A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").
As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena With a high degree commonality - up to a common theme, style, language. Such, for example, was the Pleiades group in the 16th century. She grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who came together to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s.
Led it famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification French» expressed the main principles of the school - the development of national poetry on national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms.
The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the Pleiades - not only brought fame to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama in the 17th-18th centuries, developed French literary language and various genres lyrics.
Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.
But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson.
But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself in his memoirs denied the existence of the "lake school", and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its “program”, literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the “lake school”.
The concept of " literary school» is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practices, circles of writers often represent groups united by a “leader” with followers who successively develop or copy him. artistic principles.
Group of English religious poets early XVII century formed the Spencer School. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher.
An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery of the literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.
Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively associated with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The “natural school” is characterized by many features of the concept of “literary school”, and it was precisely as a “literary school” that it was perceived by contemporaries.
The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. She is referred to early works I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of the time - at first " Domestic notes”, and then “Contemporary”.
The collections “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection” became the program for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published.
The school had its own system of artistic principles, which was most clearly manifested in special genre- a physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. “The content of the novel,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “ artistic analysis modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of him, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness.
The features of the “natural school” were also manifested in its poetics: love for details, professional, everyday features, extremely precise fixation social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data have become integral features of the works of the "natural school".
In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, early work Saltykov-Shchedrin revealed the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" was largely different, but the common theme, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works.
In this way, " natural school"is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.
Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.
However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual characteristics The writer's works remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments.
Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust the entire variety of literary facts.
Many prominent writers deliberately kept aloof from literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era.
Directions, trends, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”
literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, therefore, it is necessary to operate with such categories as “flow” and “direction” with extreme caution. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.
Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005
Literary direction - often identified with artistic method. Denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary trends:
Classicism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Romanticism (to which some include Baroque literature)
Symbolism
Realism (in which Renaissance realism is distinguished, i.e. the realism of the Renaissance, enlightenment realism, i.e. Enlightenment Realism, critical realism and socialist realism).
There is no consensus on the legitimacy of highlighting other areas - such as mannerism, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, impressionism, expressionism, modernism, and so on. The fact is that literary trends, changing, give rise to many intermediate forms that do not exist for a long time and are not of a global nature. There have been attempts to offer more universal systems division into literary trends - for example. "classic" and "romance"; or "realist" and "irrealist" literature.
Literary current
2. Literary movement - often identified with literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, literary movement It is a kind of literary movement.
For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, one speaks of a "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" trend. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" currents.
Speech as a means of individualization of the image.
In dramatic literature, the character of the hero is revealed mainly by means of language, by means of stage speech. Therefore, such a large role in solving the problem of creating a typical character was played in creative practice by the widely and brilliantly developed method speech characteristics acting person.
Psychological analysis in literature
Paradoxically, "psychological analysis" is a concept that is not often found in the psychological literature.
Psychological analysis began its starting point long before the appearance of Freud's works, but it was in his works that it acquired a special sound, like a new birth, and entered scientific practice.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS - a kind of scientific analysis, similar to philosophical, mathematical, etc. characteristic feature psychological analysis is that the object of its study is mental reality, mental processes, states, properties of a person. As well as various socio-psychological phenomena that arise in groups, collectives: opinions, communication, relationships, conflicts, leadership, etc. Methodological basis psychological analysis can act philosophical systems, general scientific principles knowledge, as well as general psychological provisions about the subject, the connection between internal and external, the specificity of psychological patterns to which this or that type of activity is subject. For example, the psychological analysis of self-education involves the study of goals, motives, ways independent work on the acquisition, deepening, expansion and improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities, as well as its features in the conditions of general and special education.
Psychological analysis is an example psychological image in literature.
It consists in the fact that complex states of mind characters are decomposed into their components and thus explained, become clear to the reader. At psychological analysis third-person narrative has its advantages. This art form allows the author, without any restrictions, to introduce the reader into inner world character and show it in the most detailed and deep way.
The concepts of "direction", "flow", "school" refer to terms that describe the literary process - the development and functioning of literature on a historical scale. Their definitions are debatable in literary science.
In the 19th century, the direction was understood as the general nature of the content, ideas of all national literature or any period of its development. At the beginning 19th century the literary movement was generally associated with the "mainstream of minds".
So, I. V. Kireevsky in the article "The Nineteenth Century" (1832) wrote that the dominant direction of minds late XVIII of the century is destructive, and the new consists in “the striving for a soothing equation of the new spirit with the ruins of old times ...
In literature, the result of this trend was the desire to harmonize imagination with reality, the correctness of forms with freedom of content ... in a word, what is called classicism in vain, with what is even more incorrectly called romanticism.
Even earlier, in 1824, V. K. Küchelbecker declared the direction of poetry as its main content in the article “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyric poetry, in the last decade.” Ks. A. Polevoi was the first in Russian criticism to use the word "direction" to certain stages in the development of literature.
In his article "On Directions and Parties in Literature" he called the direction "that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least very many, works of literature in a certain given time... the foundation of it, in general sense, there is an idea of the modern era.
For " real criticism"- N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov - the direction was correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities.
But the main feature that unites them is that the unity of the most general principles incarnations artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview.
This unity is often due to the similarity of cultural and historical traditions, often associated with the type of consciousness literary era, some scientists believe that the unity of direction is due to the unity creative method writers.
There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of historical, cultural, social life society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally there are such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and meaningful features.
For example, within the framework of a romantic worldview, general-purpose features of romanticism can be distinguished, such as the motives for the destruction of familiar boundaries and hierarchies, the ideas of “inspiring” synthesis that replaced the rationalistic concept of “connection” and “order”, awareness of man as the center and mystery of being , personality open and creative, etc.
But the concrete expression of these general philosophical and aesthetic foundations of the world outlook in the works of writers and their very outlook is different.
So, within romanticism, the problem of embodying universal, new, non-rational ideals was embodied, on the one hand, in the idea of rebellion, a radical reorganization of the existing world order (D. G. Byron, A. Mickiewicz, P. B. Shelley, K. F. Ryleev) , and on the other hand, in the search for one’s inner “I” (V. A. Zhukovsky), the harmony of nature and spirit (W. Wordsworth), religious self-improvement (F. R. Chateaubriand).
As you can see, such a commonality of principles is international, in many respects of different quality, and exists in rather vague chronological framework, which is largely due to the national and regional specifics of the literary process.
The same sequence of changing directions in different countries usually serves as proof of their supranational character. This or that direction in each country acts as a national variety of the corresponding international (European) literary community.
According to this point of view, French, German, Russian classicism are considered varieties of the international literary trend - European classicism, which is a combination of the most common typological features inherent in all varieties of the trend.
But it must be taken into account that often national characteristics of one direction or another can manifest themselves much more clearly than the typological similarity of varieties. In the generalization, there is some schematism that can distort real historical facts literary process.
For example, classicism most clearly manifested itself in France, where it is presented as a complete system of both content and formal features of works, codified by theoretical normative poetics(“Poetic Art” by N. Boileau). In addition, it is represented by significant artistic achievements that have influenced other European literature.
In Spain and Italy, where the historical situation developed differently, classicism turned out to be a direction largely imitative. Baroque literature turned out to be the leading one in these countries.
Russian classicism becomes a central trend in literature, also not without influence. French classicism, but acquires its own national sound, crystallizes in the struggle between the "Lomonosov" and "Sumarok" currents. There are many differences in the national varieties of classicism, and even more problems are connected with the definition of romanticism as a single pan-European trend, within which very different quality phenomena are often encountered.
Thus, the construction of pan-European and "world" models of trends as the largest units of the functioning and development of literature seems to be a very difficult task.
Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. So, D. S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (1893) writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air, are established, as between opposite poles, brimming with creativity." It is he, according to the critic, that determines the similarity of "poetic phenomena", the works of different writers.
Often "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow". Both concepts denote the unity of leading spiritual-content and aesthetic principles arising at a certain stage of the literary process, covering the work of many writers.
The term "direction" in literature is understood as the creative unity of writers of a certain historical era using the general ideological and aesthetic principles of depicting reality.
The direction in literature is considered as a generalizing category of the literary process, as one of the forms of artistic worldview, aesthetic views, ways of displaying life associated with a peculiar artistic style. In history national literatures European nations allocate such directions as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, naturalism, symbolism.
Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005
The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression, first of all, in the poetry of E. A. Baratynsky, K. N. Batyushkov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. A. Fet, D. V. Davydov, N. M. Yazykov. The work of F. I. Tyutchev completed the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry. Nonetheless, central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop.
A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. it artistic type « extra person", an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A. S. Pushkin, and the so-called type" little man”, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as by A. S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster» .
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century.
The trend of depicting vices and shortcomings Russian society – feature all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the government and common people. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. literary critic V. G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. Genre develops realistic novel. I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, I. A. Goncharov create their own works. The socio-political prevails philosophical problems. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. Known for his poem "Who in Russia to live well?" , as well as many poems, where the difficult and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A. N. Ostrovsky, A. P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre- a story, and also an excellent playwright. A.P. Chekhov's competitor was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, hallmarks which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. From this opens new page in the history of Russian literature. It's kind of like this, isn't it?
