As noted earlier, among literary critics there is no consensus on how to distinguish between the concepts of "artistic system", "literary trend" and "literary trend". Most often, scholars refer to “systems” as “international literary communities” (baroque, classicism, etc.), while the terms “direction” and “flow” are used in a narrower sense.
The point of view of G.N. Pospelov, who believed that literary movement - ϶ᴛᴏ refraction in the work of writers and poets of certain social views (world outlook, ideologies), and directions - These are writers' groupings that arise on the basis of a common aesthetic views and certain programs of artistic activity (expressed in treatises, manifestos, slogans, etc.). Currents and directions in this meaning of words - ϶ᴛᴏ facts of individual national literatures(Theory of literature - M., 1978, pp. 134 - 140).
In other words, direction represents literary concept, denoting a set of fundamental spiritually meaningful and aesthetic principles, characteristic of the work of many writers, a number of groupings, as well as due to these most important principles of coincidence and correspondence of program-creative settings, themes, heat and style.
According to Pospelov, literary direction appears when a group of writers of a particular country and era unites on the basis of some specific creative program and creates their own works, focusing on its provisions. This contributes to greater creative organization and completeness of their works. But it is not the program principles proclaimed by some group of writers that determine the features of their work, but, on the contrary, the ideological and artistic commonality creativity unites writers and inspires them to realize and proclaim the corresponding program principles.
In European literatures directions appear only in modern times when artistic creativity acquires relative independence and the quality of the "art of the word", separating itself from other non-artistic genres. Literature imperiously enters the personal beginning, it becomes possible to express the author's point of view, the choice of one or another life and creative position. The trends in the history of European literature are considered to be Renaissance realism, baroque, classicism, enlightenment realism, sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. The existence of these major trends in a number of national literatures is more or less generally recognized. The legitimacy of singling out others - rococo, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, etc. - causes controversy.
Directions are not closed, but open; the transition from one to another usually involves intermediate forms (pre-romanticism in European literature XVIII century). A new direction, replacing the old one, does not immediately eliminate it, but coexists with it for some time - a creative and theoretical debate takes place between them.
The alternation and the same sequence of directions in European literature allow us to consider them as an international phenomenon; however, this or that direction in each literature acts from this point of view as a national variant of the corresponding pan-European model. The national-historical originality of trends in individual countries is sometimes so significant that it is problematic to attribute them to a single type, and the typological commonality of classicism, romanticism, etc. – very conditional and relative. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, when creating a general model of a literary trend, one has to take into account the measure typological commonality of its national forms is the fact that under the flag of one direction there are often directions that are qualitatively different.
Appearance in national literatures literary trends does not mean that all writers necessarily belonged to one or the other of them. There were also such writers who did not rise to the level of programming their work, did not create literary theories, and their work, therefore, cannot be assigned designations arising from any program provisions. Such writers do not belong to any movement. They also have, of course, a certain commonality of ideological worldview, created by certain circumstances. public life their country and era, which determined the corresponding commonality the ideological content of their works, and hence the form of its expression. This means that the work of these writers also had some kind of socio-historical regularity. A similar group of writers was, for example, in Russian literature - in the era of the dominance of the classicist trend in it. It was formed by M. Chulkov, A. Ablesimov, A. Izmailov and others. To such groups of writers, whose work is connected only ideological and artistic, but not a program community, the science of literature does not give any "proper names" like "classicism", "sentimentalism", etc.
According to Pospelov, the work of those groups of writers who have only ideological and artistic community, follows call literary trend.
This does not mean that the difference between literary trends and currents is only that the representatives of the former, having an ideological and artistic community of creativity, created creative program, and representatives of the latter could not create it. The literary process is a more complex phenomenon. It often happens that the work of a group of writers, the definition of a country and an era that created and proclaimed a single creative program, has, however, only relative and unilateral creative community, that these writers, in essence, belong not to one, but to two (sometimes more) literary movements.
For this reason, while recognizing one creative program, they understand its provisions in different ways and apply them in different ways. There are, in other words, literary trends that combine the work of writers different currents. Sometimes writers of different, but somehow ideologically close to each other currents programmatically unite in the process of their common ideological and artistic polemics with writers of other currents that are sharply hostile to them.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the direction captures the commonality of the deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations of artistic content, due to the unity of the cultural and artistic tradition, the same type of worldview of writers and those facing them life problems and, ultimately, the similarity of the epochal socio-cultural-historical situation. But the world outlook itself, that is, the attitude to the problems posed, the idea of ways and means of resolving them, ideological and artistic concepts, the ideals of writers belonging to the same direction are different.
Proceeding from such positions to the concepts of a literary trend and trend, Pospelov raises the question of their existence in national literatures at various stages of their development. historical development. According to the researcher, at all stages of development fiction(starting from literature Ancient Greece) its source has always been the ideological worldview of writers, who represent various social forces with their work and hence often create their works on the principle of antithesis. For this reason, if in national literatures before XVII century there were no clearly defined directions, then there were always different currents in them.
Currents existed, for example, in ancient Greek literature classical era its development. Attic democracy created in the 5th century BC. brilliant dramaturgy, anti-aristocratic in ideological orientation, authoritarian-mythological in ideals. It was one of the basic currents of ancient literature of that era. But even earlier, from the VI century BC. in those ancient Greek policies where the slave-owning aristocracy dominated, lyric poetry was actively developing - both civil in content (the works of Theognis from Megara, the odic choral lyrics of Tyrtaeus in Sparta, Pindar in Thebes), and purely personal, in particular love (Alcaeus and Sappho on Lesbos e, Anacreon). It was a different mainstream or even currents in ancient literature of that era. The appeal of the writers of the militant Attic democracy to dramaturgy, and the aristocratic poets of other cities to lyricism, followed from the peculiarities of the work of both.
Roman classical literature, created in completely different conditions of public life - in the early period of the existence of imperial power, in the “age of Augustus”, was characterized by a certain duality of its tendencies. The poets of that time responded to the ideological and political demands of the new government and created literature to some extent official, referring to the genre of civil or philosophical poem("Aeneid" by Virgil, "Metamorphoses" by Ovid) They were dominated by mythologically authoritarian mindsets. But along with this, the same poets, as well as others, gravitated in their worldview towards an ideological "withdrawal" from the hustle and bustle of the life of imperial Rome. They contrasted the heavy atmosphere of the capital with the imaginary joys of shepherd life (Virgil's Bucolics), the simplicity of rural labor (his Georgics), the solitary enjoyment of the blessings of life (Horace's Satires), the worries love experiences(“Love poems” by Ovid) or they idealized the good old morals (“Odes” by Horace, “Elegies” by Tibullus). Here, despite the mythological authoritarian worldview, the spontaneous humanistic aspirations of these poets were manifested.
Different currents can also be identified throughout the subsequent development of the literature. So, for example, in English romanticism, researchers distinguish three currents: revolutionary (Byron, Shelley), conservative (Wordsworth, Coleridge. Southey) and London (Keats, Lee Hunt) romantics. In relation to Russian romanticism, they speak of "philosophical", "psychological", "civil" currents. In Russian realism, some researchers distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" trends.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, if literary trends existed in national literatures from the very beginning of their historical life, then literary trends took shape in them only at relatively late stages of development and always on basis ideological and artistic content literature of one kind or another. For this reason, it is not literary trends that give life to literary movements and contain them, as some researchers believe, but vice versa - currents can form a single direction at some stage of their development, and before that or later exist outside of its limits. Thus, the literary trend of Russian noble revolutionism began with the work of A.N. Radishchev, who was not a romantic. Later, motives of civil romance arose in it (Pushkin, Ryleev and others), and it entered the direction of romanticism, along with poets and another, religious-romantic movement (Zhukovsky, Kozlov and others) (Pospelov G.N. Theory of Literature - M., 1987, pp. 140 - 160).
Along with the terms "direction" and "flow" to characterize the associations of writers, the concept " school' and 'grouping'. Literary groupings and schools presuppose a direct ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity of its participants (“lake school” in English romanticism, the “Parnassus” group in France, “ natural school» in Russia, etc.).
Literature lesson in grade 9 No. 1. Introduction. Literary trends, schools, movements.
to introduce students to the textbook, program and objectives of the literature course in grade 9;
generalize knowledge, expand ideas about the stages of development of domestic literature;
start repeating literary types and genres, generalize and systematize what was studied in grade 8.
Type of lesson: Lecture with elements of conversation.
Teaching methods: Frontal survey, work with the textbook, abstract notes.
Theoretical and literary concepts: literary situation, historical and literary process, literary direction.
Repetition: literary genera and genres.
During the classes:
Repetition of the past:
What is literature?
Define the concept of "literature" (the art of the word).
What classic literature? Give examples of the classics of the 18th -19th centuries.
What literary type and genre do the works of A.S. Pushkin belong to: “Winter Morning”, “Song of prophetic Oleg”,“ The Tale of Tsar Saltan ”,“ Dubrovsky ”,“ Stationmaster ”?
Work with the textbook (part 1, pp. 3-5); write down the theses.
The word of the teacher about the features of the teaching materials of S.A. Zimin.
What's new in the content of the textbook?
On what basis is the teaching material organized? (chronology)
What writers and genres are you interested in?
Lecture. Recording of abstracts and definitions.
4.1.Historical and literary process
***Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries.
Development literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents.
The continuous change of literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, not even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change of historical eras and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces etc.).
*** Can be distinguished main steps development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
*** The development of the historical and literary process is due to a number of factors, among which, first of all, it should be noted historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), influence of previous literary traditions and artistic experience other nations . For example, Pushkin's work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).
literary process - it is a complex system of literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.
*** Literary direction- a stable and recurring circle of the main features of creativity in a given period of the historical development of literature, expressed in the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality and in the corresponding principles for choosing means of artistic depiction by a number of writers.
4.2. Literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism), postmodernism
Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction in European art turn of XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, was formed in France at the end of the XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin and others.
Main conflict classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.
The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire).
Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. the purity of the genre high genres funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low ones - tragic and sublime);
purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);
Strict division of heroes into positive and negative, while goodies, choosing between feeling and reason, give preference to the latter;
Compliance with the rule of "three unities";
· affirmation of positive values and state ideal.
Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - literary direction of the second half of XVII I century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s ( the best representatives- Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.
Romanticism - - artistic direction in European and American culture of the late XVIII - first half of XIX century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe.
All romantics reject the world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world.
Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. romantic hero- the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.
Realism (from the Latin realis - real, real) - a literary movement that embodied the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge man and the world.
Realist writers showed a direct dependence of social, moral, religious beliefs heroes from social conditions, great attention devoted to the social aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between plausibility and artistic truth.
Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type " little man"(Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), type" extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of a "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).
Modernism (from the French modern - the latest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.
Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.
Symbolism - - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended essences and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s.
Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not in the image real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, the true essence of things is revealed. Symbolists developed a new poetic language, not directly naming the subject, but hinting at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, free verse.
The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings.
Acmeism (from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov.
Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word.
Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde - extreme manifestation modernism) in European art at the beginning of the 20th century, which was most developed in Italy and Russia.
The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which creates through the creative will of man " new world, today, iron ... "(Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living colloquial, futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.
POSTMODERNISM - a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in culture, reflecting the complexity, chaos, of the modern world; the "spirit of literature" of the late 20th century; world war literature scientific and technological revolution and information explosion.
5. The results of the lesson. What is the strength and potential of literature? Why is reading books so rare these days? Try to evaluate this situation.
6. Homework :
1.p.6-9 (to write out theses. The specifics of Old Russian literature);
The literary direction is often identified with the artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic principles, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary directions:
Classicism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Romanticism (to which some include Baroque literature)
Symbolism
Realism (in which Renaissance realism is distinguished, i.e. Renaissance realism, Enlightenment realism, i.e. Enlightenment realism, critical realism and socialist realism).
There is no consensus on the legitimacy of highlighting other areas - such as mannerism, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, impressionism, expressionism, modernism, and so on. The fact is that literary trends, changing, give rise to many intermediate forms that do not exist for a long time and are not of a global nature. There have been attempts to offer more universal systems division into literary trends - for example. "classic" and "romance"; or "realist" and "irrealist" literature.
Literary current
2. Literary trend - often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a kind of literary movement.
For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, one speaks of a "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" trend. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" currents.
Speech as a means of individualization of the image.
In dramatic literature, the character of the hero is revealed mainly by means of language, by means of stage speech. Therefore, such a large role in solving the problem of creating a typical character was played in creative practice by the widely and brilliantly developed method of speech characterization of the character.
Psychological analysis in literature
Paradoxically, "psychological analysis" is a concept that is not often found in the psychological literature.
Psychological analysis began its starting point long before the appearance of Freud's works, but it was in his works that it acquired a special sound, like a new birth, and entered scientific practice.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS - a kind of scientific analysis, similar to philosophical, mathematical, etc. characteristic feature psychological analysis is that the object of its study is mental reality, mental processes, states, properties of a person. As well as various socio-psychological phenomena that arise in groups, collectives: opinions, communication, relationships, conflicts, leadership, etc. The methodological basis of psychological analysis can be philosophical systems, general scientific principles of cognition, as well as general psychological provisions about the subject, the connection between internal and external, the specificity of psychological patterns to which this or that type of activity is subject. For example, the psychological analysis of self-education involves the study of goals, motives, ways independent work on the acquisition, deepening, expansion and improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities, as well as its features in the conditions of general and special education.
Psychological analysis is an example psychological image in literature.
It consists in the fact that complex states of mind characters are decomposed into their components and thus explained, become clear to the reader. At psychological analysis third-person narrative has its advantages. This art form allows the author to lead the reader into inner world character and show it in the most detailed and deep way.
literary school is the professional affinity of a group of writers. The authors of the Dictionary literary terms" V. Lesin and A. Pulinets understand the school as "trends, ideological and artistic features", the manner of writing, "inherent in writers who are under the significant influence of the great writer, his contemporary or predecessor. So they say about the Pushkin and Nekrasov schools in Russian classical poetry, about the Shevchenko and Frankovsk schools in ... Ukrainian literature". In the "Brief literary encyclopedia" (M., 1962-1978), in the "literary dictionary-reference book" (K., 1997) there are no separate articles devoted to the concept of "literary school".
Using the expression of P. Sakulin, the concept of "literary school" can be attributed to "wandering" terms. "Insufficient attention to the semantic content of the term literary school, - notes A. Savenets, - ... leads to confusion of concepts, in particular those that denote writing communities of different degrees of organization, attributing them to one paradigm."
F. Schlegel identified the literary school with style. According to him, the school is "natural uniformity of style."
A school is understood as a set of principles for recognizing and reproducing the world. By the way, this is how the method is defined.
A literary school is identified with a direction, a literary trend. The "literary dictionary-reference book" characterizes the "lake school", "natural school" as a direction. D. Nalivaiko, highlighting the currents within romanticism, calls the "Byronic", "Hoffmann" schools. In the textbook "Theory of Literature in Connection with Problems of Aesthetics" we read: "Under certain circumstances, within the framework of one literary movement, groups of writers are often formed who are related both in aesthetic and in socio-political views. Such an ideological and aesthetic community is usually called a literary trend.. A literary trend, which includes the closest followers of any outstanding writer commonly referred to as the literary school. its representatives are like-minded in all essential issues of artistic creativity.
The literary school is identified with a circle, a literary group, a grouping. The framework of the school is wider than them, but they are narrower from the concepts of "method" and "direction".
So what is a literary school? Does she have any signs? What are its relations with other writing communities? M. Sulima notes: “It is believed that one can speak of a literary school when the unity of the program-creative setting, themes, genre and style is obvious to a certain group of artists. collective publication.
The most accurate definition of a school is given by Yu. Kuznetsov: "A specific education in literature, a group of writers united by common style preferences, genre practice, thematic interests, issues, before aesthetic program that, projected into a new creative space, relies on a certain tradition, argues with it, rethinks it "2. The literary school is formed on the basis of stylistic similarity. It can have different time frames. The "Ionian school" in Greek literature of the 19th century functioned from the 30 1990s to the 1990s The school almost always exists within one literary kind("Kyiv school" of poetry), but may go beyond its scope ("Zhytomyr prose school").
The school may not have known (notable) students.
Literary school sometimes focuses on creativity famous writer(T. Shevchenko, I. Franko), in this case we are talking about the "Shevchenko", "Frankivsk" schools. A school can develop into a stylistic trend (Byronism), a trend (French symbolism), acquire features of a method ("natural school"), groupings ("Parnassians", "neoclassics").
A noticeable trace in Ukrainian literature was left by the "Prague school" of poets. This name belongs to the literary critic V. Derzhavin. "Prague school" he called the Ukrainian poets of the interwar twenty years, who worked mainly in Podebrady and Prague. The Prague School is represented by E. Malanyuk, Y. Daragan, L. Mosendz, A. Stefanovich, Yuri Klen, Natalia Levitskaya-Kholodnaya, Oksana Lyaturinskaya, Y. Lipa, Elena Teliga, Oleg Olzhych, Galya Mazurenko, I. Irlyavsky, and . Ear. This school had neither a program nor a charter. The creativity of the poets of the "Prague school" is characterized by vivid "historiosophism", national pathos, strong-willed intonations, and tragic optimism. All the poets of the "Prague School" were united by the idea of a national liberation struggle for the freedom and independence of Ukraine.
AT last years made the first steps towards understanding the features of the "Kyiv school" of poetry. This is the opposition wing of the sixties. The debuts of the "Kyiv school" fall in the mid-60s of the XX century, when the Khrushchev thaw, arrests of creative and scientific intelligentsia began. The "Kyiv school" of poetry is represented by V. Goloborodko, M. Vorobyov, V. Kordun, V. Ruban, M. Grigoriev, I. Semenenko, M. Rachuk, Marina Lesnaya, Alla Pavlenko, P. Marusik, M. Moskalenko. The poets of the "Kyiv school" - unlike the sixties, who sometimes flirted with the regime, wrote pro-communist poems - did not cooperate with the authorities, avoided socio-political vocabulary, ideological blindness, political engagement, tried to revive the mythopoetic consciousness, transform the ancient mythological thinking , relied on a new philosophy and psychology, activated folk poetic ideas, focused on man, nature, the universe, turned to ancient poetic traditions, used free verse, avoided declarativeness and topicality.
Galina Karplyuk in the article " Summary posts of the Kyiv school" notes: "The" Kyiv school "of poetry can be spoken of in several aspects: as a purely poetic phenomenon, the main feature of which was the freedom of creation; as a group of young nonconformists whose life vector was the freedom of freedom in all its manifestations: as an experimental attempt to live differently from other generations, to live as if everything is happening in a free independent country; as about the brotherhood of creators, whose main and extraordinary task was poetry itself "".
In the 90s of the XX century, the "Galician (Lviv-Stanislav)" and "Kyiv-Zhytomyr" schools were declared. "Galician school" (Yu. Andrukhovych, Y. Vinnichuk, V. Eshkilev, Y. Izdryk, T. Prokhazko), according to V. Danilenko, absolutizes formalistic searches, stylization on existing literary samples, and "Zhytomyr" - on the study of existential the depths of man, the observation of love, horror, death. "N. Belotserkovets points to the cultivation of various types of heroes by these schools." The heroes of the Galician-Stanislav school are refined intellectuals, prone to contemplation. The heroes of the Kiev-Zhytomyr school are burdened with a pathological consciousness." These schools represent the modern Ukrainian poet-modern - method, direction and style. Yu. , disappear from the space of literature." Yu. Kuznetsov's opinion deserves attention.
Plan.
2. artistic method.
Literary trends and currents. literary schools.
4. Principles of artistic representation in literature.
The concept of the literary process. Concepts of periodization of the literary process.
The literary process is the process of changing literature over time.
In Soviet literary criticism, the leading concept literary development there was an idea of a change in creative methods. The method was described as a way for the artist to reflect non-literary reality. The history of literature has been described as a gradual development of the realistic method. The main emphasis was placed on overcoming romanticism, on education higher form realism - socialist realism.
More consistent development concept world literature was built by Academician N.F. Konrad, who also defended the progressive movement of literature. This movement was not based on a change literary methods, and the idea of discovering a person as the highest value (humanistic idea). In his work “West and East”, Conrad came to the conclusion that the concepts of “Middle Ages” and “Renaissance” are universal for all literatures. The period of antiquity is replaced by the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance, followed by the New Age. In each subsequent period, literature focuses more and more on the image of a person as such, more and more aware of the intrinsic value of the human person.
The concept of academician D.S. Likhachev is similar, according to which the literature of the Russian Middle Ages developed towards strengthening the personal principle. Great styles of the era ( Roman style, Gothic style) were to be gradually replaced by the author's individual styles (Pushkin's style).
The most objective concept of Academician S.S. Averintsev, it gives a wide coverage of literary life, including modernity. At the heart of this concept is the idea of reflexivity and traditional culture. The scientist identifies three major periods in the history of literature:
1. Culture can be non-reflexive and traditional (the culture of antiquity, in Greece - before the 5th century BC). Non-reflexivity means that literary phenomena are not comprehended, no literary theory, the authors do not reflect (do not analyze their work).
2. culture can be reflective, but traditional (from the 5th century BC to new era). During this period, rhetoric, grammar, and poetics arise (reflection on language, style, creativity). Literature was traditional, existed stable system genres.
3. Last period which is still going on. Reflection is preserved, tradition is broken. Writers reflect, but create new forms. The beginning was laid by the genre of the novel.
Changes in the history of literature can be progressive, evolutionary, regressive, involutionary.
artistic method
The artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. One can speak of the method as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The method is embodied in the content of a literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with the life path, the fate of the characters, and the socio-historical circumstances of the era.
The concept of “method” (from the Greek “path of research”) denotes the “general principle creative attitude artist to knowable reality, that is, its re-creation. These are a kind of ways of knowing life, which have changed in different historical and literary eras. According to some scholars, the method lies at the basis of currents and directions, represents the way of aesthetic exploration of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category.
The problem of the method of depicting reality was first recognized in antiquity and was fully embodied in the work of Aristotle "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, according to Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world like the real one, or, more precisely, what it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the Romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe". These two concepts, according to Soviet literary criticism the middle of the 20th century, underlie two "types of creativity" - "realistic" and "romantic", within which the "methods" of classicism, romanticism, different types of realism, modernism fit.
Concerning the problem of the relationship between method and direction, it must be taken into account that the method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from the direction as a historically specific phenomenon. Consequently, if this or that direction is historically unique, then the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, and therefore, different directions and trends.
Literary trends and currents. Literary schools
X.A. Polevoi was the first in Russian criticism to use the word "direction" to refer to certain stages in the development of literature. In his article "On Directions and Parties in Literature" he called the direction "that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least very many, works of literature in a certain given time... the foundation of it, in general sense, there is an idea of the modern era. For "real criticism" - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov - the direction was correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. But the main feature that unites them is that the direction fixes the unity of the most general principles for the embodiment of artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview. There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of historical, cultural, social life society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally there are such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and meaningful features.
Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. So, D.S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (1893) writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air, are established, as between opposite poles, brimming with creativity." Often "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow".
The term "literary trend" usually denotes a group of writers, connected by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. Yes, modernism common name different groupings in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being, - includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc. .
The belonging of artists to one direction or trend does not exclude deep differences between them. creative individuals. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves.
Flow - a smaller unit of the literary process, often within the framework of a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. Often the commonality of artistic principles in the course forms " art system". So, within the framework of French classicism, two currents are distinguished. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes (“Cartesian rationalism”), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. Lafontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both movements differ in the system of artistic means used. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.
Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings). A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").
As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena With a high degree commonality - up to a common theme, style, language.
Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school.
Many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything.
The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers are often literary groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy him artistic principles. Group of English religious poets early XVII century formed the Spencer School.
It should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To consider it in this way means to schematize the literary life of the epoch, to impoverish the history of literature. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”
The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, therefore one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.
Style is traditionally included in the Literary Theories section. The term "style" as applied to literature has a number of meanings: the style of the work; writer's style, or individual style(say, the style of poetry by N.A. Nekrasov); the style of the literary direction, current, method (for example, the style of symbolism); style as a set of stable elements art form defined common features outlook, content, national traditions, inherent in literature and art in a certain historical era (the style of Russian realism of the second half of the 19th century).
In a narrow sense, style is understood as the manner of writing, the features of the poetic structure of the language (lexicon, phraseology, figurative and expressive means, syntactic constructions, etc.). In a broad sense, style is a concept used in many sciences: literary criticism, art criticism, linguistics, cultural studies, and aesthetics. They talk about work style, behavior style, thinking style, leadership style, etc.
Style-forming factors in literature are the ideological content, form components that specifically express the content; this also includes the vision of the world, which is connected with the worldview of the writer, with his understanding of the essence of phenomena and man. Stylistic unity also includes the structure of the work (composition), analysis of conflicts, their development in the plot, the system of images and ways of revealing characters, the pathos of the work. Style, as a unifying and artistically organizing principle of the whole work, even absorbs the way landscape sketches. All this is style in the broadest sense of the word. In the originality of the method and style, the features of the literary direction and trend are expressed.
According to the features of the style expression, they judge literary hero(attributes of its external appearance and form of behavior are taken into account), about the belonging of the building to a particular era in the development of architecture (Empire style, Gothic style, Art Nouveau style, etc.), about the specifics of the depiction of reality in the literature of a particular historical formation (in Old Russian literature - the style of monumental medieval historicism, the epic style of the 11th-13th centuries, the expressive-emotional style of the 14th-15th centuries, the baroque style of the second half of the 17th century, etc.). No one today will be surprised by the expressions “game style”, “life style”, “leadership style”, “work style”, “building style”, “furniture style”, etc., and every time, along with a generalizing cultural meaning, a specific evaluative meaning is embedded in these stable formulas (for example, “I prefer this style of clothing” - unlike others, etc.).
Style in literature is the result of knowledge general laws in reality, a functionally applied set of means of expression, implemented by the ratio of all elements of the poetics of the work in order to create a unique artistic impression.
