Literature lesson in grade 9 No. 1. Introduction. Literary trends, schools, movements.

to introduce students to the textbook, program and objectives of the literature course in grade 9;

generalize knowledge, expand understanding of the stages of development domestic literature;

start repeating literary types and genres, generalize and systematize what was studied in grade 8.

Type of lesson: Lecture with elements of conversation.

Teaching methods: Frontal survey, work with a textbook, abstract notes.

Theoretical and literary concepts: literary situation, historical and literary process, literary direction.

Repetition: literary genera and genres.

During the classes:

Repetition of the past:

What is literature?

Define the concept of "literature" (the art of the word).

What classic literature? Give examples of the classics of the 18th -19th centuries.

To which literary genre and the genre includes the works of A.S. Pushkin: “ Winter morning”, “Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”, “Dubrovsky”, “ Stationmaster»?

Work with the textbook (part 1, pp. 3-5); write down the theses.

The word of the teacher about the features of the teaching materials of S.A. Zimin.

What's new in the content of the textbook?

On what basis is the teaching material organized? (chronology)

What writers and genres are you interested in?

Lecture. Recording of abstracts and definitions.

4.1.Historical and literary process

***Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries.

Development literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents.

The continuous change of literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, not even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change of historical epochs and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry of new social forces into the historical arena, etc.).

*** Can be distinguished main steps development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

*** The development of the historical and literary process is due to a number of factors, among which, first of all, it should be noted historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), influence of previous literary traditions and artistic experience other nations . For example, Pushkin's work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).

literary process - it's a complex system literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.

*** Literary direction- a stable and recurring in a given period of the historical development of literature, the circle of the main features of creativity, expressed in the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality and in the principles of choice of means corresponding to it artistic image by a number of writers.

4.2. Literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism), postmodernism

Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction in European art turn of the XVII-XVIII - the beginning of the XIX century, was formed in France in late XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by rigor art forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin and others.

Main conflict classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire).

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. the purity of the genre high genres funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low ones - tragic and sublime);

purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Strict division of heroes into positive and negative ones, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

· affirmation of positive values ​​and state ideal.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - the literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s ( the best representatives- Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism - - artistic direction in European and American culture late XVIII- the first half of the 19th century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe.

All romantics reject the world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world.

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. romantic hero- the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism (from the Latin realis - material, real) - a literary movement that embodied the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge of man and the world.

Realist writers showed a direct dependence of social, moral, religious beliefs heroes from social conditions, great attention devoted to the social aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between plausibility and artistic truth.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type " little man"(Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), type" extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of a "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

Modernism (from the French modern - the latest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose on turn of XIX--XX centuries.

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism - - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not in the image real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, true essence of things. Symbolists developed a new poetic language, not directly naming the subject, but hinting at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, free verse.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings.

Acmeism (from Greek akme -- highest degree something, blooming power, pinnacle) - modernist literary movement in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov.

Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to material world, subject, exact value the words.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde - extreme manifestation modernism) in European art at the beginning of the 20th century, which was most developed in Italy and Russia.

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which creates through the creative will of man " new world, today, iron ... "(Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living colloquial, futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

POSTMODERNISM - a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in culture, reflecting complexity, randomness, modern world; the "spirit of literature" of the late 20th century; world war literature scientific and technological revolution and information explosion.

5. The results of the lesson. What is the strength and potential of literature? Why is reading books so rare these days? Try to evaluate this situation.

6. Homework :

1.p.6-9 (to write out theses. The specifics of Old Russian literature);

Plan.

2. artistic method.

Literary trends and currents. literary schools.

4. Principles of artistic representation in literature.

The concept of the literary process. Concepts of periodization of the literary process.

The literary process is the process of changing literature over time.

In Soviet literary criticism, the leading concept literary development there was an idea of ​​change creative methods. The method was described as a way for the artist to reflect non-literary reality. The history of literature has been described as a gradual development of the realistic method. The main emphasis was placed on overcoming romanticism, on education higher form realism - socialist realism.

More consistent development concept world literature was built by Academician N.F. Konrad, who also defended the progressive movement of literature. At the heart of such a movement was not a change in literary methods, but the idea of ​​discovering a person as highest value(humanistic idea). In his work “West and East”, Conrad came to the conclusion that the concepts of “Middle Ages” and “Renaissance” are universal for all literatures. The period of antiquity is replaced by the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance, followed by the New Age. In each subsequent period, literature focuses more and more on the image of a person as such, more and more aware of the intrinsic value of the human person.

The concept of academician D.S. Likhachev is similar, according to which the literature of the Russian Middle Ages developed towards strengthening the personal principle. Large styles of the era (Romanesque, Gothick style) were to be gradually replaced by the author's individual styles (Pushkin's style).

The most objective concept of Academician S.S. Averintsev, it gives a wide coverage of literary life, including modernity. At the heart of this concept is the idea of ​​reflexivity and traditional culture. The scientist identifies three major periods in the history of literature:

1. Culture can be non-reflexive and traditional (the culture of antiquity, in Greece - before the 5th century BC). Non-reflexivity means that literary phenomena are not comprehended, no literary theory, the authors do not reflect (do not analyze their work).

2. culture can be reflective, but traditional (from the 5th century BC to new era). During this period, rhetoric, grammar, and poetics arise (reflection on language, style, creativity). Literature was traditional, existed stable system genres.

3. The last period, which is still going on. Reflection is preserved, tradition is broken. Writers reflect, but create new forms. The beginning was laid by the genre of the novel.

Changes in the history of literature can be progressive, evolutionary, regressive, involutionary.

artistic method

The artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. You can talk about a method as a structure artistic thinking the writer, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The method is embodied in the content literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic expression characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method is manifested in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with life path, the fate of the characters in the socio-historical circumstances of the era.

The concept of “method” (from the Greek “path of research”) denotes the “general principle creative attitude artist to knowable reality, that is, its re-creation. These are a kind of ways of knowing life, which have changed in different historical and literary epochs. According to some scholars, the method lies at the basis of currents and directions, represents the way of aesthetic exploration of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category.

The problem of the method of depicting reality was first recognized in antiquity and was fully embodied in the work of Aristotle "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, according to Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world like the real one, or, more precisely, what it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the Romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe". These two concepts, according to Soviet literary criticism the middle of the 20th century, underlie two “types of creativity” - “realistic” and “romantic”, within which the “methods” of classicism, romanticism, different types realism, modernism.

Concerning the problem of the relationship between method and direction, it must be taken into account that the method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from the direction as a historically specific phenomenon. Consequently, if this or that direction is historically unique, then the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, and therefore, different directions and trends.

Literary trends and currents. Literary schools

X.A. Polevoi was the first in Russian criticism to use the word "direction" to refer to certain stages in the development of literature. In his article "On Directions and Parties in Literature" he called the direction "that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least very many, works of literature in a certain given time... the foundation of it, in general sense, there is an idea modern era". For " real criticism» - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov - the direction was correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. But the main feature that unites them is that in the direction the unity of the most general principles of embodiment is fixed. artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview. There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of historical, cultural, social life society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally there are such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and meaningful features.

Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. So, D.S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (1893) writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air, are established, as between opposite poles, brimming with creativity." Often "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow".

The term "literary trend" usually refers to a group of writers, connected by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. Thus, modernism is the common name for different groupings in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being, - includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc.

The belonging of artists to one direction or trend does not exclude deep differences between them. creative individuals. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves.

Flow - a smaller unit of the literary process, often within the framework of a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. Often the commonality of artistic principles in the course forms " art system". Yes, within the framework French classicism distinguish two currents. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes (“Cartesian rationalism”), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in ideological principles such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both currents differ in the system used artistic means. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings). A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of generality - up to a common theme, style, language.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school.

Many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything.

The concept of " literary school» is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, literary circles often represent literary groups, united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy him artistic principles. Group of English religious poets early XVII century formed the Spencer School.

It should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”

The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, therefore one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

Style is traditionally included in the Literary Theories section. The term "style" as applied to literature has a number of meanings: the style of the work; the style of the writer's work, or individual style (say, the style of poetry by N.A. Nekrasov); the style of the literary direction, current, method (for example, the style of symbolism); style as a whole sustainable elements artistic form, determined by the general features of the worldview, content, national traditions inherent in literature and art in a certain historical era (the style of Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century).

In a narrow sense, style is understood as the manner of writing, the features of the poetic structure of the language (lexicon, phraseology, figurative and expressive means, syntactic constructions, etc.). In a broad sense, style is a concept used in many sciences: literary criticism, art criticism, linguistics, cultural studies, and aesthetics. They talk about work style, behavior style, thinking style, leadership style, etc.

Style-forming factors in literature are ideological content, form components that specifically express the content; this also includes the vision of the world, which is connected with the worldview of the writer, with his understanding of the essence of phenomena and man. Stylistic unity also includes the structure of the work (composition), analysis of conflicts, their development in the plot, the system of images and ways of revealing characters, the pathos of the work. Style, as a unifying and artistically organizing principle of the whole work, even absorbs the way landscape sketches. All this is style in the broadest sense of the word. In the originality of the method and style, the features of the literary direction and trend are expressed.

According to the features of the style expression, they judge literary hero(attributes are taken into account appearance and form of behavior), about the belonging of the building to a particular era in the development of architecture (Empire style, Gothic style, Art Nouveau style, etc.), about the specifics of the image of reality in the literature of a particular historical formation (in ancient Russian literature- the style of monumental medieval historicism, the epic style of the 11th-13th centuries, the expressive-emotional style of the 14th-15th centuries, the baroque style of the second half of the 17th century, etc.). No one today will be surprised by the expressions “game style”, “life style”, “leadership style”, “work style”, “building style”, “furniture style”, etc., and every time, along with a generalizing cultural meaning, a specific evaluative meaning is embedded in these stable formulas (for example, “I prefer this style of clothing” - unlike others, etc.).

Style in literature is the result of knowledge general laws in reality, a functionally applied set of means of expression, implemented by the ratio of all elements of the poetics of the work in order to create a unique artistic impression.

A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of commonality, up to a common theme, style, and language, are generally recognized as belonging to the same school. Such, for example, was the Pleiades group in the 16th century. She grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who came together to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s.

Led it famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification French» expressed the main principles of the school - the development of national poetry on national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms.

The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the Pleiades - not only brought fame to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama in the 17th-18th centuries, developed French literary language and various genres lyrics.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.

But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson.

But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself in his memoirs denied the existence of the "lake school", and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its “program”, literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the “lake school”.

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of the existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers often represent groups united by a “leader” who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles.

A group of English religious poets of the early 17th century formed the Spenser school. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher.

An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery of the literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.

Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively associated with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The “natural school” is characterized by many features of the concept of “literary school”, and it was precisely as a “literary school” that it was perceived by contemporaries.

The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. She is referred to early works I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of the time - at first " Domestic notes”, and then “Contemporary”.

The collections “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection” became the program for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published.

The school had its own system of artistic principles, which was most clearly manifested in a special genre - the physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. “The content of the novel,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “ artistic analysis modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of him, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness.

The features of the “natural school” were also manifested in its poetics: love for details, professional, everyday features, extremely precise fixation social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data have become integral features of the works of the "natural school".

In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, early work Saltykov-Shchedrin revealed the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" was largely different, but the common theme, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works.

In this way, " natural school"is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.

Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.

However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To consider it in this way means to schematize the literary life of the era, to impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual characteristics The writer's works remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments.

Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust all the diversity literary facts.

Many prominent writers deliberately kept aloof from literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era.

Directions, trends, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”

The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, so one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

The term literary movement usually denotes a group of writers who are bound by a common ideological position and artistic principles within the same direction or artistic movement. Thus, modernism is the common name for various groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes the departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being, includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc.

The belonging of artists to one direction or current does not exclude deep differences in their creative individualities. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates a romantic novel " Shagreen leather", and M. Yu. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes a realistic novel "A Hero of Our Time".

A flow is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within a trend, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in a certain literature. The trend is also based on a common content principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is more clearly manifested. Quite often, the commonality of artistic principles in a current forms an "artistic system". So, within the framework of French classicism, two currents are distinguished. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes ("Cartesian rationalism"), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both movements differ in the system of artistic means used. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

The writer's belonging to one or another direction or trend (as well as the desire to stay outside the existing trends in literature) presupposes a free, personal expression of the author's worldview, his aesthetic and ideological positions. This fact is related to the rather late appearance of directions and currents in European literature- the period of the New Age, when the personal, authorial beginning becomes the leading one in literary creativity. This is the fundamental difference between the modern literary process and the development of the literature of the Middle Ages, in which the content and formal features of the texts were "predetermined" by tradition and "canon". The peculiarity of trends and currents lies in the fact that these communities are based on the deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other substantive principles in many different, individually authorial artistic systems.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings).

literary school

A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and publicistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Quite often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of commonality, up to a common theme, style, and language, are generally recognized as belonging to the same school. Such, for example, was in the XVI century. Pleiades group. It grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who united to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s. It was headed by the famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification of the French language" expressed the main principles of the school's activities - the development of national poetry in the national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms . The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the Pleiades - not only brought glory to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama in the 17th-18th centuries, developed the French literary language and various genres of lyrics.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.

But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, far from agreeing with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson. But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself in his memoirs denied the existence of the "lake school", and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its "program", literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the "lake school".

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of the existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers often represent groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles. A group of English religious poets of the early 17th century. formed the Spencer School. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher. An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery of the literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.

Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively connected with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The "natural school" is characterized by many features of the concept of "literary school", and it was precisely as a "literary school" that it was perceived by contemporaries. The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. It includes the early works of I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of that time - first "Notes of the Fatherland", and then "Contemporary". The collections "Physiology of St. Petersburg" and "Petersburg Collection" became programmatic for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published. The school had its own system of artistic principles, which was most clearly manifested in a special genre - the physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. "The content of the novel," wrote V. G. Belinsky, "is an artistic analysis of modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of it, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness." The features of the "natural school" were also manifested in its poetics: love for details, professional, everyday features, extremely accurate fixation of social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data became integral features of the works of the "natural school". In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, the early work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment, was revealed. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" was largely different, but the commonality of themes, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works. Thus, the "natural school" is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.

Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.

However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To consider it in this way means to schematize the literary life of the era, to impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual features of the writer's work remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments. Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust the entire variety of literary facts. Many prominent writers consciously stayed away from the literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we “lay out” poets”. "If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work." The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, so one should be extremely careful when using such categories as "flow" and "direction". In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

• Belinsky V. G. complete collection works: in 13 volumes. T. 10. M., 1956. S. 106.
• Zhirmunsky V. M. Introduction to Literary Studies. SPb., 1996. S. 419.

Literary direction - often identified with artistic method. Denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary directions:
Classicism
Romanticism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Realism
Symbolism (fr.) is one of the largest trends in art (in literature, music and painting), which arose in France in the 1870s and 80s. and reached greatest development at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, primarily in France itself, Belgium and Russia. The Symbolists radically changed not only different kinds art, but also the attitude towards it. Their experimental nature, desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and a wide range of influences have become a model for most contemporary art movements.

Acmeism (from Greek - “highest degree, peak, flowering, flowering time”) is a literary movement that opposes symbolism and arose at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. Acmeists proclaimed materiality, objectivity of themes and images, the accuracy of the word.
The formation of acmeism is closely connected with the activities of the "Workshop of poets", central figure which was the organizer of acmeism N. S. Gumilyov.
The term "acmeism" was proposed in 1912 by N. Gumilyov and S. M. Gorodetsky: in their opinion, symbolism in crisis is being replaced by a direction that generalizes the experience of predecessors and leads the poet to new heights of creative achievements.
Futurism. The author of the word and the founder of the direction is the Italian poet Filippo Marinetti (the poem "Red Sugar"). The name itself implies a cult of the future and discrimination of the past along with the present. Futurism can be viewed as a kind of fusion of Nietzscheanism and the manifesto of the communist party. The dynamics of movement should replace the static of posing sculptures, paintings and portraits. The camera and the movie camera will replace the imperfection of painting and the eye.

Imagism
Literary current- often identified with literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a kind of literary movement.

Postmodernism(French postmodernisme - after modernism) - a term denoting structurally similar phenomena in world public life and culture of the second half of the 20th century. The origin of postmodernism is the 60s - 70s, connected and logically follows from the processes of Modernism as a reaction to the crisis of its ideas, as well as to the so-called death of foundations: God (Nietzsche), author (Bart), man (humanities). The term appears during the First World War in the work of R. Panwitz “Crisis European culture» (1914). In 1934, in his book An Anthology of Spanish and Latin American Poetry, the literary critic F. de Onis uses it to denote a reaction to modernism.

Expressionism(from lat. expressio, "expression") - avant-garde movement in European art, developed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, characterized by a tendency to express the emotional characteristics of the image (s) (usually a person or group of people) or emotional state the artist himself. Expressionism is represented in a variety of art forms, including painting, literature, theatre, cinema, architecture, and music.

Decadence (decadence)

Decadence (from late Latin - decline) is the general name for the crisis phenomena of European culture of the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life, and tendencies of individualism. A complex and contradictory phenomenon, it has a source of a crisis of public consciousness, the confusion of many artists in front of the sharp social antagonisms of reality. Art's rejection of political and civic themes was considered by decadent artists to be a manifestation and an indispensable condition for freedom of creativity. Constant themes are the motives of non-existence and death, longing for spiritual values ​​and ideals.

Avant-garde (fr. Avant-garde, “advanced detachment”) is a generalized name for the trends in European art that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, expressed in a polemical-combat form (hence the name itself, taken from the military-political vocabulary). Its time frame is considered to be the period from 1870 to 1938 [source not specified 167 days]. The avant-garde is characterized by an experimental approach to artistic creation that goes beyond classical aesthetics, using original, innovative means of expression, emphasized by symbolism. artistic images.
The concept of avant-garde is largely eclectical in its essence. This term refers to a number of schools and trends in art, sometimes having a diametrically opposed ideological basis.

Modernism (Italian modernismo - “modern trend”; from Latin modernus - “modern, recent”) is a trend in art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience artistic creativity, the desire to establish new non-traditional beginnings in art, the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style. The modernist paradigm was one of the leading Western civilization the first half of the 20th century; in the second half of the century, it was subjected to extensive criticism. The term "modernism" is inherent only in the domestic art history school, in Western sources it is the term "modern". Since in Russian aesthetics "modern" means art style, preceding modernism, it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.