What is the difference between the style of classicism and style. Baroque and classicism - the mentality, worldview and style of the 17th century

In previous articles, the words baroque, classicism applicable to the architecture of buildings in the city of Tver .

The Baroque style is characterized by new complex types of architectural forms, the splendor of details, the complexity of curvilinear forms, now they use new effects, elements of pretentiousness and luxury.

This art style originated in Italy, Rome and spread throughout Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. Baroque (quaint, wrong, corrupted) with pomp, was the style of the monarchies, which reached its highest development at the beginning of the 17th century. This first European style Russia borrowed from the West and it took root well on Russian soil.

First Representative baroque in architecture and sculpture, it is customary to consider the great classic of this style, the Italian architect Lorenzo Bernini.

"The Eternal City" Rome owes him the design of the appearance, its design of streets and squares and sculptural compositions still captivate the viewer. The Baroque architect completely abandoned the strict rules and forms of Renaissance architecture.

Now, simple regular shapes, a square, a circle, a cross are being replaced by an oval, other curvilinear shapes, their combination with trapezoid rectangles, etc. In general, many architectural details of the exterior and interior are changing.

Baroque architects widely use the play of light, its contrasts and shadows are used in decorative painting interiors. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes; instead of icons, portraits and landscapes are used in interiors.

Light becomes important component when designing interiors. On the canvases of paintings, the light, as it were, highlights important details especially brightly, the play of light and shadow gives the picture special kind. The great masters Rubens and Rembrandt achieved perfection in the application of these effects.

In Russia, baroque becomes widespread in the 17th century. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, baroque very quickly reaches its peak. One of the masters baroque in Russia, by right, is Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli.

His great creation is the building Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo is a cult representative of the Baroque. He is Italian by origin and has been working in Russia since 1716. For almost half a century, stunning palaces, mansions and various religious buildings have been created in Russia. All Rastrelli's buildings are distinguished by their spatial scope, clarity of volume, and rich sculptural decorations.

All his creations are works of art, as if made from a block of stone by a sculptor. Baroque architectural examples are best preserved to our time. Common features baroque is a desire for movement, architects use all sorts of tricks - painting walls like a landscape, mirrors, gilding, contrast of light and shadow. It is not for nothing that the name of the baroque, from the Portuguese - a pearl of irregular shape.

Classicism in architecture

A new style that originated in the bowels of the baroque - classicism. Classicism (exemplary) - a new artistic style in art, literature of the 17th-18th centuries and architecture.

In the architecture of classicism there is monumentality, geometric forms, clarity of planning, logic, clarity, restraint of color. Classical architecture is the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome. The greatest work of ancient Greek classical architecture is the Athenian Acropolis.

Many rules of classicism originate from the ancient arts. These are appeals to the forms of ancient architecture, as to the standard of harmony, simplicity and rigor of forms. The heyday of classicist architecture in Russia falls on the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. An architectural masterpiece of Russian classicism is the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg.

The architectural image of St. Petersburg and Moscow was created by a galaxy of great masters I.V. Starov, V.V. Bazhenov, . M.F. Kozakov. The architecture of classicism reached an unprecedented rise during the reign of Catherine II.

In 1763, a government decree was issued on the regular planning of provincial and county cities; as a result, 400 cities were rebuilt. Magnificent buildings in Tver in the style of classicism and baroque adorn the modern streets of our city.

I will be glad to your comments.

University of the Russian Academy of Education

Features of Baroque and Classicism.

The main styles in the art of the 17th century.

Completed by: 2nd year student

full-time department

Special culturology

Yakubova K.N.

Lecturer: Mareeva N.S.

Moscow 2010

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...…3

1. Characteristics of the culture of the XVII century………...……………………………...4

2. Baroque as an artistic trend of the 17th century…………………………..5

2.1. Background and features of the Baroque……………………………………….…..5

2.2. Baroque in architecture…………………………………………………....6

2.3. Baroque in Literature………………………………………………..........8

2.4. Baroque in painting and sculpture………………………………………..9

3. Classicism as an artistic trend of the 17th century ……………...……..10

3.1. Prerequisites and features of classicism………………………………….….10

3.2. Classicism in Literature…………………………………………..….....11

3.3. Classicism in architecture and painting…………………………………12

3.4. Classicism in sculpture…………………………………………….….13

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….14

References……………………………………………………………....15

Introduction

Theme of my control work"Classicism and Baroque in European culture XVII in .: ideas and embodiments. This topic was chosen for a number of reasons:

Firstly, baroque and classicism are the two most extensive and influential artistic movements of the era under consideration.

Secondly, these areas are complex and dual in nature, which makes this issue one of the most relevant in cultural knowledge.

Thirdly, baroque and classicism represent an outstanding contribution to the world treasury of art, which causes even greater interest in their knowledge.

The purpose of my work is to explore such areas in art XVII century as classicism and baroque.

To achieve this goal, I need to solve a number of tasks:

· Consider the general patterns of development of European culture of the XVII century;

· Explore the features of baroque and classicism as the main artistic movements of this period.

1. Characteristics of the culture of the 17th century

XVII century - the century of Descartes and Port-Royal, Pascal and Spinoza, Rembrandt and Milton, the century of brave sailors, migrations to overseas countries, bold trade, the heyday of natural science, moralizing literature - and ... the age of the wig, reaching its greatest splendor in the 60s, a wig that was worn by everyone - from king, admiral to merchant.

It is not by chance that the 17th century opens the period of the New Age: it really was the century of a new man, a new science, a new art.

In Europe, the New Age reveals itself in the formation and strengthening of capitalist tendencies, while in England capitalism is most clearly affirmed in reality. At the same time - the period of the first bourgeois revolution, which revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society, and the cruelty of its organizers.

The rationalistic approach to reality stood out and became stronger. leading role the mind begins to play in the world. This was expressed, first of all, in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. The scientific achievements of the 17th century create the prerequisites for the further development of fundamental sciences up to the present and form the foundations of a new philosophical view of the world.

The 17th century is the initial period in the development of the bourgeois mode of production. This is an extremely difficult and controversial era in the life of European states. The era of early bourgeois revolutions and the heyday of absolutist monarchies; time scientific revolution and the final stage of the Counter-Reformation; the era of grandiose, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.

2. Baroque as an artistic movement of the 17th century

2.1. Background and features of the Baroque

Baroque (it. Barosso - strange, bizarre) - one of the main style directions in the art of Europe at the end of the 16th - the middle of the 18th centuries. It originated in Italy and spread to most European countries. Embodying new ideas about the eternal variability of the world, the Baroque gravitates toward spectacular spectacles, strong contrasts, the combination of the illusory and the real, to the fusion of the arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

The Baroque style was predominantly spread in Catholic countries affected by the processes of the Counter-Reformation. Originated in the Reformation Protestant church was very undemanding to the external spectacular side of the cult. Spectacle was turned into the main lure of Catholicism, religious piety itself was sacrificed to it. The baroque style with its gracefulness, sometimes exaggerated expressiveness, pathos, attention to the sensual, bodily beginning, which appeared very clearly even when depicting miracles, visions, religious ecstasies, was the best way to meet the goals of returning the flock to the bosom of the Catholic Church.

But the essence of the Baroque is wider than the tastes of the Catholic Church and the feudal aristocracy, which sought to use the grandiose and blinding effects inherent in the Baroque to glorify the power, splendor and splendor of the state and the habitats of persons close to the throne.

The Baroque style expresses with particular poignancy the crisis of humanism, a sense of the disharmony of life, aimless impulses towards the unknown. In essence, he opens the world in a state of becoming, and the world of the bourgeoisie was then becoming a world. And in this open world, the bourgeois are looking for stability and order. Synonymous with the stability of the place occupied in the world are luxury, wealth for him. It turns out that the Baroque style combines the incompatible: monumentality - with dynamism, theatrical brilliance - with solidity, mysticism, fantasy, irrationality - with sobriety and rationality, truly burgher efficiency.

Center for the development of baroque art at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. was Rome. Park and palace ensembles, religious architecture, decorative painting and sculpture formal portrait, and later still life and landscape, become the main types and genres of Baroque art.

2.2. Baroque in architecture

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of the Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with mannerism and created his own own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to about 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. A significant contribution was made by D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a a new style Late Baroque Sicilian Baroque.

The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresque (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread in Latin America. His most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to French and English variants baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape art, an example of which is the Versailles park.

2.3. Baroque in literature

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude to reality.

Baroque literature is characterized by the desire for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, the desire to study being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life-dream (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Calderon's play "Life is a dream" is well-known. Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery), the real-life and satirical novel (Furetière, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and trends are born: Marinism, Gongorism (Culteranism), Conceptism (Italy, Spain), Metaphysical School and Eufuism (England).

The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court cavaliers and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Poetry flourishes pretentiousness, the use of complex metaphors. Common forms such as sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals.

In the west, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). V. Voiture (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain) became famous in poetry. In Russia, baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich, early M. Lomonosov. In France, "precious literature" flourished during this period. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous.

2.4. Baroque in painting and sculpture

(P.P. Rubens "chained Prometheus") (L. Bernini "Aeneas and Anchises")

So, baroque is one of the main styles in art. Europe XVII century. Synonymous with the stability of the place occupied in the world are luxury, wealth for him. The Baroque style, with its masterpieces, represents an outstanding contribution to the world's art treasury.

3. Classicism as an artistic movement of the 17th century

3.1. Background and features of classicism

Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is a creative direction that formed an artistic worldview that took shape in the era of the formation and strengthening of European monarchies and was based on the norms and samples of ancient art. Classicism also refers to periods and trends in the history of European artistic culture, when the forms of ancient art are an aesthetic standard.

The absolutist states could not but be impressed by the idea of ​​stately order, strict subordination, impressive unity. The state claiming to be “reasonable” strove to be seen in it as a balancing, unifying, heroically exalted principle. In contrast to the baroque, classicism expressed the desire for a reasonable harmonious order of life, and these aspirations were inherent not only to monarchs, but also to the people's consciousness, with its ideals of peace, tranquility, and unity of the country. In addition, the attractive side of classicism was its moral pathos, civic orientation.

The aesthetics of classicism is oriented towards imitation of classical models: the Aristotelian thesis about the imitation of art by nature is decisive for it, it shares the important principle of the ancient theater about three unities - place, time and action. But in fact it is based on the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes. Classicism became widespread in absolutist France, as well as in a number of other countries (Italy, Germany, England).

Classicism of the 17th century was closely associated with the noble culture of the French absolutist state. During this period, a normative aesthetics was formed, requiring that art comply with certain laws and rules. The artistic images of classicism were distinguished by their logic and harmony of expression; they were intelligently organized, logically constructed, and generally devoid of individual features. The establishment of strict rules for creativity is one of the characteristic features of the aesthetics of classicism. Piece of art was understood by the classicists not as a naturally occurring organism, but as an artificial, created, created by human hands according to a plan, with a specific task and purpose.

The most holistic cultural and aesthetic program was formed by french classicism. The rationalism of René Descartes (1596-1650) served as his ideological basis.

3.2. Classicism in literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed French and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. Pierre Corneille wrote the verse comedies Melita, or Forged Letters (1629, published in 1633), The Widow, or the Punished Traitor (1631-1632), etc., the tragicomedy in verse The Cid (1637), the tragedy Horace (1641), "Cinna, or the Mercy of Augustus" (1643), etc. The tragedy of Jean Racine "Andromache" expresses the heroism of opposition to despotic arbitrariness. The tragedy "Phaedra" is different high level psychologism in the description of the personality of the heroine.

The "low" genres - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673) also reached high development. The French writer Jean de Lafontaine is known as the author of fairy tales, comedies, fables, satirically depicting life in absolutist France.

The French playwright Jean-Baptiste Molière developed the genre folk comedy, ridiculing the idleness and prejudices of the nobility. His characters speak ordinary language. In the comedy "The Philistine in the Nobility", a representative of the third estate is depicted in a satirical form, who wanted to be like a nobleman. Molière ridiculed noble idleness, selfishness ("Don Juan"), acquisitiveness ("The Miser"), church hypocrisy ("Tartuffe"). Negative characters other heroes of Moliere are contrasted - resourceful, witty people from the people. The production of his "Don Juan" was condemned by official circles for atheism and freethinking.

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theoretician of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

3.3. Classicism in architecture and painting.

(architectural complex in the vicinity of the city of Potsdam) (Leighton Frederick "Girl")

3.4. Classicism in sculpture

(J.A. Houdon "sculpture of Voltaire")

Conclusion.

At the end of my work, I can draw important conclusions.

The 17th century is an extremely complex and controversial era in the life of European states. Namely during this period - the period of early bourgeois revolutions, the heyday of absolutist monarchies, the scientific revolution, such styles in art as baroque and classicism are born.

Baroque cannot be considered only as an artistic style, it is special image relationship with the world and with the world. It is associated with the crisis of the ideals of humanism, the socio-political upheavals characteristic of the 17th century.

Classicism, like baroque, was immanent in the entire culture of the 17th century. If the baroque, with its richness and variety of sensations, gravitates toward sensationalism as a way sensory knowledge world, then classicism requires rationalistic clarity, an orderly method of dividing the whole into parts and sequential consideration of each of them.

The purpose of my test was to study classicism and baroque as the main styles of the 17th century. To achieve this goal, the first chapter presented general characteristics cultures of this period. In the second and third chapters, I tried to reveal as fully as possible the features of the style trends of baroque and classicism in various areas of art: painting, architecture, literature, sculpture. Summing up, I can say that the goal of the work has been achieved.

So, baroque and classicism are one of the main stylistic trends in the art of Europe in the 17th century. They represent an outstanding contribution to the world's art treasury.

Bibliography

1. Drach G.V. "Culturology: Tutorial for students of higher educational institutions "Rostov-on-Don 1999

2. Kravchenko A. I. "Culturology (Textbook for universities)" M. 2003

3. N.V. Shishova, T.V. Akulich, M.I. Boyko (Under the editorship of N.V. Shishova.) "History and cultural studies" M. 2000

4. "European history of the 17th century" M. 2005

The art of the 17th-18th centuries formed two amazing styles - classicism and baroque. These two major pan-European styles existed side by side for two centuries. Despite the obvious differences, they closely interacted with each other. During their development, classicism and baroque found themselves not only in the world and Russian architecture, but also in sculpture, literature, interior design and art. Comparison of classicism and baroque, two styles, bright, outrageous and unique, we will consider further.

History of classicism

Classicism in Latin means "exemplary". A memorable trend in European culture arose in the 17th century. It was the era of the strengthening of the monarchy, everything should be perfect and at the same time luxurious, which can be seen in impeccable figures. ancient world.

France became the founder of the classicism style, where the spirit of freedom and perfection of man, both spiritual and physical, flew. Strict, ideal silhouettes in architectural ensembles, ancient scenes in painting and sculpture, rich but restrained interior decoration. All these are features of classicism.

In Russia, this style was fixed under Catherine II, her desire to Europeanize the country played a key role in the construction of the famous architectural monuments of that time.

Classicism is a classic, the harmony of man and nature, simple and concise in its direction. The style, where certain rules must be observed, very quickly found itself in the palace culture in Germany, Italy, England and Russia.

Baroque history

Baroque means - "dissolute", "prone to excesses". Italy became the founder of this pompous style. End of the 16th century - the Renaissance, the strengthening of Catholic power, bright, bold and majestic, it was supposed to impress. All the distinctive elements of the Baroque were embodied in the Catholic cities of Italy.

However, European countries also took on some attributes and elements of the "dissolute" Italian style. England, France, Russia used the new culture in their architecture and interiors to emphasize their brilliance and uniqueness.

The style, focused on creating the illusion of wealth and luxury of the church, as well as the Italian nobility, was subsequently reflected in all countries of Europe, America and Russia. And he remained an immortal companion of the Catholic Church.

Comparison and classicism

The two styles have been going side by side for centuries. However, they have obvious differences in the history and purpose of creation, in embodiment in art.

Comparison of classicism and baroque

Classicism and Baroque visually

Main features baroque and classicism luxury and discreet wealth. Both styles are reflected in expensive works of art and bright colors. architectural structures. Consider the most famous objects of two different styles of the same period of time.

Classicism is, of course, the Place des Revolts and the Pantheon in Paris. Isaac and Kazan Cathedrals in St. Petersburg. Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw. famous painting Jacques-Louis David "Napoleon's Crossing the Alps" - perfectly reflects the style of classicism in painting. "Psyche Awakened by Cupid's Kiss" is the most famous statue in classicism. "Apollo and the Nymphs" is an example of the classical style, incredible in its beauty.

Whereas Baroque is known to us from the Smolny Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the Opera House in Odessa and, of course, the Catholic Church in the Vatican. Rubens and Caravaggio are the most recognizable baroque painters. And the Italian reveals to us all the expressiveness of the Baroque in his stunning sculptures.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture

As we can see from the descriptions and comparisons of the two styles, the differences between Baroque and Classicism are obvious. In the latter, this is an appeal primarily to ancient architecture, in the baroque - to the luxury of Catholic churches.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture, comparison on the example of two outstanding monuments

The Basilica del Santa Croce, Italy is a typical example of the Italian Baroque. Distinctive features- magnificent decor and many statues on the facade. Sculptures, balconies, columns, complex shape building. The center is crowned with a huge round window - already going beyond the standards of typical architecture. Caryatids and Atlantes, bizarre forms - all these are the hallmarks of the Baroque.

Classicism is the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. In his example, we can see character traits in this style of architecture. Simplicity and conciseness. Monumentality and severity. Clear forms, columns. Small standard windows. Discreet stucco pattern on the façade with typical patterns from the ancient world. A clear geometric shape of the structure. Pleasant discreet uniform color of the entire building.

The architecture of baroque and classicism is very different in comparison. At first glance, you can distinguish them from each other: the pretentiousness of the Baroque is striking, of course, these are complex architectural works. Whereas buildings in the style of classicism have so clear proportions and a strict appearance that they involuntarily make you think about their grandeur and monumentality.

Classicism and Baroque in painting

Coming from the same time period, classicism and baroque, however, have distinctive features in art.

Michelangelo is one of the most famous Italian artists who set a new style in painting - baroque. These are predominantly religious subjects, vivid images, emotional scenes from life ordinary people. The contrast of colors, light and twilight, many household items, realism of emotions. Followers of this style in art - and Guido Reni.

Classicism is no less picturesque, but ancient Greece is taken as the basis. Raphael, Giulio Romano on their canvases depict the ideal physical forms of divine characters. Cold mythical stories fascinate with their conciseness, nothing superfluous, thoughtful composition and space around to the smallest detail actors.

It is possible to single out the main elements in comparing the art trends of classicism and baroque. Firstly, this is the real emotionality of the Baroque, the power of the plot and the colorfulness of the images, and secondly, the restrained beauty of ancient mythology, understandable and concise in its manifestation.

Comparison of classicism and baroque in the interior

Apart from outstanding works art and incredible monuments of architecture, baroque and classicism are reflected in the interior of houses and rooms. Next - with alignment of classicism and baroque in the decoration of the premises.

These two styles brought their main features to the interior. First of all, it's expensive. In both cases, it is luxury and wealth. And then we can talk about colors. Baroque is always bright, always gold, marble, lacquered surfaces. Lots of additional items, complex shapes of furniture and intricate patterns of canopies and chair upholstery. Of course, this is the beauty that you want to immerse yourself in, every subject that you want to study. Admiration and pomposity, what kings love so much.

Classicism in this regard plays in contrast with the Baroque. Restrained pastel colors that harmonize with each other. Calm, but no less majestic interior was created, rather, to soothe, not to disturb. Mainly bright hues, clarity of lines, correctness of objects. The functionality of the interior attributes, however, is not devoid of its charm.

Classicism and Baroque in Russia

These two styles came to Russia in the 18th century. Royal Russia was in close contact with European states and did not want to be left behind in the opportunity to demonstrate its greatness.

Baroque and embodied, mainly, Rastrelli. It was he who was engaged in the reconstruction and construction of the main buildings of St. Petersburg at that time. Naturally, the styles were Russified, adopting the basic principles of the two directions, traditional Russian architecture was preserved. Smolny Monastery is perhaps the most bright representative baroque in St. Petersburg, while the "highlight" of classicism is, of course, the Kazan Cathedral. At the origins of this style in Russia were the architects V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, I. Starov, churches and houses built according to their designs can be seen in Moscow.

Baroque and classicism play an important role in Russian architecture. Both in historical manifestation - the foundation of St. Petersburg, the new Moscow, and in the struggle for equality of Russian classicist writers.

Now it is impossible to imagine our cities without the Hermitage, the Academy of Sciences and the Tauride Palace.

Classicism and Baroque in our time

In the modern world, architects often turn to baroque and classicism, comparing and mixing these styles. The times of kings and emperors have passed, but the love of luxury and grandeur has remained. Now you can already see modern castles in the Baroque style somewhere on Rublyovka or the classicist dacha of another oligarch in the village of Nirvana near St. Petersburg.

At the Trezzini Hotel you can immerse yourself in the luxury of kings, and at the Empire Restaurant you can taste the dishes of modern kings. But this is already today's luxury, although it is still not available to everyone.

Classicism (from lat. сlassicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and direction in the art of Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to. The culture of the ancient world served as such an example. The rules, the canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

History of occurrence

As a direction, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

Classicism, whose main goal is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

1. early classicism(1760s - early 1780s);
2. Strict classicism(1780s - 1790s);
3. late classicism, called (the first 30 years XIX century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a prime example classicism.

Style features

Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high-quality materials, noble finishes and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinguishing features of classicism. later displayed in interiors in the style of minimalism.

General style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

A feature of the Russian classic style was calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time diverse decoration, adjusted proportions, decent appearance, harmony and taste.

Exterior

External signs of classicist architecture are pronounced, they can be identified at first glance at the building.

• Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
• Forms: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
• Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, flowing pattern.
• Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
• Roof: complex, intricate shape.
• Dominant colors: saturated white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
• Characteristic elements: discreet decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble stairs, balconies.
• Window: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upwards, modestly decorated.
• Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
• Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior

In the interior of the premises of the era of classicism there is nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum pieces, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has correct form, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly precious woods, marble, stone, silk.

• Ceilings: light high, often multi-level, with stucco, ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light, but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, kamshi, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with plafonds in the form of candles.
• Mandatory attributes of the interior: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low chairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive floor vases stylized as antiquity, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture of the Classicism era is distinguished by good quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly of valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carving, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. Dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. Dishes - porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern, gilding. One of the most important attributes of furniture was considered a secretary with a cubic body on high legs.

Architecture

Classicism turned to the foundations of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in construction. The basis architectural language- an order with its strict symmetry, the proportionality of the created composition, the regularity of the layout and the clarity of the volumetric form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces, garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the form of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accentuated stairs, classic antique decor, domes in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire) acquires military symbols ("Arc de Triomphe" in France). In Russia, the canon architectural style classicism can be called St. Petersburg, in Europe it is Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for sculptors was the image model famous figures in the form of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among private individuals to commission tombstones from sculptors to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the XVIII century. This was especially evident in women's suit. In Europe, a new ideal of beauty has emerged, celebrating natural forms and beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics of light colors, especially white, came into fashion.

Women's dresses lost their frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, draped tunics, cut at the sides and intercepted by a belt under the bust. They wore skin-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as shoes. Hairstyles have been copied from antiquity. Powder still remains in fashion, with which the face, hands, and décolleté were covered.

Among the accessories, either kisei turbans decorated with feathers, or Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls were used.

From the beginning of the 19th century, ceremonial dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. Gradually, the hairstyle changes, and the powder goes out of use. Short-cropped hair, twisted into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers, comes into fashion.

Men's fashion evolved under the influence of the British. The English cloth tailcoat, redingote (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabot and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and rigor. The main elements of the form are line and chiaroscuro. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures, separates spatial plan paintings. The greatest master of the XVII century. – Lorrain Claude, famous for his “perfect landscapes”. Civic pathos and lyricism united in " decorative landscapes» French painter Jacques Louis David (XVIII century). Among Russian artists, one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.

Literature

The literature of the era of classicism promoted the mind that conquered the senses. The conflict between duty and passion is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Language reforms were carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction - Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. Main compositional principle works are a unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism is developing under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The brightest representative of the literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this vein.

The “golden age” is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just play, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of recitation.

Personalities

Among the brightest classicists, one can also distinguish such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Chemnitzer (literature).

Video review of classicism

Conclusion

The ideas of the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It preserves nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, natural wood furniture. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style even now characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later still appears, which heralded the arrival new era- This . was the combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

architectural classicism baroque urban planning

Characteristics of each developed style presents no particular methodological difficulties. Another thing is the analysis of the turning point between two specific styles, which is contradictory in its essence. How does such a fracture occur? We are not so much interested in the question as in general sense it is due to the clarification of the main patterns in the change of styles. In search of such regularities, we will consciously allow for some polemical sharpening of the formulations in order to bring out the proposed point of view more sharply. The transition from baroque to classicism was one of the fastest in changing styles of domestic architecture. The end of the 1750s is still the heyday of the Baroque. The middle of the 1760s was already the time of the wide spread of classicism. For an extremely short period of five to seven years, a complete change in aesthetic tastes takes place. Russian architecture baroque XVIII V. was a historically determined, complex and peculiar phenomenon, which absorbed many traditions of Russian architecture XVII century, and a number of features of domestic architecture of the immediately preceding period - that is, the beginning of the 18th century, and the influence of contemporary architecture of the main European countries. These very different components, however, formed a strong alloy, which possessed features of unique originality. Both directions did not yet know their future names then, but the essence of stylistic differences, their boundaries are clearly visible in the examples of the best buildings created or designed almost in the same years. The emphatically juicy decorativeness and dynamism of the Baroque forms are opposed by the slightly dry rationalist architecture of early classicism. The most prominent buildings of the Russian baroque - the Winter Palace of B. F. Rastrelli and the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral of S. I. Chevakinskrgo, so typical in their overflowing bravura, were completed by 1762. At the same time, already in 1760 A. F. Kokorinov designs the Pleasure House near Oranienbaum - a work in which the principles of a new direction in architecture dominate. The plan, the silhouette, the entire volume of the building are very compact, with the dominance of horizontal lines emphasized. The details are made in classical forms oh and ratios. In the same year, A.F. Kokorinov, together with Zh.B. M. Wallen Delamotte create the first draft of the Bolshoi Gostiny Dvor In Petersburg. In this version, which became the basis for the final decision made two years later, the idea of ​​a majestic business building in its simplicity with a measured rhythm of two-story arcades dissected by modest pilasters of the Tuscan order was already laid down. In 1763-1764. projects are being developed for the Academy of Arts (A. F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Vallin Delamotte), Orphanages in Moscow (K. I. Blank) and St. Petersburg (Yu. M. Felten) - the first structures specially designed for educational purposes. Of these, the building of the Academy of Arts is the best work initial period Russian classicism. Being located on a responsible site, with its main facade facing the main waterway of the capital - the Neva River, it contributes to the architectural organization of a significant segment of the embankment. The building plan is based on a well-thought-out functional training process for artists: the main working areas are located along the outer perimeter of the building and around a huge circular courtyard, which provides them with good lighting. The surface of the walls is abundantly dissected, but the articulations with clearly defined order proportions are mainly planar in nature. A period of decline, gradual degradation did not precede the change in style. On the contrary, just at the moment of its highest flowering, the baroque turned out to be untenable for solving new problems, and buildings in the classicist style immediately appeared with surprising speed. Such speed in changing styles is not typical. It is, as already mentioned, a distinctive feature of this very turning point - from baroque to classicism - and was caused by a general situation when artificially slowed down historical development began to make up for lost time. The concept of baroque as an integral style ceased not only to dominate architecture, but in general to have any significant influence on its further development. Separate features of the old system, although they appeared for some time in certain elements of the structures of early classicism, were only remnants that were gradually obsolete. Only in the provinces did Baroque forms continue to exist by inertia almost until late XVIII V. The historical prerequisites for a change in style include material and ideological factors. As the most important, it should be noted the significant increase in the military and political power of Russia, accompanied by the rapid growth of its economic potential.

No less important prerequisites for a change in style were the ideas of enlightenment, humanism, the ideals of the natural man, characteristic of all progressive thinking of the 18th century. The call to reason as the main criterion and measure of all achievements was heard louder and louder. The ideas of rationalism have been widely developed since the second half of the century.

In architecture, all these factors led to major changes. The economic prosperity of the country caused a rapid growth in construction in all areas. Changes in the ideological order required a significant expansion of architectural themes, a different figurative content. Never-before-seen themes and tasks arose continuously.

Meanwhile, Baroque architecture was distinguished by thematic narrowness. The sphere of architecture as an art was limited mainly to palace and religious construction. If it was necessary to create structures for a different purpose, then they were developed in the same, close to the palace, ceremonial, highly solemn forms, an example of which is the project of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg, proposed by F. B. Rastrelli in 1757.

The development of baroque forms along the path of their further complication could continue for quite a long time, but the very range of application of such forms could not be expanded in any way. The possibilities of style came into conflict with reality. This determined his fate.

towards the middle XVIII century there is a need to create various types of new public buildings or such buildings that during the Baroque period did not have artistic significance - for example, industrial, warehouse, commercial buildings. New tasks also arose in housing construction. Finally, the city as a whole as a social unit received a significantly different characteristic than before and, in this regard, required a different planning and volumetric solution.

All this growth of demands took place on the scale of a gigantic country.

Traditional creative methods could not cope with such tasks. But this kind, although simpler, tasks already arose before architects at the beginning of the 18th century. The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by clear and practicable decisions based on clear rationalistic principles. The traditions of rationalism appeared in Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, of course, not for the first time. These traditions have lived for a long time, but there were epochs that were especially favorable for their development, and such times when rationalism existed latently in architecture as a residual phenomenon of the previous period. Russian baroque of the second quarter of the 18th century. also did not escape the influence of the Petrine architecture that preceded it, and the rationalism of the latter entered some separate elements into the stylistic features of a direction that was opposite to it in essence.

Even in the work of the leading baroque master Rastrelli, elements of rationalism can be seen. So, for example, fantastically rich and complex in form decorative trim palace structures of this architect does not violate the simplicity and clarity of plans.

In the works of D. V. Ukhtomsky and S. I. Chevakinsky, rationalistic tendencies are even more noticeable. It is worth remembering Ukhtomsky's project for the Invalid Home in Moscow, or the belfry of St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in St. Petersburg, whose clear clarity of architecture is so different from the ebullient gaiety of the cathedral itself that some scholars did not even want to recognize it as the work of Chevakinsky. Both architects were students of I.K. Korobov, whose activities partially coincided with the Baroque period. However, among the masters of this time, Korobov, one of the glorious pensioners of Peter the Great, retained the most rationalistic orientation of his work. It was through Korobov that the traditions of rationalism were continued in the works of his numerous students and in the work of the youngest of them, A.F. Kokorinov, they were revived in a different artistic quality, rethought in the spirit of the tasks of the new architectural direction.

Rationalism as a desire for clarity, intelligibility, logicality architectural image- the whole as a whole and its individual components - became the main factor in the formation of a new style. His principles demanded a particularly harmonious, logically integral artistic concept. This concept has already been created in classical schools architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. The architects began to carefully study the heritage of antiquity (in its Roman interpretation, the only one available at that time) and the Renaissance. Close attention to the classics became, as it were, a secondary factor in the formation of the architecture of early Russian classicism.

Naturally, in the Russian conditions of those years, the study of the classical traditions of shaping could only take place through acquaintance with the theoretical works of Vitruvius, Andrea Palladio, Vignola, and with uvrazh, in which measured drawings or sketches of architectural monuments were placed. The insufficiency of this method of acquaintance was realized very soon. It is characteristic that if the young B.F. Rastrelli at one time traveled abroad no further than Germany, where he got acquainted only with the experience of contemporary German architecture, then already in the first half of the 1750s the idea arises of sending a submitter big hopes Gezel Kokorinov to Italy to study the architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. Since 1760, the newly founded Academy of Arts began to regularly send its best pupils abroad, and charged them with the duty of familiarizing themselves with the monuments of architectural classics.

Finally, another factor influencing the formation of a new style in Russia was the connection of Russian architecture with the contemporary architecture of other countries, among which France was at that time the leading country in all areas of ideology.

For Russian architecture, connections with French architecture became very significant as early as the first quarter of the 18th century, when J.-BA Leblon, invited to Russia, created here not only one of the fundamental planning projects for St. determined the physiognomy of the young Russian capital.

The tendencies of rationalism, characteristic of that branch of French architecture, of which Leblon was a representative, coincided with the main direction of Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century. The change in the orientation of architecture in the post-Petrine period also led to a change in the nature of ties with French architecture. Rococo tricks began to enjoy the success, which in France itself by that time had suffered a serious defeat. Competition for the design of the main facade of the Church of St. Sulpicia in Paris heralded a turn in the development of architectural ideas. It was at this competition that the principles of Rococo decorativeism, brought by J. O. Meissonier to the highest degree sophistication, were rejected, and preference was given to the strict and classically clear composition of J. N. Servandoni, which was then, basically, carried out in 1733-1745.

Development public life in the 1750s led Russian architecture to focus on the advanced achievements of French architects. An important milestone in the victory of classicism in France was the competition for the creation of Place Louis XV in Paris. As a result of several consecutive rounds of the competition (late 1740s - early 1750s), the project of J.A. Gabriel won, which marked the approval of new views on urban planning principles. For the first time in world history, the city square was decided in relation to and connection with the entire space of the city.

The success of J.-J. Soufflet at the St. Genevieve in Paris and Gabriel's construction of the intimate palace mansion Petit Trianon in Versailles already meant the final victory of the new trend in French architecture.

In Russia, the works of architectural theorists M. A. Laugier, J. F. Blondel, and others were studied with interest and attention. Blondel's idea was too obvious French national flavor and was still far from the consistent implementation of classical forms, which, among other reasons, played a role in the rejection of the project. But this was already an accident in the general course of history. From the end of the 1750s, it was the advanced French architecture that became closest to Russian architecture in terms of goals and aspirations.

Using the example of the transition from baroque to classicism, one can try to deduce some general patterns in the change in architectural styles.

The newly emerging style meets new requirements, and in this sense its path is always original and unexplored. The more innovative this neophyte is, the broader must be the traditions on which he relies. But at the same time, the emerging direction relates with quite understandable antagonism to the methods of its predecessor, which at a certain moment revealed their inconsistency. Therefore, each new style seeks support in the traditions of art not of the immediately preceding period, but of a more distant past, and above all in the traditions of the “grandfathers”. After all, the previous style also denied the direction that existed before it, which is why every time the "grandfather" traditions become the main source of borrowing.

Indeed, the Russian baroque architecture of the second third of the 18th century is much closer in spirit to the buildings of Rus' at the end of the 17th century than to the architecture of the era of Peter I.

For the same reason, the desire for enlightenment, utilitarianism and all-encompassing rationalism, characteristic of Petrine architecture, found its independent continuation in the architecture of classicism. Such an original building for the complex scientific institutions, as the Kunstkamera, conceived under Peter I, did not receive any further development during the Baroque period as a new type of building, or even repetitions, even simplified ones. Meanwhile, the architecture of classicism began precisely with the creation of a structure of this kind: the building of the Academy of Arts combined the highest art center, a museum, an educational institution of the “three most noble” arts with a boarding school and even a theater attached to it, artists’ workshops and residential apartments for teaching staff.

The Petrine era did not pay much attention to palace buildings, but attached great importance to utilitarian construction, raising it to the level of real architecture. The Admiralty in St. Petersburg was decided not just as an industrial enterprise combined with a defensive structure, but as a monument to the naval power of Russia. The building was very low and the material - half-timbered - was not at all monumental, but the very idea of ​​​​a wide, 400 meters spread structure, marked in the center by a tower with a spire, was the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bgreat architecture.

One of the great masters of the Russian Baroque, S. I. Chevakinsky, in his position as an architect of the Admiralty Colleges, designed and built many utilitarian structures for the domestic fleet. But among these works of his there are no buildings similar to the Admiralty, significant in their architectural design. Having built the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, Chevakinsky created a joyful, jubilant hymn by means of architecture. Nevertheless, in utilitarian buildings, the era did not require anything from him but strength and usefulness.

It is characteristic that in the early 1760s, having started the project of a timber warehouse building on the island of New Holland in St. Petersburg, Chevakinsky developed a new technology for storing timber, and also created a construction plan, but did not cope with the figurative solution of the facades, and this part of the work was entrusted to the architect of the new direction - Wallen Delamotte.

Rationalism, which forms the basis of the concept of classicism, also found an echo in the traditions of architecture of the early 18th century, although, as noted earlier, Russian baroque architecture itself to some extent used these traditions.

Here I would like to emphasize that the most important traditions never die. They develop in an upward spiral. With each subsequent turn, part of the movement, relatively speaking, passes in the shadow. The prevailing style at that time only tolerates such a "shadowed" tradition, and often uses it even in the opposite sense.