characterized by an endless clash of these principles; if the hero of works of art of the Renaissance was characterized by unity with the outside world, nature, then the hero of the New Age is aware of his dependence on the environment and external circumstances. The drama of reality, the collapse of the ideal of the Renaissance led to new forms of perception of the world. The optimistic realism of the Renaissance is replaced by a sense of the unstable position of a person, which is characterized by one or another internal conflict: a clash of individual rights and public duty, a rebellion against blind obedience to the authorities of secular or church authorities, awareness of the inconsistency of being. It is more and more difficult for a person to find his place in the new relations of society, which needs less and less the all-round man of the Renaissance and more and more - a person-function. This tragic collision finds expression in two directions of thought, in two ways of relating to the world, and, finally, in two artistic styles. - baroque and classicism.

The origin of the term "baroque" is unclear, only the translation from Italian is known: strange, pretentious. It can be assumed, that baroque represents not only an artistic style (baroque is often considered only an art direction), but also special image relationship with the world and with the world. It is associated with the crisis of the ideals of humanism, the socio-political upheavals characteristic of the 17th century. The mentality of a baroque person is characterized by a feeling of confusion and confusion, a sense of the contradictory nature of the world, the impermanence of happiness, the omnipotence of fate and chance. The optimistic ideal of the Renaissance “is replaced by a pessimistic assessment of reality, and an enthusiastic admiration for a person and his capabilities - by emphasizing his duality, inconsistency, and depravity”; “the discrepancy between the appearance of things and their essence is constantly comprehended, the fragmentation of being is felt, the clash between the bodily and spiritual principles, between attachment to the sensual beauty of the world and awareness of the frailty of earthly existence” .

The emergence of the Baroque is most often associated with the Counter-Reformation. The fact is that after the turbulent events of the past, fierce religious wars, Europe was devastated and destroyed. In the midst of war-torn Europe, only Rome escaped religious storms and upheavals. It remained the stronghold of the Catholic Church, although pressed in its influence, but still very strong, especially after the Council of Trent, so it is here that the desire to affirm the triumph of the official church arises. According to the modern French theorist E. Mal, the main ideas of the church of that time were: martyrdom, vision, ecstasy, death. These religious themes in the minds of people were connected with the meaning and good purpose of a righteous existence. They could not exist only on a rational basis, they certainly had to be mixed with a strong emotion that impresses the believer and has a strong effect on any other person. In this powerful emotional charge, not only the mystical state of communion with the religious sacrament was to be imprinted, but also the triumphant feeling of the church's victory over its reformers. Therefore, the baroque appears initially in religious art, primarily in architecture. Both the Romanesque style and the Gothic had quite definite and elevated to the level of regularity rules for the creation of structures. The lines of these buildings were clear and defined. Baroque is “a riot of curved, intersecting, iridescent stone masses that have lost their “stoneness” and seem to have acquired the properties of a viscous plastic material” . Gradually, the baroque moved from architecture to sculpture, painting and other forms of spiritual life.

The question may arise: how was such a rapid and dynamic (initially only artistic) style connected with the crisis of the spirit, like baroque, as it is within the framework of church art was able to compensate for the spiritual turmoil and feeling of confusion that we just talked about? It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation could not overcome religious differences - the reformers just demanded high morality in religious feelings. The Church in this case fought for power - earthly and spiritual. She needed apologists, spokesmen and just parishioners. It was supposed to reign over the inner world of a person who had already tasted the dangers of rationalism, to determine the scope of sin and piety, as well as the fate of all categories of the population - from the townsfolk to kings. It was possible to attract into one's bosom by opposing the harsh life of a Protestant with the bright entertainment of Catholicism. Therefore, in “baroque art, even when it directly served the church, there is not very much of what is called piety, despite the fact that miracles, visions, mystical ecstasies are constantly depicted. In these ecstasies, sensuality, “carnality” and even outright erotica come through too clearly” [ibid., p. 97].

One of the most famous baroque theorists Emmanuele Tesauro(1592-1675) named as the main principle of "baroque thinking" - "the principle of quick reason". The quick mind lives by laws that are different from the laws of thinking, it is full of fantasies, metaphors, combining the important and the casual, the serious and the funny, the funny and the sad. It intertwines nature and man, the divine and created by human genius. Geniuses with a quick mind, “out of the non-existent give rise to the existing. Wit out of the immaterial creates the existent, and now the lion becomes a man, the eagle a city. It merges a woman with the appearance of a fish and creates a siren as a symbol of caress, connects the body of a goat with a snake and forms a chimera - a hieroglyph denoting madness. In such a system of thinking, the boundaries of the most diverse phenomena gradually disappear, and a certain disregard for expediency, for what is called "common sense" appears in art.

These features of the Baroque were reflected in their entirety in the work of Caravaggio, Bernini in Italy, Velazquez in Spain, Van Dyck and Rubens in Flanders.

Creation Paul Rubens(1577-1640) especially clearly demonstrates the penetration of baroque into secular life, its liberation from religious themes and its existence as a special mentality in the context of the culture of the 17th century. Perpetual motion, tension, the struggle of people with animals, often fantastic, excitement and the triumph of life reign in his paintings. He “made me admire natural health and natural strength. And all this he successfully fused with the requirements of magnificent decor, pomp, praising the monarchs ... ". In the works of artists of this time, “the religious spirit imperceptibly slipped away” from art. “Those were the times of opera, cantata and oratorio, but also of theatrical ceremonies, grandiloquent odes, ornate speeches, long titles, long wigs, allegories and hyperbole in poetry, ponderous intricate wit, emblems and metaphors” [ibid, p. 97].

In literature, this is expressed in the desire to liberate the imagination, to amaze and stun the reader, in a predilection for unexpected images bringing together concepts, comparing objects that are far from each other. Here the most diverse forms of life are intertwined, the principle is realized - from the great to the ridiculous one step, because in the baroque they exist together, like other opposites: beautiful and ugly (for example, in sonnets dedicated to beautiful ladies, with equal admiration can be described both their lovely hair and insects crawling on them), enthusiasm and rudeness, and so on. At one pole of baroque art is the image of a rebel, free and unrestrained, not fitting into the usual boundaries of behavior, such as, for example, Don Giovanni, trampling fidelity in love, loving every time like the first time, mercilessly killing rivals, or lyrical hero works Cyrano de Bergerac(1619-1655). On the other - a puritan rebel, ascetic and strict, like the hero of the poem "Paradise Lost" by the great English poet John Milton(1608-1674). For the baroque and its theorists, wit is obligatory as the ability to bring concepts together (which was considered one of the manifestations of the mind), and the main qualities of such an ability are Versatility and Foresight. Tesauro believes that clairvoyance penetrates “... into substance, matter, form, chance, quality, cause, effect, purpose, sympathy, like, opposite, same, higher, lower, as well as emblems, proper names and pseudonyms.” Versatility, however, quickly embraces all these beings and their relationships, it “connects and separates them, increases or reduces them, removes one from the other, and with amazing dexterity puts one in the place of the other.”

Baroque as a lifestyle was more typical for court, aristocratic circles, but the common people were also characterized by some manifestations of this style, expressed in comic, parodic or ascetically correct forms of behavior close to Protestant ethics.

Classicism developed and most clearly expressed in the conditions of absolute monarchy in France. This does not mean that it did not take place in other countries. Classicism, like baroque, was immanent in all culture XVII century. If the baroque, with its richness and variety of sensations, gravitates toward sensationalism as a way of sensory knowledge of the world, then classicism requires rationalistic clarity, an ordered method of dividing the whole into parts and sequentially considering each of them. This requires inner harmony, a sense of proportion and peace of mind. The mentality of a person expressing a classicist orientation is characterized by the desire for unification around the monarch, orderliness. Remembrance of the Religious Wars previous century and the desire for stability forced him to accept the strict hierarchy of absolutism, the strict regulation of royal power.

Classicists in art are characterized by the creation monumental works, the image of active heroes, full of vital energy and capable - thanks to the ability to subdue the passions that overwhelm them - rise to the resolution of complex, tragic conflicts. Therefore, the theater gravitates towards tragedies based on historical plots, in which the clash of duty and feeling always ends in the victory of duty. The great French playwrights worked in this direction - Corneille(1606-1684) and Racine(1639-1699). But there was also a comedy of classicism, exposing the contradictions of the surrounding world, as evidenced by the work that has not lost its relevance until now. Molière(1622-1673).

The theory of classicism is characterized by the cult of reason, which connects this style with philosophical rationalism. Reason in classicism is the source and measure of beauty; for a consistent classicist, the value artwork is largely determined by the degree of its logical harmony and clarity, the orderliness of its composition. This explains the tendency of the classicists to depict as heroes people who are capable of thinking soberly, reasoning and subordinating their actions to the dictates of reason even in moments of the most difficult and stormy experiences. The same desire for ordering dictated to different types of art, depending on their specificity, certain rules according to which these works should be created. These rules concerned not only the theme or plot of the work, but also streamlined it. internal structure. For example, in dramaturgy there were the famous “three unities”: the unity of place, the unity of time, and the unity of action. The unity of the place meant that all events took place in only one place, one scenery on the stage; the unity of time demanded that the action begin and end within one day; unity of action demanded that central conflict was clearly defined and unique. He most fully outlined the normative side of the art of classicism Nicolas Boileau(1636-1711) in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art", where he demanded that artistic inspiration be subordinated to reason:

You need to think about the idea and only then write.

While it is not clear to you what you want to say,

Do not look in vain for simple and precise words ...

The 17th century presented mankind with high cultural achievements in almost all areas of activity. But we note once again that it was a time of contrasts: the splendor of the court of the “Sun King” Louis XIV opposed the poor, not having not only tomorrow, but also today, the people; to the most magnificent minds of this century - a nobleman who does not know how to read and write and boasts of it. These contrasts give rise to a special drama of time, which prepared both the ideas of the Enlightenment and the subsequent multiplicity in the development of the culture of modern times.

In the era of classicism that followed the baroque, the role of counterpoint decreased (although the development of the art of counterpoint did not stop) and the homophonic structure of musical works came to the fore. There is less ornamentation in music. Works began to lean towards a clearer structure, especially those written in sonata form. Modulations (change of key) have become a structuring element; the works began to be listened to as a journey full of drama through the sequence of keys, a series of departures and arrivals to the tonic. Modulations were also present in baroque music, but did not carry a structuring function. In the works of the classical era, many emotions were often revealed within one part of the work, while in baroque music one part carried one, clearly drawn feeling. And finally in classical works usually an emotional climax was reached, which was resolved by the end of the piece. In baroque works, after reaching this culmination, until the very last note, there was a slight feeling of the main emotion. The multitude of baroque forms served as a starting point for the development of sonata form, developing many variants of the basic cadences.

Genres Baroque

Baroque composers worked in various musical genres. Opera, which appeared during the late Renaissance, became one of the main baroque musical forms. One can recall the works of such masters of the genre as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), Handel, Claudio Monteverdi and others. The oratorio genre reached its peak in the works of J. S. Bach and Handel; operas and oratorios often used similar musical forms.

Forms of sacred music such as the mass and motet became less popular, but the cantata form was given attention by many Protestant composers, including Johann Bach. Such virtuoso forms of composition as toccatas and fugues developed. Instrumental sonatas and suites were written both for individual instruments and for chamber orchestras. The genre of the concerto appeared in both of its forms: for one instrument with an orchestra and as a concerto grosso, in which small group solo instruments contrasts with the full ensemble. The splendor and splendor of many royal courts were also added by works in the form of a French overture, with their contrasting fast and slow parts.

Keyboard pieces were quite often written by composers for their own entertainment or as teaching material. Such works are the mature compositions of J. S. Bach, the universally recognized intellectual masterpieces of the Baroque era: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Goldberg Variations and The Art of Fugue.

Baroque music was divided into three periods: Early Baroque Music (1600-1654), Mature Baroque Music (1654-1707) and Late Baroque Music (1707-1760).

Music of the early Baroque

The conditional transition point between the epochs of the Baroque and the Renaissance can be considered the creation by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) of his recitative style and the consistent development Italian opera. The beginning of opera performances in Rome and especially in Venice already meant the recognition and spread of the new genre throughout the country. All this was only part of a larger process that captured all the arts, and especially clearly manifested itself in architecture and painting. Renaissance composers paid attention to the elaboration of each part of a musical work, paying little or no attention to the juxtaposition of these parts. Separately, each part could sound excellent, but the harmonious result of the addition was more a matter of chance than regularity. The appearance of the general bass indicated a significant change in musical thinking - namely, that harmony, which is "the addition of parts into one whole", is as important as the melodic parts (polyphony) in themselves. Harmonic thinking also existed among some composers of the previous era, such as Carlo Gesualdo, but in the Baroque era it became generally accepted. It should be added that the term "harmony" is used here in the sense of "combining sounds into consonances and their regular succession", that is, hierarchical, chordal, tonal harmony. A significant figure in the early baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, opposing the growing ideological, cultural and public influence Protestant, was Giovanni Gabrieli. His works belong to the style of the "High Renaissance" (the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (appointment certain instrument own, specific tasks) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.

Mature baroque music

The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism. Absolutism reached its zenith under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, the court of Louis was a role model. Including the music performed at the court. The increased availability of musical instruments (especially keyboards) gave impetus to the development chamber music. The mature baroque differs from the early baroque in the ubiquity of the new style and in the increased separation of musical forms, especially in opera. In music theory, the mature baroque is defined by composers' focus on harmony and attempts to create coherent systems. musical training. In subsequent years, this led to the appearance of many theoretical works.

An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lulli (1632-1687). Already at the age of 21, he received the title of "court composer instrumental music». creative work Lully was strongly associated with the theater from the very beginning. Following the organization of court chamber music and the composition of "airs de cour", he began to write ballet music. But the main thing in the work of Lully was still writing operas.

Composer and violinist Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) is known for his work on the development of the concerto grosso genre. Corelli was one of the first composers whose works were published and performed throughout Europe.

Music of the late Baroque

The exact line between mature and late Baroque is a matter of debate; it lies somewhere between 1680 and 1720. Much of the complexity of its definition is the fact that in different countries styles changed out of sync; innovations already accepted as the rule in one place were fresh discoveries in another. Italy, thanks to Arcangelo Corelli and his students Francesco Geminiani and Pietro Locatelli, becomes the first country in which the baroque passes from the mature to the late period. An important milestone can be considered the almost absolute dominance of tonality as a structuring principle of composing music. This is especially noticeable in theoretical works Jean Philippe Rameau, who took the place of Lully as the main French composer. The forms discovered by the previous period have reached maturity and great variability; the concerto, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had sharply expressed national characteristics.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) - italian composer, was born in Venice. Vivaldi's fame was brought not by concert performances or connections at court, but by the publication of his works, including his trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concertos. They were published in Amsterdam and widely distributed throughout Europe. It was to these, at that time still developing instrumental genres (baroque sonata and baroque concerto), that Vivaldi made his most significant contribution.

Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. During his lifetime, he composed over 1,000 works in various genres, except for opera. But during his lifetime he did not achieve any significant success. IN last years life and after the death of Bach, his fame as a composer began to decline: his style was considered old-fashioned compared to the burgeoning classicism. He was more known and remembered as a performer, teacher and father of the Bachs Jr., primarily Carl Philipp Emmanuel, whose music was more famous.

Only the performance of the Passion according to Matthew by Mendelssohn, 79 years after the death of J.S. Bach, revived interest in his work. Now J.S. Bach is one of the most popular composers of all time.

The art of the 17th-18th centuries formed two amazing styles - classicism and baroque. These two major pan-European styles existed side by side for two centuries. Despite the obvious differences, they closely interacted with each other. During their development, classicism and baroque found themselves not only in world and Russian architecture, but also in sculpture, literature, interior design and art. Comparison of classicism and baroque, two styles, bright, outrageous and unique, we will consider further.

History of classicism

Classicism in Latin means "exemplary". Memorable destination in European culture arose in the 17th century. It was the era of the strengthening of the monarchy, everything should be perfect and at the same time luxurious, which can be seen in impeccable figures. ancient world.

France became the founder of the classicism style, where the spirit of freedom and perfection of man, both spiritual and physical, flew. Strict, ideal silhouettes in architectural ensembles, antique stories in painting and sculpture, rich but restrained interior decoration. All these are features of classicism.

In Russia, this style was fixed under Catherine II, her desire to Europeanize the country played a key role in the construction of the famous architectural monuments of that time.

Classicism is a classic, the harmony of man and nature, simple and concise in its direction. The style, where certain rules must be observed, very quickly found itself in the palace culture in Germany, Italy, England and Russia.

Baroque history

Baroque means - "dissolute", "prone to excesses". Italy became the founder of this pompous style. End of the 16th century - the Renaissance, the strengthening of Catholic power, bright, bold and majestic, it was supposed to impress. All the distinctive elements of the Baroque were embodied in the Catholic cities of Italy.

However, European countries also took on some attributes and elements of the "dissolute" Italian style. England, France, Russia used the new culture in their architecture and interiors to emphasize their brilliance and uniqueness.

The style, focused on creating the illusion of wealth and luxury of the church, as well as the Italian nobility, was subsequently reflected in all countries of Europe, America and Russia. And he remained an immortal companion of the Catholic Church.

Comparison and classicism

The two styles have been going side by side for centuries. However, they have obvious differences in the history and purpose of creation, in embodiment in art.

Comparison of classicism and baroque

Classicism and Baroque visually

Main features baroque and classicism luxury and discreet wealth. Both styles are reflected in expensive works art and striking architectural structures. Consider the most famous objects of two different styles of the same period of time.

Classicism is, of course, the Place des Revolts and the Pantheon in Paris. Isaac and Kazan Cathedrals in St. Petersburg. Grand Theatre in Warsaw. The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David "Napoleon's Crossing the Alps" perfectly reflects the style of classicism in painting. "Psyche Awakened by Cupid's Kiss" is the most famous statue in classicism. "Apollo and the Nymphs" is an example of the classical style, incredible in its beauty.

Whereas Baroque is known to us from the Smolny Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the Opera House in Odessa and, of course, the Catholic Church in the Vatican. Rubens and Caravaggio are the most recognizable baroque painters. And the Italian reveals to us all the expressiveness of the Baroque in his stunning sculptures.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture

As we can see from the descriptions and comparisons of the two styles, the differences between Baroque and Classicism are obvious. In the latter, this is an appeal primarily to ancient architecture, in the baroque - to the luxury of Catholic churches.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture, comparison on the example of two outstanding monuments

The Basilica del Santa Croce, Italy is a typical example of the Italian Baroque. Distinctive features - lush decor and many statues on the facade. Sculptures, balconies, columns, the complex shape of the building. The center is crowned with a huge round window - already going beyond the standards of typical architecture. Caryatids and Atlantes, bizarre forms - all these are the hallmarks of the Baroque.

Classicism is the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. On his example, we can see the characteristic features in the architecture of this style. Simplicity and conciseness. Monumentality and severity. Clear forms, columns. Small standard windows. Discreet stucco pattern on the façade with typical patterns from the ancient world. A clear geometric shape of the structure. Pleasant discreet uniform color of the entire building.

The architecture of baroque and classicism is very different in comparison. At first glance, you can distinguish them from each other: the pretentiousness of the Baroque is striking, of course, these are complex architectural works. Whereas buildings in the style of classicism have so clear proportions and a strict appearance that they involuntarily make you think about their grandeur and monumentality.

Classicism and Baroque in painting

Coming from the same time period, classicism and baroque, however, have distinctive features in art.

Michelangelo is one of the most famous Italian artists, which set a new style in painting - baroque. These are predominantly religious subjects, vivid images, emotional scenes from life ordinary people. The contrast of colors, light and twilight, many household items, realism of emotions. Followers of this style in art - and Guido Reni.

Classicism is no less picturesque, but is taken as a basis ancient greece. Raphael, Giulio Romano on their canvases depict the ideal physical forms of divine characters. Cold mythical stories fascinate with their conciseness, nothing superfluous, thoughtful composition and space around to the smallest detail actors.

It is possible to single out the main elements in comparing the art trends of classicism and baroque. Firstly, this is the real emotionality of the Baroque, the power of the plot and the colorfulness of the images, and secondly, the restrained beauty of ancient mythology, understandable and concise in its manifestation.

Comparison of classicism and baroque in the interior

Apart from outstanding works art and incredible architectural monuments, baroque and classicism are reflected in the interior of houses and rooms. Next - with alignment of classicism and baroque in the decoration of the premises.

These two styles brought their main features to the interior. First of all, it's expensive. In both cases, it is luxury and wealth. And then you can talk about color solutions. Baroque is always bright, always gold, marble, lacquered surfaces. A bunch of additional items, a complex form of furniture and bizarre patterns of canopies and upholstery of armchairs. Of course, this is the beauty that you want to immerse yourself in, every subject that you want to study. Admiration and pomposity, what kings love so much.

Classicism in this regard plays in contrast with the Baroque. Restrained pastel colors that harmonize with each other. Calm, but no less majestic interior was created, rather, to soothe, not to disturb. Mainly bright hues, clarity of lines, correctness of objects. The functionality of the interior attributes, however, is not devoid of its charm.

Classicism and Baroque in Russia

These two styles came to Russia in the 18th century. Tsarist Russia was in close contact with European states and did not want to be left behind in the opportunity to demonstrate its greatness.

Baroque and embodied, mainly, Rastrelli. It was he who was engaged in the reconstruction and construction of the main buildings of St. Petersburg at that time. Naturally, the styles were Russified, adopting the basic principles of the two directions, traditional Russian architecture was preserved. Smolny Monastery is perhaps the most bright representative baroque in St. Petersburg, while the "highlight" of classicism is, of course, the Kazan Cathedral. At the origins of this style in Russia were the architects V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, I. Starov, churches and houses built according to their designs can be seen in Moscow.

Baroque and classicism in Russian architecture play big role. Both in historical manifestation - the foundation of St. Petersburg, the new Moscow, and in the struggle for equality of Russian classicist writers.

Now it is impossible to imagine our cities without the Hermitage, the Academy of Sciences and the Tauride Palace.

Classicism and Baroque in our time

In the modern world, architects often turn to baroque and classicism, comparing and mixing these styles. The times of kings and emperors have passed, but the love of luxury and grandeur has remained. Now you can already see modern castles in the Baroque style somewhere on Rublyovka or the classicist dacha of another oligarch in the village of Nirvana near St. Petersburg.

At the Trezzini Hotel you can immerse yourself in the luxury of kings, and at the Empire Restaurant you can taste the dishes of modern kings. But this is already today's luxury, although it is still not available to everyone.