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The culture of ancient Rome is the most important. Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

The culture of ancient Rome is the most important. Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

04.03.2019

Features of the culture and art of ancient Rome.

Features of the culture of Ancient Rome: principles of periodization, chronological framework. Neolithic archaic - the culture of the Etruscans. Features of the culture of ancient Rome. Mythological and ritual unity of culture, ideas about higher powers and man's place in the universe. Absolutization of the volitional principle in culture. The ideal of harmony, Roman statehood and law. Cultural background Roman conquests. Secondary and synthetism of cultural forms and art. Greek cultural borrowings and the fate of Roman ideals. State and man. Law in the culture of the Romans. Imperial cultural project. Artistic features of Roman culture, monuments of art, their cultural meaning.

Culture of Ancient Rome

States that arose at the late, Hellenistic stage of history Ancient Greece, did not last long. In II-I centuries. BC e. most of them were conquered Rome. Since then, the Apennine Peninsula (where modern Italy is located) has become the center of ancient culture. The total extent of the Roman state was beyond imagination. In the era of the empire, it included North Africa (including Egypt and modern Tunisia), the islands of the Mediterranean, in the East - the territories of modern Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Turkey, partly Iraq, Syria, Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia. To the north and west of Italy, Rome belonged to modern France, Spain (lat. - remote), England (Albion). It is also known that the Greek settlements (passed over to Rome) were located on the territory of our Kuban (Gorgippia) and Crimea (Chersonese, Ponticapaeum). To the shores of Colchis (present-day Georgia) they sailed for golden fleece legendary argonauts. These lands, divided into 50 provinces, "the estates of the Roman people", were administered by the governors of the emperor, paying taxes set for a 15-year period.

Inheriting (more precisely, capturing) and expanding the territory of Ancient Greece, Rome also inherited its culture, at the same time significantly transforming it.

The first to experience the influence of the Greeks in the Apennines were Etruscans, a people whose origin is not too clear until now. Their language has not been deciphered either. Fair-haired, blue-eyed, slightly hook-nosed, not similar to either Italians or northern Europeans, the descendants of the Etruscans are now occasionally found in Italy, as if descending from ancient vases. In the first millennium BC. e. the Etruscans had already created a federation of city-states. Their cities, with stone buildings and walls, were also distinguished by a clear layout of streets, perpendicular to each other and oriented to the cardinal points. The Etruscans were the first to build domed vaults based on wedge-shaped beams. It was the Etruscans who became famous portrait which is known today as Roman. The Etruscans gave the Romans numbers, again known as Roman. Having adopted many features of Greek culture, including mythology and religion, the Etruscans passed it on to Italian cities.

Story Rome, the largest of them, is counted from 753 BC. e. According to legend, the founders of the city Romulus and Rema nursed capitoline wolf, especially revered among other animals. Tradition also says that Rome arose thanks to fugitives from Troy destroyed by the Achaeans, who “burned their ships” to settle on seven hills next to the Etruscans, Latins and Sabines. Information has been preserved that of the seven kings who ruled in Rome, the last three were of Etruscan origin. Under them, the city was surrounded by a stone wall, held sewerage, built the first gladiatorial circus.

The end of the Etruscan history of Rome is attributed to 510 BC. e., when the last of its kings was overthrown by a popular uprising, Tarquinius the Proud(534/533-510/509). After that, Rome becomes a republic with a very rigid form of slavery, starting a wide expansion into neighboring regions.

The capture of the Greek cities of Southern Italy soon followed, and then the complete transformation of Greece and Macedonia into Roman provinces. The protracted war between Rome and Carthage also ended in victory. Having subjugated the Greeks, the Romans submitted to their culture, which was much higher. True, the Roman gods, having retained everything from the Greek ones, received new names. Zeus became Jupiter, Poseidon - Neptune, Hades - Pluto, Ares - Mars, Gera - Juno, Athena - Minervoy, Hephaestus - Volcano, Hermes - Mercury, Artemis - Diana. There was no successor to Apollo, whose cult was adopted much earlier, in the 5th century. BC e. But a new, highly revered deity in Rome appeared - a two-faced Janus, one face of which was benevolent and open, the second - formidable and dark, one turned to the past, the other to the future. Janus was the god of entrances and exits, depicted holding the keys to the New Year, which he unlocked with a hand with 365 fingers. Many gods with narrow functions also appeared: Veruactor(in charge of plowing), reparator- updater Ipporciator- creating furrows, etc. There were also the god of the first child's cry, the first spoken word, weaning the baby from the breast ...

The Romans built temples Victory (Victoria), Luck (Fortune), Fear (Pavor), goddesses of power (Valentia), Equity (Justitia), fidelity (fides), Consent (Concordia) . An unusual role in the Roman pantheon of gods was played by Genius, symbolizing inspiration and aspirations.

Under the strong influence of Greece, the Roman literature. The first books in Latin were translations from Greek, the first Roman poet was a freed Greek slave Livy Andronicus, who created poetic translations of the Odyssey, Greek tragedies and comedies. He wrote music and directed the choir. In Rome, choral singing gradually gave way to solo singing.

A truly Roman writer can be considered Plautus(ser. III century. - 184 BC), the author of 130 comedies in juicy Latin and with juicy rustic Roman humor. In them, heroes with Greek names transfer Roman realities to the Greek names of the city. Comedies were also very popular. Terence(c. 195-159).

By the 1st century BC e. refers to the emergence of the Roman poetry. Master lyric poetry was Catullus (c. 87-c. 54). A special place belongs to the philosophical work presented in poetic form " On the nature of things", wherein Titus Lucretius Car(1st half of the 1st century BC) expounds the teachings of Epicurus, gives new justifications for the atomistic theory. “Only in a ray of sunlight do we see numerous tiny dust particles, like this, the light of reason illuminates atoms,” says Lucretius in a poem.

Poets brought fame to Roman literature Virgil(70-19 BC) - the poem "Aeneid", Horace(65 BC - 8 AD), Ovid Nason(43 BC - 18 AD), author " Metamorphosis», Apuleius(b. 124 AD), author of The Golden Ass, Petronius(?-66 AD), Lucian(120-190).

The first prose work in Latin - labor Cato the Elder(243-149) "Oh agriculture". He then wrote the History of Rome. "The history of Rome from the founding of the city" traced Titus Livy(59 BC - 17 AD). Here, in particular, it is described how the first Romans, to replenish the female population of the city, captured the Sabine women, who, as it turned out, were not too opposed to this. 30 curias (tribal political associations of Rome) were named after them, and their sons began to be called patricians that is, having fathers. Those born later were already plebeians- fatherlessness. In Rome, the concept proletariat(from proles- having only offspring). The struggle of the patricians and plebeians for a long time determined the history of Rome.

Significant works in the field historiography have also created Pliny the Elder, Flavius Josephus, Tacitus(c. 58 - c. 117). Equally Greek and Roman historian is considered Plutarch(born in the 40s of the 1st century AD - d. in the interval of 140-150), author " Comparative biographies"Alexander and Caesar, Demosthenes and Cicero, "Instructions" - "In public affairs", "To spouses", "On talkativeness", "On the love of money", "On curiosity". The author of a kind of historical-geographical-religious encyclopedia, "Antiquities of divine and human affairs" was Varro(116-27 BC).

Roman philosophy inherited to the greatest extent epicureanism and stoicism. The main representatives of the latter were Seneca(c. 4 BC - 65 AD), author of Moral Letters to Lucilius and Questions of Natural Science, and emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius(121-180), author of the famous Meditations. The philosophers can be fully attributed to those who lived before them Cicero(106-43), an outstanding statesman, lawyer, writer, famous orator.

It should be noted that Roman philosophy, even in its most outstanding examples, at best followed the ancient Greek, to some extent continued or revived some of its ideas (atomism, humanism), without creating, however, anything really new. The explanation for this must be sought, first of all, in the distinct practical orientation Roman culture, emphatically dissociating itself from Greek contemplation, the abstract refinement of Greek thinking. In this sense, the metamorphosis that the Seven Liberal Arts underwent in Rome is quite characteristic. If in the 1st century all seven were preserved, with the addition of architecture and medicine, then the fine arts, "prompting rather to dream than to act," began to be mercilessly excluded. The motto of education has become "benefit", and rather in a narrow practical sense - to ensure a military and political career. By the 5th century, even medicine and architecture were excluded from the list of major disciplines. Rhetorical disputes, outwardly retaining the form of Greek ones, could make the glorification of ... the fly a theme. The main training was the military, carried out in the legions. The profession of a teacher began to be considered even humiliating.

Rome came to this already in the era of inevitable crisis, while during the heyday of the empire, great importance was attached to the state education system, the idea of higher education was substantiated.

An outstanding achievement of Roman culture was right. The oldest written code of Roman law - "Laws of 12 tables" arose already in the 5th century. BC e. (451-450). The plate with their text was destroyed during the attack of the Gauls on Rome in 387 BC. e. However, already in the II century. BC e. there were serious studies in the field of jurisprudence, in the I century. BC e. there was a significant amount of legal literature. In the VI century. AD, Roman law finally took shape in the form of " Code of Civil Law"(Corpus juris civilis), created under the Byzantine emperor JustiniansI. This universal and carefully developed code still underlies the most developed legal systems.

Practicality Roman culture found expression in the intensive development science and technology. The centers of science were Rome, Athens, Alexandria, Carthage. Serious research treatises appeared in the field of geography ( Strabo, Ptolemy), the body of knowledge in geography, botany, zoology, mineralography was " Natural history» Pliny the Elder(23/24-79). The famous doctor was Galen(130-200), who made experiments on the study of respiration, the activity of the brain and spinal cord. The geocentric system has acquired indisputable authority for centuries Ptolemy.

Exceptional progress has been made in urban planning. Roman architects developed new constructive principles, widely using pillars, arches and vaults, already in the II-I centuries. BC e. began to apply concrete. Roman bridges and roads have survived to this day in many countries of the world. The poet did not exaggerate when he wrote that "in our days the plumbing worked by the slaves of Rome has entered." According to a technically perfect system aqueducts the purest water flowed by gravity to Rome. Rome today is one of the few cities in the world where water (cold and tasty) can be drunk directly from the fountains installed everywhere in the city. The bottom of the Trevi Fountain is constantly strewn with coins from tourists who want to believe that they will bring them back to this amazing city. There were public baths in Rome terms.

Striking and architecture Eternal City. Rome is not at all like other Italian cities - most of all because its architecture was originally designed to suppress a person, to emphasize his insignificance. Even now, it becomes uncomfortable in the arena and stands of the collapsed and dragged across the stones colosseum. One can imagine what the slaves who fought to the death in his arena experienced, and what wild passions boiled in his stands. " Meal'n'Real"- that's what the plebs needed, as Cicero noted. The Colosseum, meanwhile, accommodated 50 thousand spectators, much less than 185 thousand that did not survive at all. Big Circus(Circus Maximus). Gladiator fights began to be practiced in Rome from 264 BC. e. as an imitation of the Etruscan funeral rites with obligatory sacrifices, and only later turned into wild entertainment.

Simultaneously with the Colosseum (I-II centuries AD), a grandiose Pantheon, Temple of All Gods, the dome of which has a diameter of 43.5 m. triumphal arches and columns, impressive even with their ruins. Their construction pursued primarily political goals, emphasizing the power of Rome. So, the 30-meter column of Emperor Trajan was supplemented with a spiral frieze 200 (!) meters long depicting his exploits. It is characteristic that architecture in a similar spirit tried to revive in the twentieth century. the leader of the Italian fascists B. Mussolini.

The Senate appointed the victors in military campaigns " triumph"(if more than 5 thousand enemy soldiers were destroyed). Emperor Titus Flavius Vespassian(39-81), the conqueror of Judea and the destroyer of Jerusalem, was met by a 100,000-strong crowd of enthusiastic Romans, he was honored with a triumph and Julius Caesar. Triumphant processions headed towards Capitol- the cult center of Rome standing on a hill with a temple of three gods. Following the senators were carried the military trophies victorious, and already behind them followed on a chariot dressed in purple and gold, with a laurel wreath on his head, the hero himself. Less impressive victories were celebrated " small triumph» - ovation.

Even sculpture and portrait, where roman art reached true artistic heights, were most aimed at glorifying Rome and its prominent citizens - commanders, rulers, philosophers. Excellent in this kind are the busts of Caesar and Cicero, the sculptural portraits of Brutus and Orator. The heritage of world culture are samples of Roman painting and mosaics, preserved under a multi-meter layer of ash in cities Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia who died during the eruption of Vesuvius in 76 AD. e.

A state that emphasizes conquest is doomed to destruction. At the end of the 2nd century A.D. e. in Rome begins an all-encompassing and irresistible a crisis. Rapid technological growth was accompanied by an equally rapid moral decline. Frantic orgies were the way of life not only for perverted despot rulers - Caligula, Nero, Sulla but also most of the patricians. The military and political power of Rome was shaken. After the death of Emperor Theodosius in 395, Rome disintegrated into Western(fallen already in 476) and Eastern, Byzantine empire that existed until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The so-called Holy Roman Empire, headed by the German king Otho I, proclaimed itself the heir of the first of them, already in 962. Byzantium, which managed to instill her to Christian religion.

The culture of Ancient Rome existed for more than 12 centuries and had its own unique values. In the art of ancient Rome, the veneration of the gods, love for the Fatherland, and soldier's honor were sung. Many reports have been prepared about Ancient Rome, which describe its achievements.

Culture of Ancient Rome

Scholars share history ancient Roman culture for three periods:

Royal (8th-6th centuries BC)
Republican (6th-1st centuries BC)
Imperial (1st century BC - 5th century AD)

The royal period is considered a primitive period in terms of cultural development, however, it was then that the Romans had their own alphabet.

Art culture the Romans was similar to the Hellenic, but had its own characteristics. For example, the sculpture of Ancient Rome acquired emotions. On the faces of the characters, Roman sculptors began to convey the state of mind. Especially numerous were the sculptures of contemporaries - Caesar, Crassus, various gods, ordinary citizens.

In the days of ancient Rome, for the first time such a literary concept like "novel". Among the poets who composed comedies, the most famous was Lucilius, who is the author of poems on everyday topics. His favorite topic was ridiculing the obsession with achieving various riches.

Introduction

The culture of ancient Rome passed hard way development, absorbing the cultural traditions of many peoples and different eras. She gave the world classic examples of military art, state structure and law, urban planning, etc.

The formation of ancient Roman culture was influenced artistic values and traditions of two great cultures ancient world: Etruscans and Greeks. According to the Etruscan model, round Roman temples were built. The Latin alphabet is also based on the Etruscan. The influence of the Greeks began from the 3rd century BC. after the conquest Greek colonies in Southern Italy. The translation into Latin of the Odyssey determined the development of Roman poetry, but the source of inspiration for the poets was their own folklore.

The development of Roman civilization led to a significant growth and rise of the capital of the state - the city of Rome, which in the I-III centuries. BC. numbered from 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. Roman cities developed around the urban center, which included a forum, a basilica, baths, amphitheatres, temples dedicated to local and Roman gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, equestrian statues, schools and roads.

Ancient Rome gave the world greatest creations sculpture, architecture, painting, literature

Architecture of Ancient Rome

The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and embodied it in larger cities. These layouts corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and severe discipline, the attraction to entertainment and splendor. In Roman cities, to a certain extent, the needs of the free population, sanitary needs were taken into account; front streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here. Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, livable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred to nymphs), palaces, villas and just good houses with good-quality beautiful furniture - everything that characteristic of a civilized society. The Romans for the first time began to build "typical" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which the city center was erected. The urban planning was subject to a strictly thought-out scheme.

The practical warehouse of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in the sobriety of thinking, the normative idea of \u200b\u200bthe expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account everything life situations, in gravitation towards exact historical facts, in high bloom literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion. Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans started new era world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects in the urban, rural ensemble and landscape. The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales, in the laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. A huge conquest of the Romans was the satisfaction of the practical everyday and social needs of not only the ruling class, but also the masses of the urban population.

Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to change. Work was carried out to drain the once swampy Forum, there were built malls and porticos. On the Capitoline Hill, a temple of Jupiter was erected by craftsmen from Etruria with a pediment decorated with a quadriga. Rome turned into a large populous city with powerful fortifications, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king - Tarquinius the Proud - the main underground sewer pipe was built in Rome - the Great cesspool, which serves the "eternal city" to this day.

The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which both geographically and spiritually united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.

Under the Etruscans, this lowland was a market place, and only after the birth of the Republic did the Forum acquire the significance of a center political life. Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the Republicans built the Basilica of Aemilia and Tabularium (where the tribunal and the state archive, respectively, launched their activities), paving the entire space of the Forum with travertine slabs. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.

In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in Hellenistic cities, new plan development proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized hitherto free drawing of the ensemble of the republican forum. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of the Roman Empire to the whole world. The new Curia for holding senatorial assemblies, with marble stands for speakers, contributed to the glorification of the ideals of republican Rome in the context of the imperial form of government. In subsequent eras, Roman emperors continued to decorate the Forum. Diocletian restored the building of the Curia, destroyed after a fire in 283 AD. Septimius Severus erected an arch in his name. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Forum, however, forever remained a symbol of the greatness of republican Rome, an example for politicians and popular tribunes to follow in subsequent eras.

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

Roman sculpture, unlike Greek, did not create ideal patterns. beautiful person and was associated with the funeral cult of ancestors - the defenders of the hearth. The Romans sought to accurately reproduce the portrait resemblance to the deceased, hence such features of Roman sculpture as concreteness, sobriety, realism in details, sometimes seeming excessive. One of the roots of the realism of the Roman portrait was its technique: according to many scholars, the Roman portrait developed from death masks, which were customarily removed from the dead and kept at the home altar along with figures of lars and penates. In addition to wax masks, bronze, marble and terracotta busts of ancestors were kept in the lararium. Cast masks were made directly from the faces of the deceased and then processed in order to give them a greater natural resemblance. This led to an excellent knowledge of the characteristics of the musculature by the Roman masters. human face and his facial expressions.

During the Republic, it became customary to erect in public places statues (already in full height) political officials or military commanders. Such an honor was provided by decision of the Senate, usually in commemoration of victories, triumphs, political achievements. Such portraits were usually accompanied by a dedicatory inscription telling about the merits.

With the onset of the Empire, the portrait of the emperor and his family became one of the most powerful means of propaganda.

The Roman sculptural portrait as an independent and original artistic phenomenon can be clearly traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. - period of the Roman Republic. Feature portraits of this period - extreme naturalism and plausibility in the transfer of facial features that distinguish a particular person from any other person. These tendencies date back to Etruscan art.

The reign of Emperor Octavian Augustus was the golden age of Roman culture. An important aspect, which influenced the formation of Roman art of this period, was Greek art classical period, whose strict forms came in handy when creating a majestic empire.

Portrait of a woman gets over independent meaning than before.

Under the successors of Emperor Augustus - the rulers from the Julio-Claudian dynasty - the image of the deified emperor becomes traditional.

In the time of Emperor Flavius, there is a tendency to idealization - giving ideal features. Idealization went in two ways: the emperor was portrayed as a god or a hero; or virtue was given to his image, his wisdom and piety were emphasized. The size of such images often exceeded nature, the portraits themselves had a monumental image, individual characteristics for this, faces were smoothed out, which gave the features greater regularity and generalization.

In the time of Trajan, in search of support, society turns to the era of the "valiant Republic", " simple manners ancestors", including its aesthetic ideals. There is a reaction against the "corrupting" Greek influence. These moods corresponded to the harsh character of the emperor himself.

This ancient culture also played a key role in the history of European and world culture. The countries we refer to today as Western Europe, came out in their foundations from Ancient Rome and actually exist within the former Roman Empire.

Many fundamental spiritual concepts and norms public life, traditional values, socio-psychological stereotypes, transmitted by Rome to Europe, for more than one and a half thousand years, up to the XIX century, constituted the soil and arsenal, language and form European culture. Fundamentals of law and state organization, the idea of democracy, civic responsibility, separation of powers, a stable set of plots and artistic images adopted by Europe from antiquity through Ancient Rome.

The initial stage of the formation of ancient Roman culture covers the XIII-III centuries. BC e. By the end of the VI century. BC e. Rome developed as a city-state Greek type. The first circus for gladiator fights was built here, handicraft and construction equipment, writing, etc. were used.

Religion ancient rome was animistic (recognized the existence of spirits), and also contained elements of totemism - the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who, according to legend, brought up the brothers Romulus and Remus - the founders of the city. The deities were originally impersonal, asexual, over time they acquired a humanoid character. The Roman sought the help of the gods in his Everyday life, as if entering into an agreement with a deity and waiting for his favor after fulfilling promises and obligations. Gods were not depicted in artistic culture.

Socio-political organization of Ancient Rome (Republican period). In 510 BC. e. Rome became an aristocratic slave-owning republic and subjugated the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula. At the same time, the first code of Roman law was written - “The Laws of the XII Tables” (mid-5th century BC). Jurisprudence reached a high level of development: in the 1st century. BC e. there was already an extensive legal literature. The Roman Republic and Roman law became an example for all subsequent generations. A great state was created in which the wisdom of government and oratory. Every citizen who aspired to become a political and statesman, had to perfectly master the techniques of rhetoric - this helped to become famous, win the love of the people and get the opportunity to be elected by the people to a high public office. The supreme legislative body of the Roman Republic was the Senate, which led foreign policy, finance, state property, was in charge military life and etc.

During this period, Greek culture had a huge impact on Roman culture. This is reflected in religion, philosophy, literature. From the 3rd century BC e. the Roman gods began to be identified with the Greek ones: Jupiter - with Zeus, Venus - with Aphrodite, etc.

Literature in ancient Rome was originally of a compilation nature - the first works in Latin were translations from Greek, and the Greeks were the first Roman writers.

Architecture, which reached a high level of development in ancient Rome, was also formed under the influence of ancient Greek culture. At the same time, the buildings of the Romans also had distinctive features: they sought to emphasize the strength and power that dominated a person. For these purposes, monumental buildings were erected, magnificent decoration of buildings was used: columns of triumphs striving for the sky, magnificent decoration of balconies. Greater interest was shown not in temple complexes, but in buildings for practical needs.

Roman architects developed new design principles - arches, vaults, domes, pillars, pilasters. In II-I BC. e. widely used concrete, vaulted structures. New types of buildings appeared:

1 basilicas (trade transactions were made, a court was held);
2 amphitheaters (gladiator fights were arranged);
3 circuses (chariot competitions were held);
4 terms (a complex of bath rooms).

Arises new type monumental building (triumphal arch).

During military campaigns, the Romans in large quantities were taken out of Greece material values and works of art: statues, paintings, ceramics. Copying of Greek masterpieces began. All this did not contribute to the flourishing of Roman art itself.

From 31 BC e. a different period begins in the history of ancient Rome (the period of the empire) and a qualitatively new Mediterranean culture is emerging. One of the conditions for its prosperity was the strengthening of the material and economic potential of the empire, which provided favorable conditions for the creation cultural property, gave rise to a special social stratum - the ancient intelligentsia: teachers, masters of rhetoric, philosophers, poets, writers.

The centers of culture were the cities in which there were theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, stadiums,
temples, etc. The population was characterized high level literacy. The system of school education and upbringing included 3 levels - primary, secondary, higher. Graduates of the highest level prepared for the state, practical and cultural activities. Higher education began to emerge.

One of major achievements Roman culture of this period - literature (Apuley, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Ovid). The grand scale of the Roman Empire left its mark on literary form. In comparison with Greek samples, the works of Roman authors were distinguished by greater drama, a more sober analysis of reality.

The science. In comparison with literature and art, the achievements of science in ancient Rome were not so significant. Geographical and medical knowledge gained a certain distribution, but more and more signs of regression, backward movement, rejection of advanced views that had been formed in previous historical periods. For example, in astronomy, the geocentric system of Ptolemy (Earth is the center of the universe) was recognized, and yet already in the 3rd century. BC e. there was a heliocentric system of Samos.

In the I-II centuries. n. e. society's attention shifted more and more to ethics due to the decline in morals, increased consumerism, rampant passions. During the Empire, the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius (II century AD) was considered to be among the outstanding thinkers. He thought about ethics, the gap between the ideal and reality, his own imperfections.

Art culture. Unlike science in this area, the ancient Romans created greatest works, which to this day remain unsurpassed masterpieces of world artistic culture. These are achievements in the field of architecture: the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a system of vaults (unlike the Greeks), a closed enchanting vault (dome); built two of the most famous architectural monuments- The Colosseum, the largest amphitheater of the ancient world, and the Pantheon - a temple in the name of all the gods (a round building covered by a grandiose dome with a diameter of more than 43 m, the reproduction of which became possible only in the 19th century, with the invention of reinforced concrete structures).

Religion. Throughout the territory of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of its existence, the influence of Eastern cults increased. Many miracle workers, mystics, prophets appeared. More and more adherents found astrology, superstitions. But in the end, the religious faith that proclaimed monotheism, equality of all before God, posthumous reward for a virtuous life. It was Christianity that attracted the sympathy of the slaves, the poor, all the oppressed, who thirsted for justice. The disciples of Christ, the "apostles", dispersed around the middle of the 1st century. n. e. around the world preaching new faith. They also founded numerous Christian communities.

At the end of the II century. n. e. a crisis began in the Roman Empire: a frequent change of emperors, the separation of provinces, the emergence of independent rulers in various parts of the empire. In 395, the empire splits into Western (Rome) and Eastern (Constantinople). Already in the first half of the IV century. Christianity becomes the dominant religion, the destruction of pagan temples begins, the Olympic Games are banned.

Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as Byzantine Empire. Its culture became a continuation of the Greek, but in a Christian version. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 (deposed the last Emperor). This year is considered the end ancient world, beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins Western Roman empires, the so-called barbarian states arose, the population of which, to one degree or another, was attached to the Greco-Roman culture.

Ancient Rome adequately fulfilled its historical mission, preserving for Europe Greek culture through the transmission and dissemination of its values.

Roman culture largely continued Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.

Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.

The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then they completely ceased to fulfill them, leaving only the pantheon familiar to us. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion took on a more slender outline, and the gods have long become mythology. The religions of ancient Rome originated in totemism (the legend of the founders of Rome - Romulus and Remus). Pantheon of the gods of Rome, as well as ritual for the most part borrowed from the Greeks. Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Demeter - Ceres, etc. Cult of Jupiter (Temple on the Capitoline Hill). The Romans revered such deities as Peace, Hope, Valor, Justice, who did not possess the features of living personalities. Temples were built in honor of such gods, sacrifices were made. Mythology has not been developed.

The Romans are also known for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. What are the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the work of these scientists, the first philosophical problems, many of which are still unresolved.

In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved special success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livius; in literature - Livius Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valery Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Nason, Plutarch. It is also necessary to recall the Roman law, which is used by all of Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.

A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for the inhabitants was the circus, in which gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with burning scenes of battles, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.

A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome will not even describe half of what was built in the then city-state.

The Etruscans and Hellenes left to the Romans their rich heritage, on the basis of which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the buildings were for public purposes - aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.

But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, you can add to this the rapid flowering of portraits depicted in stone - the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.