A.P. Sumarokov - literary creativity and theatrical activity. Lebedeva O.B.

INTRODUCTION

Dramaturgy is the basis of theatrical art. The development of the theater cannot be imagined without national dramaturgy, which contributes to an effective connection between life and the stage, the formation of acting art and the education of spectators.
This topic is relevant, because theater and drama have rich history, A main interest directly causes the emergence and development of the theater of dramaturgy in Russia. Boris Nikolaevich Aseev, a Russian Soviet theater critic and teacher, was engaged in the study of this issue. His works are devoted to the history of the Russian theater of the XVII-XIX centuries. Pavel Naumovich Berkov, a Soviet literary critic, bibliographer, bibliologist, literary historian and a prominent specialist in the field of Russian literature of the 18th century, also studied dramaturgy.
The purpose of the work: to show the evolution of drama and theater of the 18th century, to consider how Russian dramaturgy has changed from the founder of the genre of Russian tragedy and comedy A.P. Sumarokov to D.I. Fonvizin. Therefore, special attention is paid to the work of these two playwrights.
The history of the Russian theater is divided into several main stages. The initial, playful stage originates in a tribal society and ends by the 17th century, when, along with a new period of Russian history, a new, more mature stage in the development of the theater begins, culminating in the establishment of a permanent state professional theater in 1756.
Among the dramatic genres of Russian literature of the 18th century, one of the leading places was occupied by the genre of classic tragedy. In this genre, the young domestic dramaturgy, perhaps, most clearly approved the new norms of European theatrical culture, perceived on national soil, which from now on began to determine the artistic demands of Russian society in the field of theater.
The emergence of national drama on a professional basis occurred in the first half of the 18th century and was associated with an increase in the role of theater in the public life of the country. The lack of inertia of stable previous experience in the field of such dramatic genres as tragedy and comedy allowed Russian authors to more freely develop their own traditions based on the social and ideological needs of their time. This was most clearly manifested in the work of the founder of professional domestic dramaturgy, the creator of the first examples of the genre of classic tragedy on Russian soil, A.P. Sumarokov. In total, Sumarokov created nine tragedies, and during the second half of XVIII centuries, they constituted, in essence, the basis of the national tragic repertoire.

Russian dramaturgy XVIII century: A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin

One of the most important events of Peter the Great was the creation of a public theater in Moscow, which was supposed to serve the purposes of promoting Peter's reforms and educating the audience. Theatrical spectacles, which had a court character, were known since 1672, and they were arranged at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. New theater should have been public, accessible to the general population, and his repertoire should have been different.
In the theater of the time of Peter the Great, translated plays were mainly played. True, panegyric actions with pathetic monologues, choirs, musical divertissements, and solemn processions became widespread at this time. They glorified the activities of Peter and responded to topical events (the Triumph of the Orthodox world, the Liberation of Livonia and Ingermanland, etc.), but they did not have much influence on the development of drama. The texts for these performances were rather applied in nature and were anonymous.
Along with the theaters of the time of Peter the Great, one should also keep in mind the folk theater. Interludes were an intermediate link between the high repertoire of the theater and the folk theater. The repertoire of the folk theater consists of plays created by the people, and plays that were adaptations of book literature adapted to the aesthetic tastes of the people. The school drama "Christmas" was remade in the folk theater into a play-drama...

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1718-1777) was the first representative of Russian classicist dramaturgy, the first professional playwright and theatrical figure. He played big role in the development of domestic stage art. Sumarokov's literary activity is diverse: he wrote poetic treatises in the form of letters, fables, satires, epigrams, historical research, articles. But the most significant place in his work is occupied by dramaturgy, especially tragedy.

Sumarokov also became the first director of the first public theater in Russia (1756). As an adherent of classicism, Sumarokov believed that every citizen, including the monarch, should subordinate himself to the interests of the fatherland. He made great demands on the government. A reasonable political system Sumarokov considered the rule of an enlightened monarch who wisely follows the laws, strictly distributing duties among all estates. Nobles, landowners - the tsar's advisers - must be humane and just, must reasonably manage the peasants.

Sumarokov did not oppose serfdom, like Radishchev, he was an opponent of cruelty and oppression, seeing in all people, without exception, children of a single nature.

Sumarokov's social views determine a lot in his dramaturgy. The leading conflict of his tragedies is the struggle between love, personal feeling and public duty, the honor of a citizen. Following the laws of classicism, Sumarokov strictly divided the heroes of his tragedies into positive and negative. Positive characters were the ideal embodiment of noble honor, duty, and reason. Sumarokov believed that the theater is a school for the nobility, it is designed to educate their morals, feelings, tastes.

The moralizing also extended to monarchs. Sumarokov's tragedies were written mainly on historical themes, but history was interpreted in them very freely, the heroes were only conditional carriers of the idea, and not specific ones. historical figures. Sumarokov named his first tragedy, written in 1747, after the protagonist, Khorev. Khorev is the brother of the Russian Prince Kiy, an honest and courageous young man. He passionately loves Osnelda, the daughter of the Kyiv prince Zavlokh, who was left as a hostage after Kiy's victory over Zavlokh.

For 16 years now, Kiy has been reigning in Kyiv, but Zavlokh does not leave the thought of returning his possessions and is gathering an army against Kiy. Kiy is old, and his brother Horev will lead the army into battle. Khorev is the bearer of humane life ideals. He is against the war, but he is forced to go to fight, to do his duty. Having defeated Zavlokh, Horev treats him and the conquered army humanely and fairly.

Zavlokh agrees to the marriage of his daughter with Khorev, seeing in this union a guarantee peaceful relations. But the insidious confidant of Kiya Stalverh slanders Khorev and Osnelda, accusing them of treason, in collusion with Zavlokh. Kiy orders Osnelda to be executed. Horev returns with victory, but, having learned about the death of his beloved, he commits suicide. Already in the first tragedy of Sumarokov, the problems and originality of his dramaturgy are clearly defined.

In "Khorev" there are not ancient heroes, but characters associated with the history of ancient Rus'. Tragedy in its entire system condemns the unjust deeds of the ruler and his entourage. And in another play, Sinav and Truvor (1750), events take place on Russian soil in legendary times. And here the wrong actions of the ruler lead to the death of honest and selfless people. The theme of civic duty takes on a special meaning in Sumarokov's tragedy Hamlet (1748).

To a large extent, moving away from the Shakespearean plot and its philosophical concept, Sumarokov wrote a typical Russian classicist tragedy. Sumarokovsky Hamlet experiences a tragic contradiction between love for Ophelia and the duty of revenge to her father, Polonius, who killed the noble king of Denmark. Hamlet finds a way out of the chaos of passions in the exercise of civic duty. It is the duty to the state, to the people that keeps the hero from suicide, gives him strength. At the head of the troops that went over to the side of the "lawful prince", Hamlet breaks into the palace and kills the tyrant.

The courtiers, the army and the people hand over power to the new king - Hamlet, the defender of the interests of the state. The tragedy "Hamlet" was perceived by the public with particular enthusiasm. The plot of the play echoed real events: everyone had accession to the throne after palace coup legitimate heiress, daughter of Peter I Elizabeth (1741). Sumarokov worked hard on his tragedies, lightening their language, enlarging the characters of the characters, giving more drama to some episodes. But most importantly, he strengthened the tyrannical sound of tragedies.

Over the years, Sumarokov's opposition to the autocracy, especially to Catherine II (the years of her reign - 1762-1796), increased. He was able to discern her hypocrisy and hypocrisy, despite Catherine's clever and cunning disguise as an "enlightened monarch." In the tragedy Demetrius the Pretender, written in 1771, Sumarokov advocates a general uprising against the monsters on the throne, unworthy of the royal crown. Creating this tragedy, the playwright set out to "show Shakespeare to Russia." Shakespeare's beginning found expression in the broad panorama of life against which events unfold.

The condensed, extremely tense atmosphere of this tragedy is also akin to Shakespeare's plays. But most of all, the "folk laws of Shakespeare's drama" (Pushkin's expression) are revealed in the meaning that a new character acquired in the tragedy - the people. His attitude towards the ruling elite still does not affect events as clearly as in Pushkin's Boris Godunov, but the characters in Demetrius the Pretender constantly refer to the mood of the people. The theme of popular anger against the tsar, who has forgotten his duty to the fatherland, runs through the whole tragedy. If in the first act "... the people are embarrassed, And everything is agitated, like a storm currents of water", then in the second - "... the same cruelties are always on the throne. They lead the whole city into a rage and rebellion." The denouement of the tragedy is heralded by the alarm bell - the signal of the popular uprising. The theme of the people and their involvement in history, raised by Sumarokov, required new dramatic techniques, dynamic, temperamental stage action. At the end of the tragedy, a crowd breaks into the palace - rebellious warriors.

This is the force on which the "sons of the fatherland" - the boyars - rely and with the help of which they overthrow the tyrant monarch: Our people are spared death, persecution, wounds, A tyrant is not afraid of anyone in impotence! Thus, the narrative character of dramaturgy, inherent in classicism, gave way to action. The events that took place not behind the stage, but directly on the stage, imparted dynamism and rhythm to the performance. And the monologues-reflections of the characters reflected the spiritual struggle of a strong emotional intensity. The principle of substituting a story for a show meant an evolution, a renewal of the structure of the classicist tragedy.

This is confirmed by some of the innovations made by Sumarokov when staging the tragedy. What was new was the appearance of an inter-act curtain. By tradition, the curtain was given only at the end of the performance. The lowering of the curtain at the end of the act and the rise at the beginning of the next helped create the inner atmosphere of the performance. This was facilitated by the introduction of sound effects.

So, in the middle of the last monologue of Demetrius the Pretender there is a note: "A bell is heard." The bell tocsin that accompanied the already disturbing speech of the tyrant king gave the tragedy an even stronger emotional sound. The intensification of emotions in tragedy also corresponds to its verbal structure. The monologues in Demetrius the Pretender are written in short, jerky sentences. The static fluency of speech disappears, the monologue approaches a natural conversational manner.

It should be noted that Sumarokov's poems in his tragedies are the creation of a first-class poet. The tragedy Dimitry the Pretender remained in the repertoire of the Russian theater longer than all other plays by Sumarokov. Belinsky wrote that back in the 1820s this tragedy was popular with the provincial public. Before the creation of a professional Russian theater, Sumarokov's plays were performed by cadets - pupils of the gentry corps - and were included in the repertoire of the "eager comedians" theater. Sumarokov, as the author and reformer of the classic tragedy, was influenced by the reforms of the great Russian scientist, educator and poet Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765).

In Europe, classicism developed in the 17th century, and in the 18th it takes on other forms. In Russia - in the 40s of the XVIII century (in the history of drama). In its pure form, classicism lasted no more than two decades, and in the theater - about 20 years.

Classicism develops in parallel with the Baroque. Classicism tries to understand the era of the cataclysm, does not renounce humanistic values, but looks at reality more objectively. The tragic conflicts that fill the world are perceived very sharply, an attempt is made to restore harmony.

The Russian culture of classicism very soon finds itself in the space of the European Enlightenment. The ideologist of Russian classicism Sumarokov brilliantly owns the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Classicism serves the authorities, this is a kind of state order, but by the beginning of the 70s. Russian culture begins to emancipate itself from state control, to distance itself from state power.

The very word "classicism" means "exemplary". The model of the world that is created by classicism in art is an example. The real world is opposite to the proper, ideal world. And although the slogan of classicism is the imitation of nature, but nature, devoid of chance. It is an aspiration to some future. This is a kind of standardization of life. Classicism is a lesson, an orientation towards the public person, that is, towards society in general.

Classicism, in order to establish harmony, requires the restriction of the freedom of each individual. He denies Renaissance anthropocentrism, since the subject is anarchy and chaos. Classicism opposes the pathos of the public to him. He is trying to establish the harmony of man, society and the universe, but for him the central link is society. The pathos of the public is a synonym for goodness, truth and beauty.

Classicism does not claim that all feelings, aspirations of an individual are vicious from the very beginning, but the world is arranged in such a way that in order to achieve harmony in the general, it is necessary to sacrifice one's feelings. This is the tragedy of classicism - a person must make a sacrifice.

Classicism claims that in the world and society there are immutable, absolute laws of goodness and truth, which a person must consciously follow. Deviation from these laws brings tragic discord, and the return to the path of these laws is the key to the restoration of harmony.

Classicism is the art of utopia. He seeks to build heaven on earth. Remove all conflicts. Classicism believes that every person is capable of subordinating his aspirations and feelings to rationality. Utopia and that you can believe that an artist can create strictly according to the canons.

It is in connection with classicism that author's art is born in Russia. It contributes to the development of the literary language. It is with classicism as the main state style that the values ​​of world civilization penetrate Russian culture. The problem of tragic guilt is very important. tragic hero distinguishes a sense of awareness of the conflict, a sense of responsibility. Classicism was the first in Russia to pose the problem of choice.

Russian classicism refuses the ancient myth as the basis of the plot. And most often the basis of Russian classic tragedy is the myth of Russian history. Very early, back in the 50s. there are positive endings, outcomes. Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1717-1777) tries to find a compromise between the personal and the public during the Enlightenment.

According to Sumarokov, "tragedy is a school of virtue," and with nine of his tragedies he tried to teach a lesson to the monarchs themselves. “The property of a comedy to ridicule the temper, to laugh and use its direct charter” - twelve comedies written by Sumarokov in different years, not so much amused as caustically ridiculed, denounced human shortcomings and vices, everyday base passions.

The first two tragedies were read with delight, and when the empress returned at the end of December 1749 after a year-long trip from Moscow, in January 1750 she “highly deigned to instruct the gentlemen of the cadets to prepare, about which the adjutant general Mr. Sumarokov ... filed a register, present two Russian tragedies at the theatre. And so that in order to solidify the speeches, they were fired from the classes and from all positions in the corps and, under the supervision of these tragedies, the announced dramas were learned by the author.

Already in the very first tragedy of Sumarokov, "Khorev", we observe a bifurcation of the compositional structure. There are two conflicts in the play. In the actions of passionate young lovers, Khorev and Osnelda, who violate their estate family duty, there must, at first glance, be the contradiction underlying the dramatic action: the contradiction between duty, determined by the social position of the individual, and the inclinations of the human heart that are not subject to reason (love feeling ). But it is not this conflict that brings the action of the play to a tragic denouement. The source of the conflict lies in the actions of the ruler, who forgets about his duty to his subjects. Thus, the ideological problematics of the first tragedy of Sumarokov is focused not so much on the struggle between duty and passion in the souls of lovers, but on the confrontation between the proper and the real in the deeds of the one who personifies state power.

In his third tragedy, "Sinav and Truvor" (1750), Sumarokov eliminates the duality of dramatic action. The vicissitudes of the struggle of duty and passion in the souls of young lovers, Truvor and Ilmena, opposing the ruler of Novgorod, Sinav, do not result here in an independent plot conflict. Sinav, who claims Ilmena, exercises his legal rights, for the girl was promised to him as a wife as the savior of Novgorod by Gostomysl himself, Ilmena's father. The tragedy of the situation lies in the fact that legal legality comes into conflict with the laws of the individual's natural right to freedom of feeling. And the implementation by Sinav of his claims to Ilmena against her desire leads the monarch to violence and to tragic death first Truvor, and then the Ilmens. Thus, the conflict between Sinav and the lovers is a reflection of a deeper conflict, which again reveals not so much the moral-psychological as the political-didactic basis of the dramatic collision of the play: obeying passions, the monarch becomes a source of troubles and suffering for people, and thereby a tyrant. The play teaches: the duty of the monarch is incompatible with the submission of passion.

The first performances of Sumarokov's earliest tragedies were staged by an amateur troupe of cadets from the land gentry corps at the end of the 1740s. Sumarokov was practically entrusted with the organization of productions, and he coped with the mission entrusted to him with honor. He continued to lead the court troupe of cadets for more than two years. The experience gained during this period was not wasted for Sumarokov. He will continue to participate in the organization of productions of the troupe of F. Volkov, to help the "Yaroslavl" in improving acting skills. And from the autumn of 1756, after the establishment of a permanent state Russian theater, Sumarokov became its first director and until June 1761, in fact, the only director of the entire production part of the performances.

The achievement of creative maturity by Sumarokov the playwright is connected with the period of activity of the cadet troupe. He creates two more plays - "Artiston" (1750) and "Semir" (1751), in which the structure and specifics of the genre canon of Sumarokov's tragedies are finalized. The drama of action is combined in them with the utmost sharpness of the didactic idea. The final play, designed to embody the model of an ideal monarch on the throne, will be the tragedy "Vysheslav" (1768).

A characteristic feature of the mature stage of Sumarokov's work is the saturation of his tragedies with political allusions. Among the actors, a special role is given to the retelling, which performs the functions of a reasoner. Neutral to the vicissitudes of the tragic conflict, he teaches the monarchs, explains their duties to them, proclaiming the political ideals of the playwright.

The final work of Sumarokov in the genre of tragedy was the play "Dimitry the Pretender", presented on the stage of the court theater in St. Petersburg in February 1771. This is the first and only tragedy of Sumarokov, the plot of which was based on true historical events. The protagonist of the play is False Demetrius, who illegally occupied the Russian throne with the support of the Poles in 1605. The choice of such a plot gave Sumarokov the opportunity to pose serious topical problems in the tragedy, such as, for example, the problem of succession to the throne, the dependence of the power of the monarch on the will of his subjects. But the focus of the playwright is still the question of the duty and responsibility of the sovereign. Sumarokov makes the right of the monarch to occupy the throne dependent on his moral qualities. Dynastic considerations recede into the background.

The artistic originality of Sumarokov's tragedies is inextricably linked with the fact that their plots are built mainly on the material of ancient national history. For Sumarokov, this was of fundamental importance. The meaning of his constant appeal to the plots of ancient Russian history is explained by the general rise in national self-consciousness, the desire of Russian cultural figures to affirm the significance of their own historical traditions.

No less important were the merits of Sumarokov in the creation of Russian comedy. Interest in this genre in Russia in the 18th century is confirmed by the abundance of translations and adaptations of European comedies and the extraordinary intensity of the development of the genre by Russian authors. Sumarokov also stood at the origins of this process.

A characteristic feature of the content of Sumarokov's comedies, especially early ones, is their pamphlet. He uses the comedy genre as a means of dealing with his opponents.

In contrast to the tragedies, which were based on the material of the legendary events of ancient Russian history, in Sumarokov's comedies the action is almost devoid of national overtones. Sumarokov stood at the origins of the creation of a new type of Russian comedy. He recognized the importance of his efforts to enrich national repertoire correct plays.

Sumarokov's comedies of the 1760s ("Guardian", "Likhoimets", "Poisonous") mark a new stage in the evolution of his comedic satire. The action in these plays is freed from farcical comedy. Sumarokov resorts to the grotesque, focusing on exposing central characters embodying vicious passions. But vice inevitably awaits retribution. At the same time, the playwright uses the techniques traditional for the genre of "tearful" drama. Here is the motive of recognition by the cross, and the appearance on the stage of eyewitnesses of the crime, and the sudden discovery of the noble origin of the innocent suffering, and the unexpectedly fair decision of the court. In the end, vice is punished, and virtue triumphs. All the action of comedies appears as a kind of moral lesson; now the plays are designed not so much to treat the audience with laughter, but to touch with sensitivity.

The last stage of Sumarokov's comedy creativity, which falls at the beginning of the 1770s, proceeded in an atmosphere of new trends in Russian dramaturgy.

In addition to tragedies and comedies, Sumarokov owns a kind of fragmentary sketch, which he himself designated by the term "drama". His one-act drama The Hermit, presented on the stage of the Imperial Theater in 1757, continued the tradition in its own way. school drama. It was a kind of dramatized martyrology. The plot is based on a test of faith.

Sumarokov's plays, especially his tragedies and comedies, did not leave the stage of Russian theaters throughout the 18th century. The tragedies "Sinav and Truvor", "Semira" and "Demetrius the Pretender" enjoyed particular success with the audience. Just as Sumarokov's tragedies and comedies were at the origins of the formation of Russian professional dramaturgy, performances based on his plays meant a qualitatively new stage in the history of performing arts in Russia. The formation of the classicist tradition was associated with them, in the bosom of which more than one generation of Russian actors was formed. The very first productions of Sumarokov's plays on the stage were carried out by amateur troupes, in which women's roles had to be played by men. But with the professionalization of theatrical business in Russia, especially after the establishment of a permanent state public theater in 1756, the performing style becomes more and more stable. This lays the foundations national tradition acting art.

MENTARY

The following abbreviations are used in the comments when referring to duplicate sources:
Anthology by P. N. Berkov - Russian folk drama of the 17th-20th centuries. Texts of plays and descriptions of representations. Ed., entry. Art. and comment. P. N. Berkova. M., Art, 1953.
Folklore theater - Folklore theater. Comp., intro. st., foreword. to texts and comments. A. F. Nekrylova, N. I. Savushkina. M., Sovremennik, 1988.
Archive of Moscow State University - Folklore Archive of the Department of Russian Oral Folk Art of Moscow State University.
GTsTM - State Central theater museum them. A. A. Bakhrushina (Moscow).
GLM - State Literary Museum (Moscow).
Dal V. I. - Vladimir Dal. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. T. 1-4. M., 1955.
The book of A. Ya. Alekseev-Yakovlev - Russian folk festivals based on the stories of A. Ya. Alekseev-Yakovlev. L.; M., Art, 1948.

ORYAS - Department of Russian Language and Literature Imp. Academy of Sciences.
Collection of N. E. Onchukov - Northern folk dramas. Collection of N. E. Onchukov. SPb., 1911.
I. P. Eremin Collection - I. P. Eremin Foundation. Department of Manuscripts of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Collection of P. N. Tikhonov - P. N. Tikhanov Foundation (No. 777). Department of Manuscripts of the Public Library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, op. 1, no. 188.

In the comments to individual texts in the recording of folklorists, information is indicated on the place and time of recording, performers and collectors (where these data are available). In all cases, the place of storage of texts in archives, their first publication are indicated. Texts from classical pre-revolutionary (N. N. Vinogradov, N. E. Onchukov) and some Soviet editions are given according to their later publications in the anthologies of P. N. Berkov and the compilers of this collection.
The compilers of the anthologies have done some textological work: the arrangement of the verse and prose parts of the text, stage directions, etc., has been streamlined, determined by modern rules for the publication of dramatic works, and typos have been removed, and spelling and punctuation have generally been brought into line with literary norms. In several cases, inconvenient places for printing have been removed.
In the comments to the texts of this collection, only separate incomprehensible phrases or phrases, literary reminiscences, song fragments are explained.
In this edition, along with the exact texts of dramatic scenes and plays in the records of folklorists, descriptions of the games of mummers and performances of folk dramas, made for ethnographic purposes or being memoirs, fragments of literary works, are for the first time widely introduced.
Most of these descriptions belonging to eyewitnesses - local historians, writers, scientists, artists - we have singled out in independent sections (I and VI).
However, "mixed" texts are also found in other sections. When placing them, we were guided by the ratio of text and description: material with a predominance of text was included in the corresponding sections (II-IV), and with a predominance of description or fragments of texts in the retelling and perception of the authors - sections I and VI. In comments to ethnographic descriptions, literary and memoir evidence, only their sources are indicated.

GAMES AND SCENES OF MUCKERS

Descriptions of Christmas dressing are quite widely represented in pre-revolutionary literature. In the second half of the 19th century, after the emergence of the Russian Geographical Society (1846), a wide and widespread collection of folklore and information on folk life began. Sovremennik, Vestnik Evropy and other journals, and especially periodical ethnographic publications, collections of provincial statistical committees, provincial journals, willingly publish materials on folk rituals customs, beliefs, holidays. Their authors - local historians, writers, journalists, clerks, priests, literate peasants brought to us living observations of many already disappeared phenomena of folk life and culture. Unfortunately, in the descriptions of the mummers there are no works performed by them - dramatic dialogues, skits, sentences, songs. This is partly due to the "free" content of the Christmas ritual folklore, the presence in it of "obscene" words and expressions.
This gap is filled by the published records of the folklore expeditions of Moscow State University. They testify to the preservation of the traditions of disguise in the folk festive life of the 20th century, and in the memory of the performers, residents of the northern villages, parodic prayers, sentences, and jokes of the mummers.

Christmas dressing. The published excerpts are taken from:
I - Kopanevich I.K. Christmas time and accompanying folk games and entertainment in the Pskov province. Pskov, 1896, p. 10-18.
II - Pr - s k and y N. Bath, play, hearing and the sixth of January. Ethnographic essays of the Kadnikovsky district // Sovremennik. SPb., 1864, No. X. Oct., p. 510-516.
III - Kudryavtsev VF Winter folk amusements in the city of Vasil // Nizhny Novgorod collection published by the Nizhny Novgorod provincial statistical committee. T. III. Ed. A. S. Gatsissky. N.-Novgorod, 1870, p. 109-111.
IV - Nefedov F.D. Ethnographic observations on the way along the Volga and its tributaries. III. Zavolzhye // Proceedings of the ethnographic department of the imp. Society of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography at Moscow University, Prince. IV. M., 1877, p. 59-60.
V - Zavoiko K. In the Kostroma forests along the Vetluga River // Ethnographic collection: Proceedings of the Kostroma Scientific Society for the Study local region, issue. VIII. Kostroma, 1917, p. 25-26.

A joke wedding. Zap. in the village of Vershachevo, Permogorsky village village, Krasnoborsky district, Arkhangelsk region. from M. S. Trifonova, 64 years old, E. Bogdanova, M. Yukhnevich. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1967, p. 1, v. 5, No. 20. Published for the first time.

The story of dressing up. Zap. V. v. Voymozero, Onega district, Arkhangelsk region from A. L. Syropyatova, 54 years old, N. I. Savushkina. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1965, p. 1, v. 2, No. 18. Published for the first time.

The old man praises the old woman (the sentence of the mummer "old man"). Zap. in the village of Svarozero, Kargopolsky district, Arkhangelsk region. from A. F. Obanina, 58 years old, L. Ivanova and B. Isadchenko. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1961, p. 1, v. 4, No. 89. Published for the first time.

Description of dressing. Zap. in the village of Okolodok, Gorodishchensky village village, Nyuksenitsky district, Arkhangelsk region. From N. T. Berezin, 71, N. I. Savushkina. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1966, p. 1, v. 1, No. 40. Published for the first time.

Popov's verses (parody prayer). Zap. in the village of Svarozero, Kargopolsky district, Arkhangelsk region. from A. F. Obanina, 58 years old, L. Ivanova and B. Isadchenko. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1961, p. 1, v. 4, No. 68. Published for the first time.

Service of an illiterate priest. Zap. in the village of Milentievskaya (Bereg) of the Pechnikovsky village village, Kargopol district, Arkhangelsk region. from K. G. Korovin, 70 years old, N. Antonova and T. Biryukova. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1962, p. 3, v. 24, No. 39. Published for the first time.

Baba in bast shoes. First published: Mozharovsky A.F. From the life of peasant children in the Kazan province. Kazan, 1884, p. 43.

Seeing Shrovetide on the river Tavda. For the first time publ.: N. E. Shrovetide. I. Seeing Shrovetide at Tavda//Perm collection of local lore, vol. IV. Publication of the Circle for the Study of the Northern Territory at Perm University. Perm, 1928, p. 118-120.

SATIRICAL DRAMA

Barin. Zap. in with. Tamytsa of Onega Arkhangelsk province. in 1905 from I. K. Gerasimov, 37 y.o.
First published: Collection of N. E. Onchukov, p. 113-117. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 46-49.
Salty ...- N. E. Onchukov's pass due to obscene text. In children's folklore, "salt frogs" are found.

Mikhalka Tamitsyna nose. - N. E. Onchukov indicates that this was how they “swept through” the inhabitants of the village, who were distinguished by some physical defects or vices (Collection of N. E. Onchukov, p. 116, note.).

Imaginary Barin. Zap. in the village of Pyantina, Onega district Arkhangelsk province. in 1905 from S. Ya. Korotkikh.
First published: Collection of N. E. Onchukov, p. 124-133. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 53-61.
No, I escorted to the Volynsky court - This refers to the court of the famous nobleman of the 18th century Artemy Volynsky in St. Petersburg, after the arrest of Volynsky, set aside for the residence of the “court hunting” staff (Anthology of P. N. Berkov, p. 318).

Mavrukh. Zap. in with. Nizhmozero Onega Arkhangelsk province. in 1907 from Ya. S. Borodin.
First published: Collection of N. E. Onchukov, p. 134-137. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 49-51.
Mavrukh went on a campaign - a French song about the military leader Malbrook (Duke of Marlborough), known in Russia from late XVII I century.

Pahomushka. Zap. in Zaonezhye in 1926. First publ. in the article by S. Pisarev and R. Suslovich "Pre-syllable game - a comedy" Pakhomushka "// Peasant art of the USSR. Art of the North, vol. 1. Zaonezhie. L., Academia, 1927, p. 178-181. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 44-47.

HEROIC-ROMANTIC AND EVERYDAY DRAMA

Boat. First published. in the book: S and p about in with k and y V. V. Historical reader on the history of Russian literature, vol. 1, no. 1, 5th ed. SPb., 1911, p. 239-242. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 143-149.
Down the mother along the Volga - a song by an unknown author XVIII - early XIX century.
Among the dense forests - a song version of the poem by F. B. Miller "The Burial of the Robber (from Freiligrat)".
There were two of us - my brother and I - at the heart of the monologue - a fragment of A. S. Pushkin's poem "The Robber Brothers".
Hey mustache! Here are the mustaches! Ataman mustache! - a daring or robber song, the hero of which is considered the robber Ivan Us, who acted in the 17th century in the Voronezh province.

Black Raven. Zap. in the village of Pritykino, Kostroma district and province in 1899 from G. S. Chistyakov and E. Fedorov. - Archive of the State Museum of Art, inv. 8, cor. 6, No. 1. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 111-132.
As it used to be, brother and me - a fragment of A.S. Pushkin's poem "The Robber Brothers" is used in the monologue.
I was raised by a lioness - the motif of the popular popular tale "How a lioness raised the king's son."
What is clouded, the dawn is clear - a folk version of a song from the story in verse by A.F. Veltman "Murom Forests" (1831).
Forgive, farewell, dear country - a soldier's song about service in the Caucasus, during the first Caucasian wars half of XIX century.
Food, food - I don’t whistle - lines from A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”.

Band of robbers. Zap. in the village of Vatlashovo, Nasad s / s, Perm-Serginsky district, Perm region. from G. M. Ulitin, born in 1871
First published. in the book: Pre-revolutionary folklore in the Urals. Sobr. and comp. V. P. Biryukov. Sverdlovsk, 1936, p. 36-47.

Yermak. Zap. in the city of Vyatskiye Polyany, Kirov Region. in 1948 by A. I. Solovyov. - GLM archive, inv. 63, cor. 59, No. 1. Published for the first time.
A close version, recorded later in the same place by A.I. Solovyov, publ. in the book: Scientific notes of the Kirov Pedagogical Institute, 1965, no. 20, p. 248-264.
I walked in the meadows in the evening - a folk version of G. A. Khovansky's romance "Forget-me-nots" (end of the 18th century).
Do not ring the bells during my burial ... - altered poems "The testament of a drunkard", popular in popular prints.
The singers sang loudly, then Mavlina died - a fragment of a song of literary origin, attributed to M.I. Ozhegov. In songbooks it is found under the name "Malvina".

Tsar Maximilian (I). First published. in the article by N. N. Vinogradov "The folk drama" Tsar Maksimyan and his rebellious son Odolf ". - Izvestiya ORYAS. SPb., 1905, vol. X, book. 2, p. 301-338. See also: Anthology by PN Berkov, p. 180-199.
I am leaving for the dungeon - a folk version of the song “I am leaving for the desert”, attributed to the famous poetess of the late 18th - early 19th century M. V. Zubova.
City of Anton I will burn with fire - City of Anton is the capital in the popular print "The Tale of Bova-Korolevich", which entered the oral fairy-tale repertoire at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. There is an ancient Brambeus-knight there - King Brambeus - character

The lubok story "The Story of the Brave Knight Francyl Venetian", repeatedly reprinted in the 19th century.
Praise, praise to you, hero - modified lines of a song in honor of Count P. X. Wittgenstein, included in the "divertissement with singing", staged in 1813 in St. Petersburg under the title "Feast in the Camp of the Allied Armies" - see: Berkov P. N. One of the oldest recordings of "Tsar Maximilian" // Russian folklore, IV, p. 335.

Tsar Maximilian (II). Zap. in Danilovsky Yaroslavl province. at the Ponizovkin plant in 1890 by the peasant G. S. Chistyakov for N. N. Vinogradov.
First published. in the book: Vinogradov N. N. Folk drama Tsar Maximilian. Texts collected and prepared for publication by N. N. Vinogradov. With preface acad. A. I. Sobolevsky. - Collection of ORYAS, vol. 90, No. 7, St. Petersburg, 1914, p. 97-166. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 199-251.
Field, our field - the common beginning of historical songs about the Russian-Turkish wars: “The Turks boast of capturing Rumyantsev (Potemkin)”, “The Capture of Ochakov” - see: Historical songs of the 18th century. Ed. prepared by O. B. Alekseeva and L. I. Emelyanov. L., 1971, No. 443, 483.
All the Tatars rebelled - P. N. Berkov believes that this is a variant of a soldier's song dating back to the time of the annexation of the Crimea (1783) - see: Anthology of P. N. Berkov, p. 338.
Black raven, what are you doing is a popular folk song known from songbooks of the 19th century.
Or is my sword blunted? - “It is said just like that to excite laughter in the public,” notes N. N. Vinogradov. “Of course, old Markushka has no sword, he only parodies the speeches of the knights” (Collected ORyaS, vol. 90, No. 7, pp. 113, note)
Martsovo field - in the works of early Russian drama refers to the battlefield (Mars - here: Marets - the god of war).
Anika-Ikhonets (Ikonets) - P. N. Berkov connects this nickname with the Ural Cossacks' game of "ikanets", named after the "case under Ikan" (1864), in which they differed - see: Anthology P. N. Berkova, p. 339.
The long journey is over, the long journey is over - a song to the words of A. Kh. Durop's poem "Cossack in the Motherland" (1818).
Hussar, leaning on a saber - a song based on the words of K. N. Batyushkov's poem "Separation".
Head? To shave her naked - this and all other doctor's recipes are similar to the healer's monologues from comic interludes of the 17th-18th centuries - see in the book: Early Russian Dramaturgy, vol. 5, p. 665-666, 714, 742.

The priest has been waiting for us in the church for a long time - the altered lines of V. Zhukovsky's ballad "Svetlana".
Bring me an enlightened Vladyka - that is, the Most Reverend Bishop, Hierarch, Bishop.
Now go ahead "estimated" - that is, "prokeimenon" - church singing of psalms, performed by a reader and two choirs.

Tsar Maximilian (III). Zap. in the village of Pogost (Oshevensk), Kargopol district, Arkhangelsk region. in 1959 from A. M. Druzhinina. - Archive of Moscow State University, 1959, v. 25, No. 1. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 216-224.

How the Frenchman took Moscow. Zap. in the village of Bolshie Sestrenki, Balashovsky District. Saratov province. in 1919 from N. E. Churkin.
First published. in the book: Folklore of the Saratov region. Comp. T. M. Akimova. Ed. A. P. Skaftymova. Saratov, 1946, p. 226-232. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 165-170, comment. With. 334-335.
In Russia, a gracious manifesto is a manifesto issued by Alexander I in connection with Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Moreover, the person of Count Orlov - the daughter of Ichmensky - Countess A. A. Orlova-Chesmenskaya donated her jewelry in 1812 to the needs of the war.
... and he took and chopped off his own right hand - an incident that really took place. He was reported in the journal "Son of the Fatherland" (1812, No. 4, p. 168) in an article entitled (in the table of contents) "Russian Scaevola". For the same, see Roslavlev by A. S. Pushkin.
... how you served your sovereign Alexander Nikolaevich - N. E. Churkin, who transmitted the text of the play, confused Alexander I (Pavlovich) with Alexander II (Nikolaevich), under whom he served as a soldier.
Here is the fear of marmara for you ... - this whole remark consists of deliberately changed drug names. So, for example, "a bullet from trust" comes from the Latin designation of Dover's powder (pulvis Doveri).

Parasha. Zap. in the village of Tamitsa, Onega district. Arkhangelsk Province. in 1905 from I. K. Gerasimov.
First published: Collection of N. E. Onchukov, p. 138-141. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 236-239.

PUPPET PLAYS

PARSLEY THEATER

Petr Ivanovich Uksusov. Recorded at the Divenskaya station (near Luga) in the Petersburg Province. in 1896 from a speaking puppeteer.
The text is in the collection of I. P. Eremin, No. 2, l. 1-10 vol. First published. in the book: Folklore Theatre, p. 293-303.
Koporye is a village in the Petersburg Province. with the remains of an ancient Novgorod fortress.
Primosht-pharmacist - the first part of the word is a distorted "privat" (Latin privatum) - private, freelance.
An elderly "demonstrator" of comedy told the collector that he used to be an acrobat, and now lives in the city of Dvinsk, Vitebsk province, where he shows a panorama on market days. With "Petrushka" he goes only in the summer, mainly in the Baltic states, St. Petersburg, Vitebsk and Vilna provinces. Knows "slightly more than a dozen" parsley growers who go to the same places. Daily earnings - from 10 kopecks. up to one ruble.

Parsley. Recorded in Trinity-Sergiev Posad, Moscow Province. December 19, 1898 from the puppeteer Alexei Ignatievich Mazurov.
The text is in the collection of P. N. Tikhanov, l. 19-22. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 307-313.
Musyu under an overcoat - a distortion of the incomprehensible to the puppeteer "Musyu Polichinel".
... from Baturin - a place in the Chernigov province., One of the traditional habitats of gypsies (settled and nomadic).

Parsley. Recorded in vil. Moscow Dubrovka, Ivanovo par. Shlisselburg u. Petersburg province. July 12, 1898 "according to a Jew, Riga tradesman Osip Leontiev Gelvan."
The text is in the collection of I. P. Eremin, No. 4, l. 1-9 about. Published for the first time.
O. L. Gelvan considered himself a student of the Italian Vicenti Sposi, who traveled around Russia with Petrushka.

Automatic theater called "Petrushka". Recorded in Chernigov on September 24, 1899 from puppeteer Vasily Karpovich Shiyanov.
The text is in the collection of P. N. Tikhanov, l. 63-64. Published for the first time.

The puppeteer "once, as a gymnast, was in the circus of the Nikitin brothers."

Parsley, aka Vanka Ratatouille. Recorded in the village of Batalpa-shinskaya, Kuban region. April 19, 1902 from the booth owner Alexei Pavlovich Lashchenko.
The text is in the collection of P. N. Tikhanov, l. 88-91 rev. Published according to the Anthology of P. N. Berkov, p. 115-123. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 260-270.
Vanka Ratatouy.- “In the south of Russia, Petrushka began to be called Vanka Rutyutyu. The origin of the word "Ratatouille" is unclear. It can be assumed that it arose from the Ukrainian word "ratuy" - "Sentry! For help!" (note by Berkov, p. 329).
Pharaoh's offspring - gypsies were considered descendants or immigrants from Egypt.
Kuznetsky bridge. - Probably, the non-Muscovite puppeteer replaced the Stone Bridge with the Kuznetsky bridge - the name of the famous street in Moscow, where fashionable shops, shops, and confectioneries were concentrated.
They are taken to the churchyard on a sleigh - According to the old Slavic custom, the dead were taken to the cemetery on a sleigh or on wood (i.e., on wheelless carts).
The text of the comedy was written down by the teacher L.K. Rosenberg, who was present at the performance and then talked to the puppeteers. The teacher described the impression of the performance and what he managed to learn from the parsley-makers in the preface to the text, where, among other things, the following is said:
The puppeteer is a “first-hand rhymer”, he used to go with a district committee, he switched to “Petrushka” because it is “more profitable than a district, although the equipment is more expensive.” He proudly said that he had "two cabinets of dolls, one of which he gave to his son-in-law as a dowry for his daughter." In the booth where the performance was given, “there were a lot of people. Everyone behaved freely, “like at home”. Guys with girls cracked nuts, ate gingerbread (it was during the fair). [...] The stage is set up in the front wall and very high up. Miniature backstage and a curtain, of the same size, are arranged as in a real theater.
“The orchestra, consisting of two violins, a clarinet and a drum, played the Overture “On the Pavement Street”. The music is over. The curtain went up." The puppeteer, hidden by drapery, “holding one or another character in his hands, talks, forcing him to make appropriate gestures with the movements of his hands. He speaks for Petrushka in a sharp, noisy, instrumental, so to speak, tone, with the help of a typewriter [...]. Having laid this projectile behind the back of the tongue, almost at

The “tongue” itself, the comedian pronounces the words in some strange way, nothing to do with human voice not having, tone. Speaking in this projectile is very difficult. And you need great skill to extract sounds from it.
“Petrushka conducts his monologues with the Musician. This last one is nothing but the comedian's assistant, who always sits between the audience for this purpose. The entrance fee is usually 5 kopecks. And, despite the insignificance, it gives, in general, a very good income. Collections are always full. Performances during the fair day and evening go on without interruption. The average earnings of a "rat-tower" is about 20-25 rubles. The dolls are mostly wooden or sheathed with husky. In addition to Petrushka himself, they show up a little below the waist.

Parsley. Recorded in St. Petersburg on August 16, 1903 from a puppeteer.
The text is in the collection of P. N. Tikhanov, l. 99-107. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 279-292.
Maryina Roshcha is the nearest Moscow suburb (it became part of the city at the end of the last century), where festivities took place with brisk trade, accompanied by inevitable fights, deceit, revels to the last penny.
Gostiny Dvor is the largest store in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), located in the center of Nevsky Prospekt.

Parsley. A street theater written off from the words of a street buffoon.
Lubok book with the same name. Published in Moscow in 1887 in the printing house of F. Ioganson.
Gypsy Mora from the Yarovsky Choir. - "Yar" - the most famous out-of-town restaurant in Moscow, famous for its gypsy choirs.
Zolotorottsy from the Khitrov market. - Khitrovka, Khitrov market - a large square in the center of Moscow, near the Yauza River. The place had a bad reputation. V. Gilyarovsky once called Khitrovka "a moving rotten pit". This "exchange of thieves and fugitives" was known for its lodging houses and the fact that the police were afraid to go there.
Zamarashka, isn't she from Zaryadye? - Zaryadye - a district of old Moscow, located behind the shopping arcade on Red Square. The place is littered, dirty.

Parsley. Street theatre. The text of the lubok book. Ed. T-va I. D. Sytin. M., 1915.
To Pokrov - Pokrov, according to the old style, was celebrated on October 1. ... they will be taken on firewood - that is, to the cemetery.

From Varvarka to Arbat and to Presnensky Ponds - well-known places of old Moscow.
... lost on Trubnaya Square - Truba, Trubnaya Square - in Moscow, the Neglinka River flowed under the square, concluded in Catherine's time in an underground pipe (hence the name of the square). In rainy times, part of Trubnaya Square turned into an impassable swamp. The notorious tavern "Krym" existed for a long time on Trubnaya Square.

Mischievous Petrushka. The text of the popular print book “Mischievous-Petrushka. Pieska for the Petrushka Theatre. M., Typo-lithography by I. I. Pashkov, 1907. From the collection of S. V. Obraztsov at the State Central Television Gallery.
On the Butyrsky field - in Moscow, a place behind the Butyrskaya outpost.
Snuffbox is a playful name for a big nose.

Vanka. Modern folk puppet comedy. The comedy was recorded in October 1924 from three Voronezh puppeteers.
First published: Voronezh literary conversation. Ed. A. M. Putintseva. Voronezh, 1925, book. 1, p. 7-14.
When published in this volume, the text was edited in accordance with modern spelling (in the original - phonetic notation) while maintaining lexical and morphological features.
He came from Berlin, from Germany itself - apparently, this is a reflection of the fact of the biography of the main puppeteer.
The collector said about one of the puppeteers: “M. A. Plotkin, who plays for dolls - the main one - is a professional (a native of Mogilev province.), He has been playing in a booth since he was 9 years old. In 1924 he was 35 years old. He was a prisoner in Germany. He traveled all over the south and south-west of Russia” (p. 5). “All dolls were made by Plotkin with the assistance of Zakharov. The work is rough. The decoration of the dolls is poor. Plotkin speaks for all the characters, changing his voice accordingly... The Answerer and the Musician speak in ordinary voices, without changing them. They play behind the screens, showing puppets from above the screens from 4 sides. The Respondent and the Musician are outside, near the screen” (p. 8).
In Voronezh and its environs, puppet theater has been very widespread and popular since the middle of the 19th century. According to the publisher, Petrushka was then “represented in a booth on a specially arranged stage, and the puppets were moved by a skilled craftsman through a complex system of threads; there were special "players" to make speeches for the puppets; music was given not by one musician, but by a small orchestra, always with a drum. The people called out with cunning jokes. This was the case during the days of the fair, but at ordinary times, the “walking” Petrushka played the comedy (p. 5).

Nativity scenes

King Herod. Recorded in Smolensk, reproduces a performance dating back to the 1860s-1870s.
The text is taken from the article: Dobrovolsky V.N. Some information about the Smolensk and Elninsk puppet theater / / Izvestiya ORYaS. SPb., 1908, vol. XIII, book. 2, p. 71-78. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 346-349.
Solution - here: Christmas.
The Smolensk crib performance is close to the Belarusian batleika, from which the song “Don’t cry, don’t cry, Rachel” and two everyday scenes - “Arishenka” and “Maximka, the mushroom picker, and his father” are here. The scene with the Hermit and Herod's dialogue with Death are not known to the batleika. The latter, it seems, is borrowed from the dialogue "Anika and Death", performed in the Russian tradition independently or as part of large folk dramas (see "Tsar Maximilian").
In addition to the textually recorded scenes of the second part of the performance (secular), V.N. Dobrovolsky mentioned others, where the Gypsy, Mezhevaya and Mezhevaya, Prince and Princess, Alexander the Great, fighting the Persian king Pir, act.

Death of King Herod. Recorded at the beginning of the 20th century on a Volga steamer from puppeteers from Novgorod.
First published: Izvestiya ORYAS. SPb., 1905, vol. X, book. 3, p. 365-382. The text is taken from the book: Vinogradov N. Great Russian nativity scene. SPb., 1906.
Volstvie (magicians), shepherds (shepherds), otrocha (lad) - obsolete Church Slavonic words, word forms.
The theater met by Vinogradov was somewhat different from the usual two-story one. This is a “rectangular box, about a yard and a quarter wide, three-quarters of an arshin deep and about a yard high. The front wall opens and, being lowered down, closes the various manipulations carried out under the floor by the nimble hands of the owner of the den; the top is brought together by a horse and decorated with carvings. Outside, the theater is covered with binding paper and popular prints depicting various “ages of human life”. The interior is richly decorated. The walls and ceiling are covered with gold and silver paper, multi-colored foil and sparkles. Several multi-colored lanterns are suspended on the sides and top to illuminate the stage during evening performances. The floor is covered with black fur, which masks the movements of puppets on wires cut into different directions cracks. In the right and left sides cut through the door. At the back wall, in the middle, stands the decorated throne of King Herod, rising several steps above the floor level. Near

The throne, on both sides of it, are three fixedly attached warriors in full armor. This is the royal retinue. In the right corner from the audience, a nativity scene with a newborn baby was made and a shining star was hung over it. (The first four scenes pass in front of this den; then it is closed with a curtain.) The opening and closing of the performance is carried out with the help of a red kumak curtain.
From a conversation with puppeteers, Vinogradov learned that in the Novgorod province "several more people are engaged in the same craft", that they "go every year with their theater to different localities" and everywhere they are received "very well, but the earnings are not important, and the police oppress" . The puppeteers know the play by heart and play “with minor variations”, one of them has the text written down in a notebook. Vinogradov wrote down the play from the words of the puppeteer, “with his explanations, then listened, compared and supplemented the performance, and finally wrote out all the options from the notebook [...], where, in addition, one more phenomenon turned out to be superfluous.”

King Herod. Recorded in the town of Slavuta Zaslavsky near. Volyn province. in the winter of 1896/97 from local boys aged 18-20.
The text is in the collection of IP Eremin. Published under the article: Eremin IP Drama-game "King Herod" // Proceedings of the Department of Ancient Russian Literature. M.; L., 1940, v. 10, p. 234-237. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 352-355.
Katuy - executions (from Ukrainian to roll - to execute).
Katya - kat, executioner.
Miolan - "Miolan, Zmiulan - characters of folk tales, knightly stories of the 17th-18th centuries. and a number of folk dramas. This name comes from the combination of two words - “Snake” and “Ilan” (tat. serpent, dragon)” [Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 336).
This performance is especially interesting in that it was played out not with puppets, but by people - Russians living in Ukraine (in the Volyn province), and the performance was given by two parties: “older guys took part in one - eighteen to twenty years old, [...] the other was younger lads - thirteen or fourteen years old.
According to the collector, ethnographer V. A. Moshkov, both troupes had “no decorations; all their theatrical possessions consisted of their costumes, which they made again for every Christmas, and a tent in which Herod's throne (simply a stool) was placed. King Herod was depicted “in a soldier's uniform, over which a red mantle was thrown: he was belted with a wide sash, pasted over with gilded paper; a paper sash is hung over the left shoulder, and a saber on a sword belt pasted over with gold paper over the right shoulder,

On the head is a cardboard crown pasted over with gilded paper, white gloves are on the hands. Herod's guardian performed “in an ordinary mari-narca with gold galloons on his chest, with a ribbon over his shoulder and with a saber; on the head is a low cylindrical cap with a feather. Warriors - “in short chintz uniforms, in leather sashes with a badge, with checkers over their shoulders; on the heads of helmets made of gilded paper; one of them, besides checkers, has a spade. Rachel - "a lad dressed in a woman's dress, with a rag doll in his hands." The devil - or "in an ordinary marinar with a black mask on his face, with horns", or "in a sheepskin coat, turned inside out." Death - "a lad with a sheet thrown over his head, in a white mask, with a wooden scythe in his hands."

FOLKLORE OF URBAN FESTIVE SPEECHES

Petersburg district. I. The text is taken from the book: R o v i n s k i y D. A. Russians folk pictures. M., 1881, v. 5, p. 231. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 125-126; Folk Theatre, p. 379.
II. The text is taken from the book: Book of Alekseev-Yakovlev, p. 55-56. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 126-127; Folk Theatre, p. 379-380.
Alekseev-Yakovlev heard these jokes from a man of "indisputable talent" - Ivan Danilovich Ryabov, a former "serf of some Oryol landowner, a tall, stately handsome man who was released "to freedom" in 1861." Further, Alekseev-Yakovlev writes: “Acquainted with Ryabov on Admiralteiskaya Square, I then met him in Moscow on the Maiden’s Field, and for the last time in the mid-nineties in the Brazilian Garden, in Kunavin, at the Nizhny Novgorod Fair, where I staged a fairy tale extravaganza , and he traded books, popular publications, for the most part, and continued to show the panorama. [...] Ryabov was inexhaustible in jokes, he did not speak about himself and his wanderings otherwise than - "I'm buffoonish." It was heard that he died in Ivanovo-Voznesensk during the years of the Russian-Japanese war, speaking with a panorama to a ripe old age.
III. The text is taken from the book: Leifert A.V. Balagany. Pg., 1922, p. 70. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 127; Folk Theatre, p. 380-381.
IV. The text is taken from the article "Petersburg Notes" // Son of the Fatherland, 1875, No. 8, February 23.
Kostroma is on fire - "a hint at the famous Kostroma fires, during which their own slovenliness accused almost everyone who came across, without exception, of setting fire to" (note by Rovinsky).
Bismarck - Otto Bismarck (1815-1898), the first Chancellor of Germany in 1871-1890, one of the main organizers of the Triple Alliance of 1882, directed against France and Russia.

Senator Gambet was given a carriage. - “Gambetta Leon (1838-1882) - a major French politician, in March 1871 temporarily left political activity. It is possible that the Raeshnik's explanations refer to this episode in Gambetta's biography” (Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 331).
Battle of Sedan - near the French city of Sedan during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. German troops surrounded and defeated French army Marshal M. E. McMahon, who capitulated led by Emperor Napoleon III.

Moscow raek. I. The text is taken from Yu. A. Dmitriev's article "At the old Moscow festivities." - WTO theatrical almanac. M., 1947, book. 6, p. 347. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 127-128; Folk Theatre, p. 382.
II. Performed in Moscow, May 1883
The text is in the Archives of the GTsTM, f. 144 Lentovsky, No. 910-911, fol. 1-2 vol. First published. in the book: Russian folklore. L., 1989, v. 25, p. 134-135. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 382-384.
The city of Arivan - Yerevan.
Prince Ivan Fedorovich - Paskevich-Erivansky, who in 1829 took Yerevan by storm, which had previously been in the power of the Turks.
Khodynskoye Pole is a vast field in the northwestern part of Moscow, a venue for mass folk festivals. In 1896, during the celebration on the occasion of the coronation of Nicholas II, due to the negligence of the authorities, a terrible stampede took place here, where, according to official figures, about one thousand four hundred people died.

Tula district. The text is taken from the article by I. Chulkovsky “Maslenitsa in Tula” // Tula reference sheet, 1865, No. 15, February 20.

The joke of the Yaroslavl Raeshnik. Recorded in Yaroslavl in 1938 by V. Yu. Krupyanskaya from S. N. Rodionova.
The text is in the GLM Archive (material of the Yaroslavl expedition in 1938), cor. 20, p. 1d, No. 22. Published for the first time.

Nizhny Novgorod fair districts. First published in the article by A. S. Gatsiski "Whenever". (Literary additions.) I. Fair districts. - Nizhny Novgorod. Guide and pointer to Nizhny Novgorod and the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. N.-Novgorod, 1875, p. 173-175. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 124-125; Folk Theatre, p. 387-388.
Sukharev tower - "a tower over 70 meters high, built according to

Order of Peter I in 1692 in Moscow. During the reconstruction of Moscow, it was dismantled” (Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 330).
Strengthening Cathedral (that is, the Ecumenical Cathedral) - instead of the Assumption Cathedral (in the Kremlin) (Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 330).
Khotinsky field - “Khodynskoye field in Moscow; Raeshnik confused it with the Khotyn field, mentioned in some old soldiers' songs about the Turkish wars in the 18th century. Khotyn - a city in Moldova, in the XVIII century. - a strong Turkish fortress ”(Anthology of P. N. Berkov, p. 330).
Petrossky Palace - Petrovsky Castle in Moscow.
Leksandrovsky Garden - Alexander Garden in St. Petersburg in front of the Admiralty.
Adesta - Odessa. “Raeshnik showed pictures from the history of the Crimean War. In 1854, the united Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa. During the defense of Odessa, ensign A.P. Shchegolev distinguished himself (died in 1904 with the rank of general) ”(Anthology of P.N. Berkov, p. 330).

Russian raek. The text on the lubok picture is "Russian rayek". Ed. L. Abramova, lithograph. N. Golovina. M., 1857.

World Space. The text of the popular image. Pech. in lithography by A. Prokofiev. M., 1858. Published according to the book: And in and about in E. P. Russian popular popular print. M., 1937, p. 120.

JOKES OF SHOWERS AND CAROUSEL SHUTTERS

Jokes of St. Petersburg "grandfathers". I. Recorded in 1871 from two St. Petersburg "grandfathers" - barkers - retired soldiers Ivan Evgrafov and Gavrila Kazantsev.
The text is taken from the article “Petersburg farcical jokes recorded by V.I. Kelsiev // Proceedings of the ethnographic department of the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography. M., 1889, book. 9, p. 113-118. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 129-133 (not all jokes are included); Folk Theatre, p. 395-401.
V. I. Kelsiev’s notes were published by his brother, who subjected them to some editing: “I accurately copied my brother’s notebooks, softened the words in two or three places, omitted repetitions, arranged the texts in order of content, renumbered and titled them, adhering to the notes on original. With the exception of a few numbers that are inconvenient for printing, here is everything that I found in my brother's manuscripts” (p. 113).
II. The text is taken from the book: Leifert A.V. Balagany, p. 65-69. See also:

Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 129-136; Folk Theatre, p. 401-406.
Sennaya - a square in St. Petersburg, where one of the largest markets in the capital was located.
“Bath” - “alegorically: a police station where pickpockets were subjected to corporal punishment” (Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 332).
Narva Zastava - built in 1814 at the entrance to St. Petersburg along the southern road.
Obukhovsky bridge - a bridge across the Fontanka in St. Petersburg, now does not exist.
"Barber" - in this joke, an allusion to the frequent robberies in St. Petersburg in the 1860s behind the Moscow outpost.
He stood with an elm needle - “with a club, that is, he was engaged in robbery” (Anthology by L. N. Berkov, p. 332).
Fartal - distort. "quarter".
Go for a ride on a boat - that is, on a carousel or a swing with seats in the form of a boat.

Moscow jokes. I. The text is taken from the book: Dmitriy v Yu. A. Russian circus. M., 1953, p. 35.
II. Monologue before the performance. Epilogue.
The text is in the archives of the GTsTM, no. 145904, l. 1-4. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 408-409.
Mirikaschi are Americans.
Maximilian - refers to the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bTsar Maximilian, which is given in a booth, where the "grandfather" invites.
Walk along the Manezh - In Moscow at the end of the 19th century. festivities were often held in the city Manezh. “The entire arena was cleaned and decorated with flags, garlands, open stages were arranged for the performances of various magicians, acrobats, storytellers, coupletists, songwriter choirs and other pop performers” (Bel o s o v I. Gone Moscow. M., 1964, p. 337).

Smolensky called out. The text is taken from the book: Alperov S. D. In the arena of the old circus. M., 1936, p. 15-16. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 410-411.

“Here, here, respectable gentlemen...” The text is taken from the book: Filatov V., Aronov A. Bear Circus. M., 1962, p. 21.
The barker's monologue at the circus round sounded in 1886, when thirteen-year-old Ivan Filatov (the future famous circus performer, trainer) was forced by the owner of the circus to perform with lions, instead of the boy's deceased stepfather.

Clown and ringmaster. 1-4. The texts are in the collection of P. N. Tikhanov. No. 1-3, l. 111-113, No. 4, l. 123. First published: Folk Theatre, p. 416-420.
Ringmaster - in the circus: "head of the stable." The person talking to the clowns is the ringmaster. But in the folk farcical tradition, in many records of "raus" the first term is used.

Clown and owner. The text is taken from an article by V. V. "Comedian" in the Kharkov newspaper "Southern Territory" dated December 18, 1897. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 420-421.
The seventeenth guild merchant is a comedic combination. In Russia, the merchants, depending on the amount of capital and the type of trade, were divided into three guilds (categories).
The pillar nobleman is an ancient family whose nobility spans several generations.

Comrade and clown. The text is taken from Yu. A. Dmitriev's article "At the old Moscow festivities", p. 354-355. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 422-423.

Yerema and Foma. The text is in the archives of the GTsTM, No. 145905. First published: Folklore Theatre, p. 424-426.
Yerema and Foma are a popular comic couple. The beginning of their conversation is a dialogue well known from popular prints, fairy tales, stories and songs about Thomas and Yerema; the second part is a typical invitation to a farce in the form of a raus dialogue, which uses the popular ideas about the bear as an intelligent animal and having the gift of healing, predicting fate, etc.

Yerema and Putty. The text is in the archives of the GTsTM, No. 145906. Published for the first time.
Putty - Yerema's partner in the round dialogue, so named because he came out stained in flour (a variant of the Russian Pierrot).
Seltzer water - table mineral water.
... "to drive a bear" - to drink and eat a lot.
The Hermitage is a luxurious expensive restaurant on Trubnaya Square in Moscow, where eminent merchants and the rich used to hang out. That was also the name of the pleasure garden with the famous operetta theater of M. V. Lentovsky.

Transvaal. The text is in the archives of the GTsTM, no. 145909, l. 1. Published for the first time.
The dialogue is a response to the war of 1899-1902. Great Britain vs Boer Republics South Africa- The Orange Free State and the Transvaal.
Ladysmith is a city that was besieged by the Boers at the beginning of the war.
Kruger S.-P. (1825-1904) - President of the Transvaal, one of the leaders of the resistance of the Boers to the British troops.
Chamberlain J. (1836-1914) - Minister of the Colonies of Great Britain in 1895-1903.

Pakhomych. The text is in the archives of the GTsTM, No. 167950. Published for the first time.
The scene, designed for balcony barkers, was created and performed by I. A. Zaitsev at the beginning of the 20th century.
I. A. Zaitsev (1863-1936) - a typical representative of the fair, square culture of Russia, he was a great puppeteer (he was fluent in parsley, puppets), he cut and designed puppets, was an acrobat, sword swallower, gymnast, magician, writer and performer round miniatures; traveled all over Russia, worked in various booths and circuses. In 1931 he was accepted into the troupe Central Theater puppets under the direction of S. V. Obraztsov, where he was awarded the title of Honored Artist of the Republic.

Cries and Rhymes of Street Vendors and Artisans

The eloquence of the Russian Torzhok. Materials from the collection of V. I. Simakov, stored in the Manuscript Department of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Published according to the publication of T. G. Bulak in the book: From the history of Russian folklore. L., 1978, p. 107-134.
Recordings were made in Moscow in the 10-20s of our century.
"Korkodil" - the magazine "Krokodil", which began to be published in 1922.
Madnast (mannness) - softness, velvety, tenderness, the absence of any astringency (note Bulak).
"Trezvon" is the name of the old company that produced cigarettes (note Bulak).
"Delhi", "Uzbek" - Soviet-made cigarettes that appeared on the market in 1922-1923. (note by Simakov).
Matches Lapshin - refers to the match factory Lapshin in pre-revolutionary Russia.

Antikh, antique (outdated) - charm, delight; playful expression of praise, the highest degree admiration for someone or something (note Bulak).

Moscow shooter. The text of the popular print "Moscow Sbitenshchik and Khodebshchik", printed in lithography by A. Prokofiev. M., 1858.

Peddler-baluster. The text of the popular image. Lithograph of Golyshev in Golyshevka. 1876.

Pie-maker Yashka. The text is in the ShTM archive, No. 10332 (145908). Published V. D. Kuzmina in Proceedings of the ODRL. M.; L., 1955, vol. XI, p. 421.

Sbitenshchik. The text is taken from M. A. Orlov’s article “Recreation, or May Day” / / Rest of a Christian, 1910, No. b.

BEAR FUN

“The arrival of the leader with the bear ...” The text is taken from the book: R about in and n with k and y D. A. Russian folk pictures. SPb., 1881, v. 5, p. 227-229. See also: Anthology by P. N. Berkov, p. 137-138; Folk Theatre, p. 431-432.
... the lady collects talc and eggs in a basket with women - serfs had to give the landowner a certain amount of yarn, eggs, berries and other products and products of their labor during the year.
...sits, speaks little, burps after a word, after two n[...] - no. - "In the second edition of "Russian Folk Pictures" by D. A. Rovinsky (1900, vol. II, st. 365-367): "...sits, speaks little, through the word [...]" - Rovinsky makes a footnote : “Written down on the performance itself, which in nature was incomparably faster” (vol. II, st. 366).
The leader begins to beat out the fraction. - “This is where the swearing name came from: “Oh, you, a retired goat drummer” (note by Rovinsky, vol. II, stb. 367).
Description of the bear comedy of the middle of the 19th century.

Sergach. The text is taken from the essay by S. V. Maksimov "Sergach". // Collected works of S.V. Maksimov. In 20 volumes. St. Petersburg, 1909, v. 13, p. 76-83. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 435-438.
...the annual celebration of the summer Kazanskaya. - Appearance of the Kazan Icon of God

Mother is celebrated on July 8 (21). The holiday was especially solemnly celebrated where Kazanskaya was a patronal holiday; guests came to such a village, youth festivities were organized.
... grins already non-dangerous teeth. - For the safety of the leader, young bears, which were prepared for fun, filed their claws and teeth.
The essay describes the Nizhny Novgorod bear fun of the middle of the 19th century.
Explaining the nickname of the bear, Maksimov writes: “In our northern Great Russian provinces, the custom of driving bears has been adopted by residents of well-known localities; for the most part, the Tatars of the Sergach district of the Nizhny Novgorod province drive. And here is the origin of the name sergach, which passes from the guide-master and to the furry dancer; one conductor remains with its unchanged name - goats. The name sergach has recently become so common that, whether a guide from Myshkin (Yaroslavl province), Vladimir, Kostroma, he will certainly be given the name of a Nizhny Novgorod town ”(pp. 73-74).

Driver's sentence. Recorded in the Knyagininsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. from the words of a Russified Tatar leader from Vasilsky district, in the middle of the 19th century.
The text is taken from the book: Nizhny Novgorod collection. Ed. A. Gatsiskogo. N.-Novgorod, 1867, v. 1, p. 220-221. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 441.

[Sentences of the bugbear]. The text is taken from the article: Albinsk and P. Sergach Bear Bears (From the history of obsolete seasonal trades) // Nizhny Novgorod provinces. statements. 1887, 7 Jan. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 439-440.
P. Albinsky, like S. Maksimov, considered the leaders of the Sergach and Vasilsky districts of the Nizhny Novgorod province to be “real, indigenous bear bearers”. “The Tatar settlement Andreevka was especially famous for the number of its bears, where there were up to 150 bears. A significant number of bears were found in [...] Gribanovo (up to 50 bears), Poshatov (about 10 bears), Anda, Kochko-Pozharki [...], in the county town of Ser-gach (up to 90 bears), in the villages of Klyuchev (up to 120 bears) and Cemeteries (up to 60 bears). Our Sergach bear hunters bought bears wherever they could find them - near the Tver province, in forests and swamps, in manor yards, from hunters [...] ". Bear cubs cost from a ruble to four, and a large trained bear was estimated at up to 150 rubles. “There were relatively wealthy people among the bears, who had several bears and rented them to others,” in this case, the leader received half of the earnings, the “goat” boy received a third or fourth, the rest was due to the owner of the bear. "General environment-

The figure of money brought by each bear bear from campaigns with a bear was equal to 100 rubles a year, ”the campaigns were very distant and long: fifteen people left the house to fish in artels“ near the Savior of the Transfiguration (Aug. 6) and around Sergius Day (25 Sept.), and returned back to Peter's Day (June 29), to the Trinity, to Ilyin's Day ”[Dates are given according to the old style. Ilyin's day - July 20 (O.S.)], i.e., it was possible to live at home for three weeks, at best, a month. Sergach "bears" went to Moscow, Smolensk, Belarus, Ukraine, and went to Poland, Latvia, Moldova.
The stories and verdicts were recorded by P. Albitsky mainly from the “old bear” from the village of Cemeteries Andrei Vasiliev Lomakin.

“Come on, Mishenka Ivanych...” The text of the popular print printed in the lithograph by A. Abramov. M., 1866. Published on Sat.: Folk poetic satire. L., 1960, p. 298-299. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 446-447.

[Bears in Kaluga]. Recorded in 1928 in Kaluga from bear leaders N. I. Balanov, 37 years old, and N. F. Reshetnik, 38 years old - Moldavians of the Khotinsky district of Bessarabia.
The text is taken from the article by Sheremeteva M.E. “The leaders of the bears in Kaluga” // Collection of the Kaluga state. museum. Kaluga, 1930, no. 1, p. 61-64. See also: Folk Theatre, p. 442-444.
Moldavian bears traveled all over the country, their fishing is hereditary, in some families this occupation was passed down from generation to generation for three centuries. According to the leaders from whom the recording was made, children in such families were trained in the art of comedy from early childhood, working with bear cubs and young bears.
The performance went to the harmony and tambourine, a comedy was played in Russian.

WRITERS AND CULTURAL WORKERS ABOUT THE FOLK THEATER

FOLK DRAMA

“The singers did not stop...” The text is taken from the essay by A. S. Griboedov “A country trip (an excerpt from a letter from a southern resident)”.
Published according to the book: Griboedov A.S. Full. coll. op. A. S. Griboedova. SPb., 1889, vol. 1, p. 109.

“Our playful amusements...” An excerpt from the memoirs of F. I. Buslaev about the days of study at Moscow University.

Published according to the book: Buslaev F.I. My memories (Academician F.I. Buslaev). M., 1897, p. 116-117.

“I also remember well...” From M. Speransky's article “Iv. Al. Goncharov and new materials for his biography // Bulletin of Europe, 43rd year, vol. VI, St. Petersburg, 1908, p. 25.

“I had masquerades on holidays...” An excerpt from a letter from I. S. Turgenev to Aksakov.
Published according to: I. S. Turgenev. From the correspondence of I. S. Turgenev with the Aksakov family. Forty years ago: 1852-1857 // Bulletin of Europe, 29th year, book. 1. St. Petersburg, 1894, p. 339.

“In the evening, artillery soldiers came to me ...” An excerpt from a letter from I. S. Aksakov to his relatives.
Published according to the book: Aksakov I. S. Ivan Sergeevich Aksakov in his letters, part 1, vol. 3. Letters of 1851-1860. A trip to Little Russia. Militia... Travel abroad. M., 1882, p. 221-222.

"Original announcement in Sestrebek..." From Ya. P. Polonsky's diary. December 18, 1855 // Voice of the Past, 1919, No. 1-4, p. 115.

“In county towns at that time...” An excerpt from the memoirs of P. V. Zasodimsky.
Published according to the book: Z a s o d i m s k i y P. V. From memories. M., 1908, p. 13-15.

"Alexander Ivanovich told a lot..." An excerpt from the memoirs of A. Milyukov about Herzen.
Published according to the book: M and lyukov A. Literary meetings and acquaintances. Stories by A. Milyukov. SPb., 1890, p. 143, 145-146.

“The vanity of the sexual ones has begun again ...” An excerpt from the essay by F. D. Nefedov. Christmas time in the village of Danilov. Essays from the life of the factory village "// Bulletin of Europe, 6th year, vol. II. SPb., 1871, p. 83-87.

[Fair scooters] An excerpt from an essay by A. P. Melnikov. Essays on everyday history of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair.
Published according to the book: Centenary of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. N.-Novgorod, 1917, p. 126-128.

“It's not a village here...” An excerpt from the essay by O. Ya. Yelpatevsky “Fair Pictures. I. Scooters.
Published according to the book: Elpatevsky O. Ya. Stories. M., 1919, v. 2, p. 136-138.

“The choir performed indoors...” From the memoirs of the honored artist M. A. Rostovtsev.
Published according to the book: Rostovtsev M. A. Pages of life. M., 1939, p. 63-65.

“Polyakov called us for a long time...” An excerpt from the diary of V. Ya. Bryusov about the meeting of the New Year (1900) at the factory of A. Polyakov.
A. A. Polyakov - manufacturer-philanthropist.
Yu. K. Baltrushaitis (1873-1944) - Lithuanian poet, at the beginning of the 20th century he joined the Symbolists.

“In a few days, Anton Bobrov himself comes ...” An excerpt from the memoirs of E. V. Sakharova “The People's Theater and the Family of V. D. Polenov. Memories of the Artist's Daughter // Tarusa Pages. Literary and artistic illustrated collection. Kaluga, 1961, p. 243.

PUPPET SHOW

“This comedy is being played in Moscow...” Description of a parsley performance in Moscow in the middle of the 19th century. The text is taken from the book: R o v i n s k i y D. A. Russian Folk Pictures. SPb., 1881, v. 5, p. 225-227.

[“Petrushka” in the Kuban.] Diary entry of the caretaker of the Ekaterinodar parish school V.F. Zolotarenko dated October 1, 1844.
Published according to the book: From the diary of V. F. Zolotarenko (1841-1847) // Kuban Regional Gazette, 1901, No. 165, July 29.

Petersburg organ grinders. The text is taken from the essay by D. V. Grigorovich "Petersburg organ-grinders" (1843) // Grigory and ch D. V. Full. coll. op. In 12 volumes. St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. 1, p. 22-26.
In the Semenovsky regiment, in the corner, in the fifth company, in the Goat Swamp, there is a comic address that combines real St.

Stvenno the streets of this area were called "companies" and were numbered.

“Having heard about the farce ...” An excerpt from the poem by N. A. Nekrasov “Who should live well in Rus'” (1863-1877): part one, chapter II “Village Fair”.

Parsley. The poem belongs to the Iskra poet and actor of the Alexandrinsky Theater G. N. Zhulev (1834-1878), written in 1864.
Published according to the book: Poets of Iskra. In 2 vols. L., 1987, v. 2, p. 305-306, 413.
...they play roles because of one-offs - that is, on the terms of per-performance payment for artists.
... red collar - quarterly.

“I led him to listen to Petrushka...” F. M. Dostoevsky’s draft notes for the 3rd chapter of the first chapter of the Writer’s Diary for January 1876
Published by A. S. Dolinin in the Scientific Records of the Leningrad Ped. in-ta im. Pokrovsky, vol. 2. L., 1940, v. 4, p. 315-316; See also: F. M. Dostoevsky on art. M., 1973, p. 452-455.
Dostoevsky's reasoning is caused by the performance of a folk puppet comedy on a Christmas tree in the Artists' Club in St. Petersburg, which he saw together with I.F. Gorbunov.
Samoilov V. V. (1813-1887) - actor of the St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky Theater, who had great success in the plays of A. N. Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin, Shakespeare.
Gorbunov I.F. (1831-1896) - actor of the St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky Theater, author and excellent performer of short humorous stories-sketches.

Country Fair and Vinegar Parsley. An excerpt from the travel diary of Iv. Shcheglova (I. L. Leontiev), related to the fair in the city of Murom, Vladimir Province. in 1895
Published according to the book: Shcheglov I. The people and the theater. SPb., 1911, p. 117-127.

Parsley on Sakhalin. Text from the chapter "Convict theater" of V. M. Doroshevich's book "Sakhalin" (M., 1903, p. 125-126).

Petr Petrovich Uksusov. The text is taken from the book: Speransky E.V. Actor of the puppet theater. M., 1965, p. 15-21.
The description of the parsley comedy in Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century belongs to

lies major figure Soviet puppet theater - actor, director, playwright, author of a number of works on the puppet theater. E. Speransky looks at "Petrushka" through the eyes of a professional, brought up on a qualitatively different art, and nevertheless highly appreciates the centuries-old folk experience, the skill of ordinary street puppeteers.

"Nativity scene - a box with two tiers..." An excerpt from the memoirs of the writer E. A. Avdeeva about Irkutsk at the end of the 18th century.
The text is taken from the book: Avdeeva E.A. Notes and remarks about Siberia. M., 1837, p. 57-59.

Nativity scene in Irkutsk. Memories belong to the pen famous critic and playwright of the last century - Nick. Field, whose childhood was spent in Irkutsk at the beginning of the 19th century.
The text is taken from the article: Polevoy N. My memories of the Russian theater and Russian drama // Repertoire of the Russian theater. SPb., 1840, book. 2 (Feb.), p. 2-3.
Catalani Angelina (1780-1849) - famous Italian opera singer. She performed in many countries, including Russia (in 1820).
Sontag Henriette (1806-1854) - German opera and chamber singer. In 1837-1843. lived in Petersburg.
Requiem, Don Juan - works by V.-A. Mozart.
The clan of Scapen the servant, the clan of Orgon the master - the heroes of the plays by J.-B. Molière ("Tricks of Scapin" and "Tartuffe").

FAIR SPEECH FOLKLORE

“A little further ...” An excerpt from the essay by the writer of the sixties A. I. Levitov “Types and scenes of a rural fair” // Lev and tov A. I. Soch. In 2 t. L.; M., 1932, v. 1, p. 110-111.
The city of China is a mixture of China and the central part of Moscow adjacent to the Kremlin - Kitay-gorod.
Spassky Gates - refers to the gates in the Moscow Kremlin.
Bruce - an overseas sorceress - “Bruce Yakov Vilyamovich (1670-1735) - general under Peter I; in 1709-1715 published the so-called "Bryusov calendar" with drawings and predictions of events until 1821, which is why he was known among the people as a sorcerer. In pre-revolutionary times, many publishers printed all sorts of nonsense in the mass editions of calendars under the title "Predictions according to Bruce" (note by I. S. Yezhov to Levitov's decree to that, p. 846).
Alexander the Blessed - Alexander I.

“Have you ever…” An excerpt from the review of V. G. Belinsky “Benefit performance of the city of Zhivokini” // Belinskiy V. G. Soch. M., 1888, part 1, p. 505. Review written 1835.

Yushka is a comedian. The text is taken from the book: G i l yar o v k i y V. A. Moscow and Muscovites // G i l yar o v k i y V. A. Favorites. In 3 vol. M., 1961, vol. 3, p. 74-75.
Julia Pastrana is a woman with increased hairiness ("lady with a beard"), who was often shown in booths as a "wonder of nature."

Yashka-clown. Excerpts from the memoirs of F.I. Chaliapin about Kazan in the early 1880s. Published according to the book: Fedor Ivanovich Chaliapin. literary heritage. Letters. In 3 vols. M., 1957, vol. 1, p. 42-43; 243-244.
Fomin's week - following the Easter week.

“In the gateway of our house...” An excerpt from the book by Lev Uspensky “Notes of an Old Petersburger” (L., 1970, p. 76-79). We are talking about St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 20th century.
Nyustadtskaya street - now Lesnoy avenue in Leningrad.

“Small, caricatured NEP...” From an article by V. V. Mayakovsky in 1923 “Small NEP. (Moscow Sketches)" // Maya k o v s k i y V. V. Poln. coll. op. In 13 t. M., 1959, v. 12, p. 59-60.

Damn and alarm clock. Performance in one of the booths on Devichye Pole in Moscow in the middle of the 19th century.
The text is taken from the book: R o v i n s k i y D. A. Russian Folk Pictures. In 2 vol. M., 1900, vol. 2, stb. 407.

“Many really go to the farce ...” An excerpt from the essay by G. I. Uspensky “Bright Day. I. Night and entertainment "(1863) // Full. coll. op. In 14 t. M., 1952, vol. 1, p. 46-47.

“I got into a booth on Tsvetnoy Boulevard...” An entry from the diary of P. I. Tchaikovsky. Text from the book: Chaykovskiy P.I. Diary. L.; M., 1928, p. 141.

Samara. 1878 ... "From the memoirs of I. L. Filatov - one of the largest representatives of a whole dynasty of artists of the domestic circus.

Published according to the book: F and lat o v V., A ron o v A. Bear circus. M., 1962, p. 16-18, 50-51, 51-53.

“The most vivid impression...” An excerpt from the memoirs of Alisa Koonen (1889-1974), referring to the mid-1890s. Published according to the book: Konen A. Pages of life. M., 1985, p. 14-16.
Odintsovo is a large trading village in the Tver region.
The Malakhov Theater is a country theater in Malakhovka (a village near Moscow), where A. Koonen played in the summer of 1911.
“Where did the fuss catch fire” is a comedy-joke in 4 acts by V. Aleksandrov (V. A. Krylov).

“I remember Easter was approaching...” An excerpt from the biographical story of Nadezhda Plevitskaya, a performer of Russian folk songs famous at the beginning of our century, “Dezhkin Karagod”. The story refers to 1899-1900.
Published according to the book: Nest'e in I. V. Stars of the Russian stage. (Panina, Vyaltseva, Plevitskaya). M., 1970, p. 136-137.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FAIRS AND FESTIVALS

“There are a lot of pedlars on the streets...” Text from the book: Kon and A. F. Old Petersburg. Memories of an old timer. Pb., 1922, p. 19-20, 52-53. Petersburg in the middle of the 19th century.

Petersburg Notes. An excerpt from the essay by V. A. Sleptsov “Petersburg Notes. I. Spring walk with children along the streets of St. Petersburg ”(1863).
Published according to the book: Slepts o in V. A. Soch. In 2 vol. M., 1957, vol. 2, p. 330.

“Crowds of people are stretching from all sides ...” The text is taken from the essay by I. G. Pryzhov “From under Novinsky, which is in Moscow” // Pryzho in I. G. Essays. Articles. Letters. M.; L., 1934, p. 236-237.
Puppets with the same Parsley - puppets in general are meant.

Booths on the holy. Chapter of the essay by V. A. Sleptsov “Street Scenes” // Sleptsov V. A. Soch. in 2 t. M.; L., 1933, v. 2, p. 469-479.
Described folk festival on Easter in St. Petersburg in the sixties of the XIX century.
The other panorama refers to the rayek.
The city of Arshava: it used to be rough, now it has been smoothed out - a hint of the pacification of the Polish uprising of 1863,

Nikolaevsky bridge - now the bridge of Lieutenant Schmidt on the Neva. In Bolshaya Morskaya - now st. Herzen in Leningrad.

"On the Maiden's Field..." An excerpt from N. D. Teleshov's Notes of a Writer. Published according to the ed.: Teleshov N. D. Notes of a Writer. M., 1948, p. 256, 268-270, 273-274.
The description refers to Moscow at the end of the last century.
In the week of meat-empty - Shrovetide week, Maslenitsa.
Palm Week is the week before Easter.

Memories of Shrovetide booths in St. Petersburg. Foreword by A. N. Benois to the book: Leyfert A. V. Balagany. L., 1922.
Tsaritsyn meadow - Field of Mars, where since the 80s of the XIX century in St. Petersburg Maslenitsa and Easter festivities were held.
Kirochnaya - now st. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in Leningrad.
Melpomene and Thalia - in ancient Greek mythology, two of the nine muses of art; the first is the patroness of tragedy, the second is comedy.
Cassandra - in Greek mythology, the daughter of King Priam of Troy, who received a prophetic gift from Apollo.
Captives of the Smolny Monastery - pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens; The Institute was located on the territory of the Smolny Monastery.

Petersburg of my childhood. From the memoirs of M. V. Dobuzhinsky, relating to the 90s of the XIX century.
Published according to the book: Dobuzh and n with k and y M. V. Memoirs. M., 1987, p. 6, 17-20.
The inevitable “Battle of the Russians with the Kabardians” is an extremely popular popular popular novel of the middle of the 19th century, it was reprinted many times, its episodes were played out in farcical performances.
The White General - this was the name of the general from infantry M. D. Skobelev - the hero of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

BEAR FUN

“And I still got wound up ...” An episode from “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”.
Pub. by ed.: Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself, and his other writings. M., 1934, p. 75-76.
Uhari - apparently, "masks", "masks (hari)".
Boyar Vasily Petrovich Sheremetev (d. 1659) - since 1648 he was appointed to the province in Kazan.
Avvakum's meeting with bear cubs took place in July - August

1648 in the village of Lopatitsy, Makaryevsky district, Nizhny Novgorod province.

Notification. Placed in the "St. Petersburg Gazette", 1771, No. 56, July 15. Karls are dwarfs. Gunpowder - here: rubbish, mote.

“A bear and a goat are faking...” The text of the popular print. Second quarter of the 19th century. - State. Russian Museum (Leningrad), engraving department. GR. lub. 2731. See also: Rov and n s k i y D. A. Russian folk pictures, vol. 1, no. 179 b.
Play valika - distort. the spelling must be either "bagpipe" or "balalaika".
Cheese Week - Maslenitsa.
The picture is one of the oldest and most popular, known from the 18th century (engraving on wood), in the 19th century many repetitions were made, engraved on copper.

In Maryina grove. The text of the popular print printed in intaglio E. [I]. Yakovlev. M., 1858.
Published according to the text reproduced in the book: Lubok. Part 1. Russian song. Comp. and comment. S. A. Klepikova. M., 1939, p. 221. (In this edition, the text is given in modern orthography.)
The picture enjoyed sustained success, was readily sold out, and therefore was published in large numbers in various printing houses for half a century (since the 1850s).

“As a child, I often saw ...” The text is taken from S. Shcheglov's essay “The City of Petrovsk. Fragments of memories” // Proceedings of the Saratov Scientific Archival Commission, vol. 25, 1909, p. 279.
Memoirs date back to the 1860s.
Petrovsk is a county town in the north of the Saratov province.

Lost Moscow. An excerpt from the memoirs of the poet, prose writer and translator I. A. Belousov “Gone Moscow” // Gone Moscow. Memoirs of contemporaries about Moscow in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1964, p. 347-348.
... at that time and later - we are talking about the 70s of the XIX century.

"Maryanna". The text is taken from the article: Legat V. In the backyards of Moscow // Ogonyok, 1925, No. 36 (127), p. 14-15.
The article reflects the last period of the existence of bear fun.

The name of A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777) is associated with the assertion in Russian literature of the 18th century. aesthetic doctrine of classicism, its design in a living literary direction. Sumarokov acts both as a theoretician of this doctrine and as a recognized leader of the trend itself, its most active and creatively prolific representative.

Sumarokov considered the creation of Russian literature worthy of taking an equal place among other European literatures as the goal of his life. In the “Two Epistoles” published by him in 1748, Sumarokov, following the example of Boileau, instructed novice Russian writers on what models they should follow in various poetic genres, what these genres themselves should be, what the poet’s art consists in. The vastness of the planned prospects, the comparative novelty of the proclaimed ideas were in full harmony with the leading trends in the cultural and ideological construction of those years. Sumarokov was full of confidence in the achievability of the goals:

All is laudable: whether Drama, Eclogue or Ode -
Compose what your nature draws you to;
Only enlightenment writer give mind:
A beautiful tongue is capable of everything.

But no matter how detailed and fascinating the exposition of the theoretical postulates of classicism was, the instructions themselves could not replace the living literary practice. National samples were needed, for which Russian novice authors

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could navigate. New literature had to be created. And Sumarokov takes on this task.

There was practically no such literary genre of classicism in which Sumarokov would not try his hand. Fanatically devoted to the theatre, Sumarokov laid the foundations for the national repertoire of the Russian stage of the 18th century. It is to him that the merit of creating the first national samples of the leading genres of classicism dramaturgy - tragedy, comedy, opera belongs. It is no coincidence that he was also the first director of the first public Russian theater founded in 1756.

Russian elegy, poetic satire and Russian fable also owe the peculiarities of their poetic structure to Sumarokov. He transferred to the national soil, creating here a certain tradition, the genres of eclogue and idyll, epigram and stanza. Developing the forms of Anacreontic lyrics and the genre of the Horatian ode, Sumarokov in his own way prepared Derzhavin's achievements in this area. Finally, he created a peculiar genre of song-romance, which stood at the origins of the sensitive lyrics of sentimentalism and stylizations of lyrical folk songs, developed by poets of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Sumarokov's prose is also interesting. A born publicist with a sharp satirical gift, he combined the qualities of a journalist and a critic, being the organizer and sole publisher of Russia's first literary magazine, The Hardworking Bee (1759).

Such was the scope of the creative activity of Sumarokov, the recognized leader of the noble literary camp in the 1740s-1760s.

Like Lomonosov, Sumarokov saw literature as a means of shaping public opinion. But in the evaluation driving forces socio-historical processes, he stood on emphatically estate positions. A student of the Land gentry corps, Sumarokov already during the period of study in it was imbued with the spirit of the election of the nobility. And, acting as the ideologist of this class, Sumarokov demanded that the nobility justify their high position in society with noble deeds:

And in the nobility everyone, with whatever rank,
Not in title - in action should be a nobleman,
And the great noble sin is unforgivable.
Chief, keep the statutes above all!
Nobility titlo pours from blood to blood for us;
But let us say: why is the nobility so given?
If my grandfather lived in the world for the benefit of society,
He pays himself, he deserves a deposit for me,
And I'm this deposit, taking someone else's merit,
Should not put his dignity as a boundary
...................
For encouragement decent taking a deposit,
Do I rightly have prosperity without labor?

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Such is the moral credo of Sumarokov, deployed by him in the satire "On Nobility", addressed to the representatives of the ruling class.

The strength and well-being of the state is based, in his opinion, on the strict observance by all members of society of their duty. And the higher the position occupied by a person on the steps of the social hierarchy, the higher the moral and intellectual qualities he must possess. In this Sumarokov did not make an exception for anyone, even the monarchs. In another of his programmatic essays, “The Epistle of his imp. Highness Sovereign Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich ... "(1761) he directly explains to the heir what a high responsibility is entrusted to the crowned bearers:

We must all love our fatherland,
And the tsarist branches should be loved more;
The well-being of the people on the throne.
................
Orator slumbering, having a lazy thought,
Carelessly sowing the seeds
Will suffer a loss, losing time,
With negligence, one will spoil the field,
And those only burdens will fall on him;
And if the sovereign stumbles, so woe
It will pour on the people, and often like the sea.
This is the reason for the wedding blood
Have more love for the fatherland.

In these verses lies a kind of key to understanding the ideological orientation of the most significant works of Sumarokov, especially his tragedies. If Lomonosov chose the genre of a solemn ode as the main means of proclaiming his ideals, then for Sumarokov the theater became the main platform for the deployment of his ideological program. It was in the field of theater that he established his leading role in the development of Russian classicism.

Sumarokov's perception of the experience of European drama takes place at a time when in France classicism was practically losing its viability. The work of Corneille and Racine by the middle of the 18th century. acquired the significance of a historical tradition. The greatest authority in the genre of tragedy by this time in France was Voltaire. But the tragedy of Voltaire is already marked by a qualitatively different attitude in the interpretation of the nature of the tragic conflict and in the very understanding of the function of the genre. Voltaire turns the genre into a mouthpiece for the propaganda of enlightenment ideals. In his plays, the playwright also speaks against

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tyranny of the monarchy, and against the intolerance of the church, against all forms of fanaticism, hypocrisy and cruelty. The dramatic system of Voltaire, while maintaining a direct connection with the canon of the classic tragedy of the 17th century, at the same time carried the features of other systems of artistic worldview. On the one hand, in some of Voltaire's tragedies, his perception of the principles of Shakespeare's theater is clearly visible, on the other hand, in a number of plays, the influence of new dramatic trends - the traditions of tearful petty-bourgeois drama - is felt.

This reconciliation of late French classicism with the dramatic system of Shakespeare, as well as the didacticism of Voltaire's plays, were characteristic of the theater of the era of the formation of enlightenment ideology. The young Russian dramaturgy, which took its first steps in the work of Sumarokov in a genre new to it, was only just joining the pan-European process of cultural development. The traditions of classicism in the mind of Sumarokov organically coexisted with the traditions of Shakespeare's theater, and in this sense - with the spiritual heritage of the European Renaissance. A minimum stock of personal experience ensured freedom of choice.

In pre-revolutionary literary criticism, the originality of the structural appearance of Sumarokov's tragedies was disputed. They saw only an imitation of the tragedies of French classicism of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. Sumarokov was not afraid to admit that he followed the lessons of the great French playwrights, in particular Racine. He really transferred to Russian soil the general scheme of the classic tragedy, with the obligatory five-act construction, with the introduction on stage of heroic personalities from semi-legendary distant times of the historical past. Sumarokov's plays, sustained in the system of dramatic canons of classicism, were also written in the correct Alexandrian verse - a recognized standard of the tragedy genre, which was also new for the Russian theater.

However, Sumarokov's assimilation of European traditions did not mean his blind copying of French classic samples. In a number of cases, the structure of Sumarokov's tragedy demonstrates a departure from the genre canon he perceived. So, for example, Sumarokov frees his tragedies from the system of confiding, reducing the number of characters involved to a minimum. Another feature of the compositional structure of Sumarokov's plays is the extreme weakness of intrigue. This feature gave rise to a kind of inertia in the development of action in tragedies and often led to the absence of a denouement in them. And the denouement itself in most of Sumarokov's tragedies was marked by a happy outcome.

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The reason for the difference in the structure of Sumarokov's tragedy from the tragedy of French classicism of the 17th century. is rooted in a completely different understanding of the essence of the tragic conflict. Outwardly, Sumarokov, perhaps, caught the contradiction that served as the source for the development of dramatic action in the tragedies of Racine and Corneille: the contradiction between the duty arising from the awareness of the individual of his social position, and between the internal interests of the individual himself. But the conflict that forms the basis of the tragic situation, this contradiction in the tragedies of Sumarokov, never was and could not be.

Russia has not yet experienced an era of spiritual emancipation of human individuality on the scale and forms that were characteristic of the Renaissance in Europe. And accordingly, the ideological thought of Russia until the XVIII century. practically did not develop those ideas about the freedom of the human person and the self-worth of the individual, which for the West, which survived the turbulent Renaissance, were natural and organic. Awareness of the illusory nature of these ideas - as a consequence of the collapse of the ideals of the Renaissance - formed the basis of the tragic understanding of the position of the individual in this world; it was recorded in the political treatises of T. Hobbes, and in the "Experiences" of M. Montaigne, and in the poems of T. A. d'Aubigne. These are the origins of the solution to the problem of personality, inherited by the tragedy of French classicism of the 17th century.

Russian public consciousness in the first half of the 18th century. came from a different understanding of the problem of personality. The assertion of the value of the individual was conceived not in opposing its interests to the laws of social coexistence, but vice versa - in a kind of subordination of the individual to the interests of the transpersonal principle (whether it be the interests of the state or upholding the class principle). The idea of ​​statehood was decisive in the system of the value code of public ideology, and the priority of public duty over other interests was unshakable. Only in the service of duty did the individual acquire the possibility of self-affirmation. The tragedy of Russian classicism also captures a similar understanding of the correlation between the personal and the public. To realize the tragic incompatibility of the interests of the individual and society, as it was in France in the 17th century, the historical situation in Russia of this era was not yet ripe.

In total, Sumarokov wrote 9 tragedies, and for several decades (from the late 1740s to the 1770s) his plays were essentially the basis of the national tragic repertoire. All his tragedies can be divided into three groups in accordance with the changes that the author's dramatic system underwent throughout his career.

The first group includes such tragedies as Horev (1747), Hamlet (1748) and Sinav and Truvor (1750). They marked early stage formation of the genre of tragedy on Russian soil.

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The second group of tragedies includes two plays created by Sumarokov at the very beginning of the 1750s: "Artiston" (1750) and "Semira" (1751), as well as two tragedies of a later period: "Dimiza" (1758) - in the second edition after revision in 1768, it became known as "Yaropolk and Dimiza" - and "Mstislav" (1774). The tragedies of this group, distinguished by a certain complexity of action, reflect Sumarokov's search for the most effective means in the performance by the theater of its educational functions. They crystallize in their own way the canon of the tragic genre created by the playwright.

Finally, to the third group of Sumarokov's tragedies, also marked by a specific interpretation of the tragic, we include such plays as Vysheslav (1768) and Dimitry the Pretender (1770). Both of them fall chronologically at the final stage of his creative path and mark the end of Sumarokov's dramatic searches in this genre.

Already in Sumarokov's earliest tragedy "Khorev", the playwright's characteristic understanding of the essence of the tragic conflict is manifested. The plot of the play seems to be set by the mutual passion of Khorev and Osnelda who violate their duty. Horev must march with an army against the father of his beloved. And in their love for each other, the characters constantly face a choice: either duty or feeling. But, looking closely at how this conflict develops, we find that this collision is devoid of dynamics: Khorev remains faithful to his duty, Osnelda combines loyalty to his father with love for Khorev. Neither the moaning of the heroine about her violation of her daughter's duty, nor the torment of Khorev, who "sacrifices" love for the sake of duty, do not change the essence of the matter.

A similar situation develops in the tragedy "Hamlet", where the collision of the struggle between duty and passion also seems to come to the fore. The duty of vengeance for his father in Hamlet's soul struggles with his passion for Ophelia, the murderer's daughter (Sumarokov deviates from Shakespeare's plot, laying responsibility for the murder on the courtier Polonius). Ofelia is also in a difficult position. But as in the tragedy "Khorev", the depiction of the conflict between duty and passion in Hamlet and Ophelia is purely external. The collision of a complex spiritual struggle, which covered the characters of Sumarokov's early plays, was a kind of tribute to the traditions of Racino's dramaturgy. The true source of the tragic situation in the plays of the Russian author is completely different.

Parallel to this conflict and independently of it, another one develops in both tragedies, which contains the expression of a certain moral and political lesson. The source of this conflict lies in the actions of the monarch, who violates his royal duty. A significant role in this is played by those close to the monarch, whose flattery and slander underlie tyrannical acts.

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ruler. In "Khorev" this is the scammer Stalverkh, in "Hamlet" - the courtier Polonius. They embody those forces at court that the sovereign should never trust. It is this second collision that contains the prerequisites for the tragic denouement. And if we talk about a genuine conflict that forms the basis of the dramatic action in Sumarokov's tragedies, then it stems from the contradiction between the ideal of a true monarch (as it seemed to the author) and the actions of a monarch who forgets about the duty of a true head of state.

The originality of Sumarokov in such a solution to the problem of the tragic conflict finds its explanation in the context of national cultural and ideological experience. It is no coincidence that in the early plays of Sumarokov one can feel the influence of traditions characteristic of the level of artistic quest in the first third of the 18th century.

Starting with "Sinav and Truvor", Sumarokov eliminates the collision of the struggle of duty and passion as a source of an independent storyline. The main attention is now focused on the actions of the monarch: how the ruler on the throne should behave and what the forgetfulness of a sense of responsibility for his actions leads to. The problem of the monarch's duty becomes a key one, because it covers all aspects of the artistic system of tragedy.

The structure of this tragedy is unusually simple. Two young lovers, Truvor and Ilmena, are confronted by the ruler of Novgorod, Sinav. Formally, Sinav's claims to Ilmena are justified, for she was promised as a wife to him as the savior of Novgorod by her father Gostomysl. The situation is aggravated by the fact that Sinav's rival is his younger brother Truvor. And the basis of the tragic conflict is the desire of the ruler to exercise his legal rights. The tragedy of the situation lies in the fact that legal legality comes into conflict with the legality of the individual's natural right to freedom of feeling. And since the bearer of the first is the monarch, its implementation becomes the source of the tragic death of subjects who are trying in vain to assert their personal rights.

The undoubted success of Sumarokov the playwright in this tragedy can be considered his dialectical solution to the problem of the responsibility of the monarch, who violates the laws of virtue. Sinav himself does not realize the criminality of his actions: Gostomysl really promised him his daughter as a wife. This is understood by both Truvor and Ilmena herself. And being the culprit of the death of his subjects, Sinav is not only a tyrant, but objectively also a victim of his passion. And from this point of view, his image is also deeply tragic.

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"Sinava and Truvor" can rightly be regarded as a kind of outcome of the very first stage in the formation of the genre of national classic tragedy in the work of Sumarokov. Of all the playwright's early plays, this tragedy was the most popular among his contemporaries.

Plays from the 1750s are a well-defined type of tragic structure. In the center is usually a monarch invested with power, on whom the fate of his subjects depends. Most often, subjects are two young lovers. And the occurrence of a tragic collision is almost always determined by the clash of the will of the monarch with the interests of the people subject to him. Depending on the extent to which the ruler's awareness of his duty correlates with the transpersonal ideal norms of royal virtue, in Sumarokov's tragedies two opposite structural variants of the development of dramatic action are outlined.

In one case, the basis of the tragic conflict is the monarch's violation of his duty. This violation is dictated either by the passion of the monarch (“Sinav and Truvor”, “Artiston”), or by the influence of external forces on him (“Yaropolk and Dimiza”), or by both together (“Mstislav”). Sometimes subjects become victims of tyrannical deeds and die, as happens, for example, in the tragedy "Sinav and Truvor". But in most tragedies, the outcome is different. The unjust actions of the monarch cause a legitimate protest, which results in a kind of speech against the tyrant. At a decisive moment, when the life of the monarch is in the balance, one of the heroes, faithful to the duty of a subject, saves him from death. Under the influence of this noble act, a miraculous transformation of the monarch from a tyrant into a gracious virtuous sovereign takes place. At the end of the tragedy, the touching ruler unites the lovers. "Artiston", "Yaropolk and Dimiza", "Mstislav" end with a similar happy ending.

Another structural variant is connected with the situation when the monarch strictly fulfills his royal duty. The source of the dramatic conflict lies in the self-willed claims of the subjects who oppose the monarch. The disobedience of subjects gives the ruler the full moral right to punish the rebels. But he does not do this, remaining merciful even to his opponents. We observe such a situation in Semir and in one of latest plays Sumarokov - tragedy "Vysheslav". The monarch with honor withstands all the tests of his virtue. And in the finale of the tragedies, the rebellious subjects resign themselves. Defeated both physically and morally, they recognize their wrongness in front of the supreme rightness of the ruler.

Moral and political didacticism is the inner pathos of Sumarokov's tragedies. This didacticism is especially clearly manifested in the tragedies of the final stage of creative work.

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the paths of Sumarokov - "Vysheslav" and "Dimitry the Pretender". Freed from any side collisions, these tragedies turn into dramatic illustrations of the image of either an ideal monarch (“Vysheslav”), or a tyrannical monarch, as shown in tragedy of the same name Dimitri the Pretender.

In the last of these tragedies, Sumarokov again turns to the traditions of Shakespeare's theater. It has already been pointed out in the scientific literature that Sumarokov endows his Demetrius with the features of Richard III from Shakespeare's chronicle of the same name. Sumarokov undoubtedly knew this chronicle well. The famous monologue of Richard in the morning before the decisive battle from 3 yavl. 5 days can indeed be correlated with Demetrius' monologue from 7 yavl. 2 d., and this situation varies in its own way in 5 yavl. 4 days and 1 yavl. 5 e. But in the main, in the depiction of the character of a tyrant, Sumarokov and Shakespeare stand on diametrically opposed positions. Shakespeare's Richard is cruel, but for most of the play he carefully hides his ambitious plans from those around him, hypocritically pretending to be a friend of those whom he himself sends to death. Shakespeare gives a portrait of a hypocritical despot, revealing in the chronicle the mechanism for seizing power and changing the rulers of the English throne.

Dimitri at Sumarokov is frank from his first appearance on stage. He does not find it necessary to hide his despotic aspirations. And he is waiting for a natural retribution at the end of the tragedy. For Sumarokov, the moment of teaching, a didactic lesson to the monarchs, remains the main task here.

Of particular importance in assessing the dramaturgy of Sumarokov is the question of the plot sources of his tragedies, more precisely, of the function that appeal to national history had in Sumarokov's plays. Plot plot most of Sumarokov's tragedies are based on material taken from history Ancient Rus' Kyiv period. For Sumarokov, such an approach to the choice of subjects made fundamental sense.

The point, of course, is not that Sumarokov allegedly saw in the social practice of Ancient Rus' those norms of morality that he so consistently proclaimed in his tragedies. The problem of Sumarokov's tragedies grows out of the ideas of the Russian public consciousness 18th century This can be confirmed by many examples from the text of the tragedies themselves. It is enough to turn to the tragedy "Artiston", the plot of which dates back to the times of ancient Persian despotism and is taken from Herodotus, to make sure that there is no fundamental difference between the interpretation of moral and political problems in it and in plays that develop ancient Russian plots.

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Sumarokov's approach to the historical past, whether national or foreign, reflected the ahistorical nature of artistic thinking characteristic of his time. And the meaning of Sumarokov's appeal to plots from ancient Russian history lies not in attempts to connect his own ideas about the ethical norms of behavior that supposedly existed in Ancient Rus' with modernity. It is explained by the general rise in national self-consciousness, the desire of the figures of Russian culture of the 18th century. to affirm the significance of its historical past, its own historical traditions, as befits a state that has joined the family of European nations.

A similar explanation of this fact is confirmed in a number of Sumarokov's statements about the Russian language and Russian culture, scattered in his epistles, satires, prose writings, and finally, in letters. S. Poroshin in his "Notes" reports on a typical conversation between Sumarokov and N. N. Panin, which took place on September 27, 1765 at the Grand Duke's, at whose dinners the writer often attended. The talk turned to educational institutions, they remembered I. I. Betsky, a well-known nobleman, the organizer of education in Catherine's time. With his characteristic directness, Sumarokov remarked: ... there is a certain Mr. Taubert: he laughs at Betsky that he is shy to bring up the children in French. Betsky laughs at Taubert that he is being robbed at the school, which has recently been established at the academy, that he is educating in the German language. And it seems to me ... and Betsky and Taubert are both fools; children in Russia should be brought up in the Russian language. It is in the light of such an understanding of the role of the national factor in the education of his compatriots that the question of Sumarokov's use of plots from the past of national history in his tragedies should be considered.

The type of Russian tragedy created by Sumarokov formed the basis of the structural canon of this genre, as it took shape in the 18th century. and with minor deviations was perceived by subsequent Russian playwrights of this era. The process of the formation of the comedy genre on Russian soil was more complex. The highest achievements in this genre are associated in the XVIII century. with the name of Fonvizin, his comedies Brigadier (1769) and Undergrowth (1783). But Fonvizin's comedies did not appear out of nowhere. The path to creating an original, satirically pointed social comedy, which was the "Undergrowth", ran through numerous searches and experiments, sometimes beyond the interests of the theater alone. Sumarokov's comedies occupied an important place in this process.

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In the system of literary and theoretical views of Sumarokov, the subject and function of the comedy genre are in many ways connected with the subject and function of satire:

The property of comedy by mockery is to correct temper:
Laugh and use its direct charter.
Imagine a soulless clerk in an order,
The judge that he does not understand what is written in the decree.
Imagine me a dandy who lifts his nose to that,
That the whole age thinks about the beauty of hair ...

The world of everyday reality, far from the ideal spheres of approval of the code of class and royal virtues, the reality where the struggle of petty and vicious passions dominates - such is the world of comedy. And the task of the playwright is to ridicule this world, to awaken in the viewer a feeling of indignation and contempt for it.

The sources on which Sumarokov could rely in the process of developing the structural image of his comedies were quite diverse. In contrast to the tragedy of classicism, European comedy was free from adherence to some rigid canon of genre norms and rules. Here Sumarokov had more free choice. But one thing is puzzling.

If in tragedies it was important for Sumarokov to emphasize the national-patriotic pathos of their content, then his comedies, especially those written in the 1750s-1760s, are almost devoid of signs of the national way of life. One sometimes gets the impression that Sumarokov is consciously striving for this. So, the names of the characters in his first comedies, the environment in which they have to act, and the actions themselves are sometimes very far from Russian reality. From play to play in the first comedies by Sumarokov, Orontes, Valere, Dorant, Clarice, Florise, Dorimena, servants Pasquin, Harlequin, etc., traditional for the European theater, pass from play to play. Marriage contracts are signed in them, the servants behave rather cheekily with their masters, sometimes deceiving them, teaching them, i.e., life is accomplished according to some kind of conventional norms, far from the Russian way of life.

True, in some characters of Sumarokov's comedies, the Russian viewer recognized the author's contemporaries, his literary opponents and personal ill-wishers, and in some cases - in the depiction of Kimar's servant ("Empty Quarrel"), the undersized Fatyuya (ibid.), the absurd noblewoman Gidima ("Monsters" ) Sumarokov managed to convey the living features of the types generated by the national conditions of life. But it was not these facts that determined Sumarokov's position in this genre in the 1750s. Not only the structure, but also the very spirit of Sumarokov's comedy of those years retain an underlined connection with European models.

How to explain such a situation in the creative attitudes of the leader of Russian classicism?

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Sumarokov cannot be denied consistency when, in accordance with the precepts of Boileau's Poetic Art, in the epistle "On Poetry" in the place where it was said about the function of comedy, he repeated after his French teacher:

For knowledgeable people, you do not write games;
To laugh without reason the gift of a vile soul.

Boileau, in his treatise, warned French writers of comedies against transferring the traditions of the areal farce into literature. Not everyone accepted Boileau in Molière's comedies, in which he felt echoes of the Tabarin theater. The theoretician of French classicism, in his demands, established a clear line between the theater of the social lower classes, the "public mob", and the theater, designed to serve the noble audience. This touch of elitism in the views of Boileau, apparently, was in full agreement with the theoretical views of Sumarokov himself, with his openly class understanding of the role of art in social life.

On Russian soil, the bearer of the stage laughter tradition, comparable to the crude folk farce that Boileau warned the French comedy writers against, was, in the eyes of Sumarokov, of course, the interlude - those “between-thrown games” that filled the gaps between acts in plays school theater. Gradually moving into the repertoire of farce theaters of a semi-folklore nature, the genre of interlude moved further and further away from professional theater designed for an educated audience.

And when Sumarokov, in his first comedies, brought the Orontes, Clarice, Dorants and Pasquins to the stage, this was dictated by his emphasized desire to establish a new type of comic performances on the Russian stage. At the first stage of the formation of the genre, the task was precisely to demarcate from the grassroots theater. Sumarokov deliberately separates his comedies from the tradition with which in the minds of Russian viewers ideas about the comic theater could be associated - from the school interlude and farce farce.

But for all his declarative rejection of grassroots democratic culture, Sumarokov in the genre of comedy could not be completely isolated from its traditions. The attraction of the Russian playwright to Molière's theater was significant in its own way, for for Molière himself the folk farce never lost its significance. “In essence, Molière began with a farce. Everything that he drew from other sources, he introduced or combined with farce, exalting and enriching this kind of drama. The farce has taught him to prefer naive and cheerful expression of feeling to intricate literary contrivances or witticisms, and his comedy has a truly national character. ... No matter what Boileau says, Molière is the only genius of his kind precisely because

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Sumarokov, as his parables, as well as songs-romances show, spontaneously captured the wide possibilities that folklore presented for enriching literature. And the path that he chose in creating his own comedy naturally led to contacts with the traditions of folk poetic art. Between the traditions of the French folk farce, perceived by Sumarokov through Moliere, and the humor of the school sideshow, which formed the basis of the national comedy tradition in Russia before Sumarokov, there was no impassable abyss. In a similar way, Sumarokov's comedies were influenced by the spontaneous democratism and folklore of the Italian comedy dell'arte, with which Sumarokov could directly get acquainted during the long tour of the Italian troupe in St. Petersburg in the 1730s, during his stay in the gentry corps. Sumarokov's early comedies are particularly revealing in this regard. Finally, speaking about the factors that determined the formation of the structural image of the first Sumarokov comedies, one should point out the work of the Danish playwright L. Golberg. Traces of the influence of his comedy "Bramarbas, or the Boastful Officer" are clearly felt in the comedy "Tresotinius".

When evaluating the comedies of Sumarokov, especially the period of the 1750-1760s, it is customary to talk about their pamphlet. Pamphletery is seen most often in the playwright's sharp attacks on his personal enemies and literary opponents. Such are V. K. Trediakovsky, as well as F. Emin and Sumarokov's son-in-law A. I. Buturlin, known for his exorbitant stinginess and cruelty towards courtyards.

But in itself, the definition of the prototypes of individual characters in Sumarokov's plays and the decoding of the hints that they contain do not reveal the significance of Sumarokov's legacy in the development of the comedy genre in the 18th century. Forming the basis of the ideological pathos of the plays, pamphletery carried a certain structure-forming function. A characteristic feature of Sumarokov's early comedies ("Tresotinius", "Monsters", "Empty Quarrel") was the absence of intrigue in them. The plot basis of the action in these comedies is extremely simple: the marriage of a father to his daughter, which is simultaneously claimed by competing suitors. And since the desires of the daughter herself usually do not coincide with the plans of her parents, the entire action of the comedy is subordinated to the discrediting of the suitors and the destruction of the plans. In the final

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the daughter unites with her chosen one, and the parents are forced to come to terms with this.

It is not difficult to see here the preservation of the rudiments of the structure of the Italian comedy of masks. The only thing missing is intrigue and the ubiquitous Brighella and Harlequin, on whose tricks all the sharpness of the action in Italian comedy rests. But for Sumarokov, intrigue in the play does not seem to be such a necessary element of comic action. Entertainment interests him only insofar as it contributes to the fulfillment of the main task - the ridicule of the vice exposed on the stage. The educative nature of comedy, the focus on extracting a certain moral lesson, here, as in tragedy, forms the basis for Sumarokov's understanding of the ultimate goal of a dramatic performance. And this affects the structure of Sumarokov's comedies. The plot plot is in them just a kind of framework that ensures the consistent self-identification of the exposed characters. Episodes appear on the stage one after another, each of which is essentially a little dramatized satire. Thus, comedy appears as a kind of gallery of negative types, and personified vices pass before the eyes of the audience: imaginary scholarship and arrogance (pedants Tresotinius, Bobembius, Krititsiondius), boasting and cowardice (Bramarbas), chicanery (clerk Khabzei), fashionable antics (petimeter Dulizh) and etc.

In early comedies, the denunciation is enhanced by an active background of laughter. Sumarokov abundantly saturates his plays with farcical scenes, often borrowed from Molière or Golberg, caring little for the naturalness and internal unity of the composition of comedies.

The situation is complicated in the comedies of the 1760s. Without breaking the connection with the traditions of the Moliere theater, Sumarokov somewhat deviates from the structural scheme developed in the early comedies. The first approaches to the creation of an original Russian comedy are being observed, in which entertainment and moralization should give way to socio-political problems. Now Sumarokov is looking for his own ways to increase the effectiveness of the genre, to strengthen the accusatory focus of comedies. This is combined with the perception of those new trends in European drama that marked the middle of the 18th century.

The penetration of the traditions of tearful drama onto the Russian stage has become a fait accompli. The change of generations of French comedians, the dramatic work of Diderot determined the renewal of the comedy repertoire that has been translated into Russian so far. And in Russia itself, V. Lukin's struggle against the interpretation of the comedy genre as entertainment did not pass without a trace.

Three comedies by Sumarokov in the 1760s - "Guardian" (1764), "Likhoimets" (1768) and "Poisonous" (1768) bear traces of a distinct

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impact of the new dramatic system. The action of comedies is practically free from farcical comedy. The sharpness of the satirical denunciation of the central characters of these comedies rightly allows us to see the preservation of the pamphlet in them. But this does not prevent the playwright in the very structure of the plays (especially in "Guardian" and "Poisonous") to move away from the scheme he originally worked out. In the plot structure of comedies, a new kind of plot stereotype is outlined: a temporarily triumphant vice, personified in the sinister images of the Outsider, Kashchei and Herostratus, is opposed by suffering virtue. The motives of imaginary death, temporary loss of fortune, unknown origin increase the suffering that befell the virtuous heroes. But retribution inevitably awaits vice. And it is achieved in the same traditional ways for a tearful drama: this is the motive of recognition by the cross, and the appearance on the stage of eyewitnesses of crimes, and a fair decision of the court. In the finale, vice is punished, and trampled justice triumphs. The whole comedy appears as a kind of moral lesson, designed not so much to treat the audience with laughter, but to touch them with sensitivity.

Such an attitude towards sensitivity, a turn towards serious comedy, and the refusal to use the techniques of farcical comedy in it testified to the general evolution of Sumarokov's creative method. If in his tragedies of the last period this can be traced in the strengthening of the role of the allusive beginning, in the release of the action from side collisions, then in the comedies of the late 1760s. the number of satirical attacks of a socio-political order is sharply increasing. At the same time, in comedy there is a kind of duplication of problems, the development of which had previously been the recognized prerogative of high genres - odes or tragedies. In the speeches of the vicious characters of the Sumarokov comedies of the 1760s. tirades about honor are heard or prayers of repentance to God are read. Here, for example, the monologue of Herostratus from 6 yavl. comedy "Poisonous":

Herostratus(one).

O chimera, chimera invented for the sake of curbing conscience by politicians, and revered by fools, for the sake of oppression of freedom and feeling, called by our frivolity honesty! If you mattered; so would your adversaries be honored and your followers despised! Do they bow low to people because they are honest? Do those who are honest have more friends and fewer enemies? Do those who are honest do more good? Are those more welcome who are honest ?.. The dishonorable man splendidly triumphs over the robbed estate of the day that brought him into the world for the sake of harm and destruction of his neighbor; ...

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In these words, of course, the voice of Sumarokov himself is heard, they reflect the state of disappointment that marked the final stage of the playwright's work. However, this circumstance should not obscure the main thing from us - Sumarokov's desire to bring the content of his comedies closer to the solution of topical political issues. In the light of the controversy that will unfold between satirical magazines in 1769-1770, the actualization of the theme of "honesty" in Sumarokov's comedies objectively led to the problems of Fonvizin's "Undergrowth". The origins of such coverage of this topic in Russian literature of the XVIII century. go back to the satyrs of Cantemir. Sumarokov continued this tradition, transferring the problems of poetic satire to the stage and thereby creating the prerequisites for the formation of an acutely social comedy, which was Fonvizin's play. Moreover, the monologue of Herostratus cited above was by no means an exception. In all three Sumarokov's comedies of the 1760s. there is a theme of "honesty" in its obviously travestyed understanding. The heralds of this satirical interpretation of the concept of "honor" are usually vicious characters - the Outsider, Kashchei, not to mention Herostratus. So the ideologist of the enlightened Russian nobility Sumarokov transformed the genre of comedy in his own way, actively saturating it with a journalistic element.

Thus, the pamphlet nature of Sumarokov's accusatory comedies of the 1760s. went far beyond the mere settling of personal scores with her opponents. Appealing to public opinion, Sumarokov is looking for ways to turn the theater into a means of defending his ideological positions. The accusatory pathos of his comedies brings them closer to the satirical magazines of the 1769-1770s. And it is no coincidence that N. I. Novikov, in his polemic with the Ekaterinin’s magazine “Vssakaya Vsyachina” about the role of satire, repeatedly referred to the example of Sumarokov, and in particular to his comedies. Sumarokovsky Kashchei from the comedy "Likhoimets" he put next to Moliere's Harpagon, seeing in them the unity of the principles of exposing vice within the framework of satire on the face.

The final stage of Sumarokov's comedy creativity falls on 1772. He is marked by the creation of three plays. These are "Cuckold by Imagination", "Mother Daughter's Companion" and "Scumbag". The clear influence of Fonvizin's "The Brigadier" has already affected these plays. The simple intrigue in each of them recedes into the background, and a significant place in the structure of the stage action is given to moral description.

Particularly indicative in this regard is the comedy Cuckold by Imagination. The main characters in it are a couple of provincial small estate nobles with the characteristic names Vikul and Khavronya. The plot of the play is based on the love of a rich count for a poor girl brought up in the provincial wilderness by these kind, but ignorant couch potatoes. Vikul's unreasonable jealousy for his dearest half, something

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reminiscent of the Brigadier, gives rise to numerous comic situations that arise in the course of the development of the melodramatic plot. Main artistic interest plays - in that juicy everyday life, bright individualization of the speech portraits of Vikul and Khavronya, which are revealed in scenes that depict their unpretentious lifestyle, with everyday village worries, habits, with their hospitality and spontaneity in expressing feelings. What are, for example, the experiences of Vikul due to the imaginary betrayal of his wife or the order of Khavronya, who is preparing to meet the count. She orders to cook “pork legs with sour cream and horseradish”, “make mashed porridge in a pot, but in ant”, “pies with salted milk mushrooms”. “For one day we will be! and you, Count's Excellency, can not shamefully eat our bread and salt; it’s for nothing that our mansions are not colored: the hut is not red with corners, red with pies ”(VI, 12). Saturated with folk proverbs and sayings, the language of Khavronya and her husband is an example of a living colloquial speech. In this respect, Sumarokov's latest comedies generally differ from his previous plays of the 1760s.

However, all these features did not at all mean Sumarokov's refusal from satire, although there is no sharp pamphlet in recent comedies. There are critical attacks on unworthy nobles in these comedies. Sometimes these are invectives interspersed in the speech of neutral characters along the way, such as the remark of the maid Nysa about the nobles who think only about their nobility, in the comedy Cuckold by Imagination: servants in bast shoes and sashes ... the title of a boyar is exalted" (VI, 16). But more often, the actors of comedies themselves turn out to be the direct object of satirical denunciation, such as, for example, Minodora, a flirtatious fashionista who claims to be her daughter’s fiancé (“Mother is a daughter’s partner”), and especially the wild and wayward landowner Burda, the main character in the comedy “Squabbler”, whose character anticipates certain features of Fonvizin's Prostakova.

The genre in which Sumarokov the satirist was a true innovator was the fable. He himself, following the established national tradition, called his fables parables. By this, Sumarokov, apparently, wanted to emphasize the teaching meaning of the genre, to recall the allegory inherent in his parables, since the concept of “fable” could be associated with a playful kind of entertaining fables.

During his lifetime, Sumarokov published three books of Proverbs (1762-1769). Prior to that, many of them were published in various periodicals of the 1750-1760s. And only in 1781 in the "Full

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collection of all essays ... » Sumarokov Novikov published 6 books of parables, containing everything written by the author in this genre, about 380 works in total.

The genre of the parable perfectly matched the ardent, indefatigable nature of Sumarokov with his sharp mind of a born polemicist and satirist. The Russian poetic fable owes its structural features to Sumarokov. In essence, it is he who has the merit of creating that classical manner of fable narration, which is based on the use of a flexible and mobile multi-foot iambic. The dynamically saturated free iambic verse turned out to be an ideal medium both for conveying dialogue and for sketching everyday scenes. The abundant saturation of the vocabulary of parables with vulgarisms, colloquial phraseology created the basis for a special intonation and that rough humor that distinguishes the best parables of Sumarokov. Instructive moralizing gives way to biting mockery, full of irony mockery. It is no coincidence that Sumarokov often lacks traditional morality or is replaced by the author's maxim-reflection, constituting not so much moralizing as a kind of concentration of the idea embodied in the parable itself.

But, perhaps, the main merit of Sumarokov was that he surprisingly accurately guessed the broadest possibilities for satire inherent in this poetic form. For the first time in Russian literature, the abstract universal properties of fable animal characters are supplemented with details indicating that these characters belong to a certain social environment. Thus, allegory begins to form the basis of satirical denunciation in a poetic fable. Here, for example, is his parable “Two Rats”, which tells how two rats who met in a tavern shared the beer left in the bowl.

Two rats met in a tavern,

And they started screaming

Burlatsky songs to sing and throat tear

Around the misa set here ...

One of the rats sees that there is not enough beer in the bowl for two, and immediately “takes it to mind”:

I lose this fun

When my sister disregards the statutes

And she will drink all the nectar

One to the bottom ...

The fact that the quick-witted rat remembered the "statutes" is by no means accidental: in the way of expressing thoughts, there is a reference to a very specific social environment. The further course of the rat's reasoning leaves no doubt about the ideological orientation of Sumarokov's parable:

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I've been on orders
And I lived with clerks;

I know the statutes

And she said to her: “My dove!

You eat, joy, water

And read in me, my friend, governor;

I'm evo,

And about the owner, sister, your

Not only hearing
Yes, there is no spirit, ”-

And I drank the beer dry ...

Full of sarcasm and the end of the parable:

The sister grumbles and says this:

“I will no longer caress with such a conversation,

And to the pub

I have to follow the voivodeship rats.”

Sumarokov does not give any morals. Yes, there is no need for it, because his parable is not moralizing, but a caustic satire dressed in a fable form, and social satire at that. These rats are well acquainted with the unwritten charters of the bureaucratic hierarchy. Sumarokov openly makes it clear what the impudent shamelessness of the governor's rat is based on. Its moral code is determined by the laws of morality that prevail in the world of people. The unusually subtle nuances of the psychological appearance of the characters in this parable are striking, especially that of the rats that got smart in the voivodeship mansions. This is achieved by means of style. The voivodship rat not only takes away from his girlfriend the share that belongs to that one, but convinces her of the justice of this order. Moreover, she does this with such genuine cordiality, with such expressions of friendship, that more than one clerk whom she "has been" could envy her art of hypocrisy. A whole set of the most affectionate and tender addresses, one warmer than the other, contains her speech to her friend: “dear”, “joy”, “sister”, “friend”. And behind all this - one goal: to snatch more at the expense of the same "sister". In his findings, Sumarokov uniquely anticipates Krylov's method. And this was reflected in his innovative role in shaping the image of the Russian poetic fable.

Sumarokov's success is largely due to the fact that he chose the works of the French fabulist Lafontaine as a model. A distinctive feature of La Fontaine's manner in fables was an elegant ease of style, reminiscent of a good-natured conversation full of sparkling jokes and irony between the author and the reader. Sumarokov, of course, could not fully transfer Lafontaine's manner to Russian soil. But in the main thing - in rethinking the moralizing function of the fable genre - the example of Lafontaine for Sumarokov turned out to be decisive in his own search. But at the same time, Sumarokov never stopped feeling himself

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Russian writer. He constantly sought to give his parables a national flavor, to bring their content as close as possible to the concepts and ideas of the Russian reader. This is especially clearly seen when Sumarokov turns to the processing of traditional fable plots that had an international distribution. Russification of the plots used is often emphatically declared by him.

Who will not pretend

The seer will not deceive.

In Russian, I will turn Phaedra
And I want to weave a fable like a Russian model -

begins Sumarokov's parable "The Thief", the plot of which is taken from the fable of the Roman fabulist Phaedrus "The Holy One" (book 4, fable 10). And accordingly, the altar fire turns into a candle at Sumarokov, and the temple of Jupiter into an Orthodox church with images, a chapel. In the text of the parable, elements of Christian prayer even slip through.

The very change in the situation in the parables is connected with Sumarokov's desire to actualize the critical orientation of their content. He supplements the traditional plots with such details that translate the meaning of the abstract morality of the original source into the plane of a satirical denunciation of certain social phenomena of Russian reality in the 18th century. An illustrative example of such a reworking is his parable "The Hare", the plot of which is borrowed from Lafontaine's fable "Les oreilles du Lievre". The hare is frightened by rumors about the persecution of animals with large horns. And in Sumarokov's reasoning Zaits is invaded by a motif very typical of the satire of the 18th century - the denunciation of clerical chicanery:

Hare's fear wins;
And the Hare says:

clerk lute,
clerk rogue;

Podyac souls

Big ears will easily come into the horns;

And if the judges and the court

I'll be corrected

So certificates, statements alone will crush me.

All this tirade about clerks was naturally absent from La Fontaine. But with its introduction into the parable, the satirical sharpness of the latter increased sharply, because the abstract allegoricalness of the anecdotal plot found a concrete socio-political application.

In the process of Russification of international fable plots, the appeal to traditions was essential for Sumarokov

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national folklore and to the traditions of democratic satire. Sumarokov sometimes trusts a folk proverb or saying with the function of morality: “The big bird in the sky is worse than the tit in the hands” (“The Fisherman and the Fish”); “When you come to the water, first taste the ford; You will break without that up to your ears into the water ”(“ The Spider and the Fly ”); “Where there are many mothers, there is a child without an eye” (“Unanimity”), etc. Sometimes the entire content of the parable appears as a kind of detailed illustration of folk wisdom, recorded in the proverb. Due to this, the system of world perception, depicted in Sumarokov's parables, often merges with the ideological position of folklore monuments. This is especially evident in those cases when folklore and works of satirical humor, distributed among the democratic lower classes of society, serve as a source of parable plots for Sumarokov. Approximately one third of the plots of his parables have a similar origin. He actively used everyday and satirical folk tales, comic anecdotes, plots of the revival European facet that turned into democratic satire. Handwritten collections of facets were widely distributed in Russia since the end of the 17th century. and enjoyed great success.

Sumarokov's appeal to facets and folk anecdote as sources of plots for his parables is also significant in the sense that it testifies to the stability of the traditions of laughter culture in the literary consciousness of Russian classicism. The humorous coloring of the style of Sumarokov's parables explains the reason for their wide popularity among contemporaries of various social strata. The leader of the Russian enlightenment, N. I. Novikov, called Sumarokov's parables "the treasure of Russian Parnassus." On the other hand, about a dozen of Sumarokov's parables received their second life in the popular popular print.

The extraordinary breadth of the thematic content of Sumarokov's parables fully corresponds to the richness of the forms that the author chooses in his desire to subordinate the genre to the tasks of satire. Almost all possible ways and means of satirical denunciation are presented in the structure of his parables, from parodic travesty of the manner of literary opponents (“The Judgment of Paris”, “Alexandr’s Glory”) and to the sharpest invective of the political

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weekly "Druten" (1770) the final couplet of Sumarokov's parable "The Satyr and Vile People" from the same 3rd book of parables:

Dangerous instruction strictly
Where atrocities and madness abound.

Considering that the first part of Drone (1769) was also accompanied by an epigraph taken from Sumarokov's parable "Beetles and Bees" ("They work, and you eat their labor"), then the public outcry that Sumarokov's parables had will become even more obvious. in the literary and ideological struggle of those years. For the educator Novikov, Sumarokov the satirist turned out to be an ally in the struggle.

Brought up in the forest with bliss,
Under a heavy axle the cart rubs
And not greased screams;

And the bull, which is lucky, is silent when carrying.

Such is the parable plot, which goes back to Aesop's fable "The Ox and the Axis". It contains a universal morality of an abstract nature: it is usually the one who does the least that shouts. Sumarokov completely rethinks the essence of morality, transferring the action of the parable plot to the conditions of Russian reality and transferring the conclusion of morality to a purely social plane:

Depicts the axis of the gentleman is tender to me.

Which keeps a bad score:
In Russian, mot;
And the bull of the peasant is diligent.

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A burdened spendthrift suffers from debts,

And he won't remember it
What a plowman pouring out sweat,

He works hard and puts a burden on his cards.

Sumarokov's demands on the representatives of the ruling class were fully consistent with his position as the ideological leader of the Russian nobility.

In the extensive poetic heritage of Sumarokov, his songs occupy an important place. From this genre, Sumarokov practically began his career. The characterization of the song was included by him in the review of poetic genres contained in the epistle "On poetry". Considering that the song was not mentioned at all in Boileau's treatise, it is clear that Sumarokov's initiative speaks of the importance of this genre for the theoretician of Russian classicism.

Interest in song in Russian literature of the 18th century. was dictated by the sharpening of attention to the spiritual world of the individual. The need for a poetic expression of this world emerged already at the beginning of the century. In the context of literary searches of the 1750-1760s. the song often began to take on the functions of the elegy genre. Turned to the intimate aspects of a person's life, the lyrical song also developed mainly themes of love longing, unrequited passion. However, the fundamental difference between a song and an elegy was that it was intended directly for musical performance. Sumarokov's songs were often written to some well-known motive. This circumstance affected the poetic structure of his songs. Against the background of the compositional and metrical canon of Sumarokov's elegy, once and for all determined, the form of Sumarokov's songs is striking in its diversity. In elegies, devoid of strophic division, written invariably in Alexandrian verse, the poetic expression of feeling is characterized by monotony. Even G. A. Gukovsky emphasized the obsessive repetition of thematic motifs of the Sumarokov elegy. Sumarokov's songs, on the contrary, are marked by the extraordinary richness of the strophic pattern, the variety of the rhyming system used, and the subtle variation of syntactic turns. The intonation-metric structure of his songs is also varied. Here are some samples of Sumarokov's song lyrics:

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From song XXXIV:

Don't torture yourself
I don't love you;
Full of time to ruin;
I will not love;
I am not taken by you;
And I won't be yours.

From song LXXXV:

I know that you are ashamed and strong enough to say,

That love captivated you too

I know that you want to be careful

And you are afraid to entrust yourself to me;

Trust, trust, full of obscene thoughts

About my love for myself to have,

And open the word that your views to me,

Gave me enough to understand.

From song LXXVIII:

I just recognized you
You took away your freedom
How happy I would be called,
Would you be mine.

Whether to be in my sweet hope,
Or love yourself beckoning
I opened up to you before
Do you love me too?

From song LXV:

Do not be sad, my light, I am sad myself,
That I haven't seen you for a long time.

A jealous husband won't let you go anywhere;
I just turn around, and so he goes there.

From Song LXVI:

Taking away my freedom
Laughing that I endure
But I'm open today
What I don't like anymore:
Be proud of your ferocity
As you wish forever
I won't be captivated anymore
Never by you.

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Sumarokov's song continued the tradition of love cants of the early 18th century. - the song genre, which received especially wide popularity in the post-Petrine period. His early songs still retain traces of the influence of love lyrics, which Trediakovsky tried to introduce on Russian soil. But over time, Sumarokov completely freed himself from his influence, embarking on the path of creating his own song tradition. The principle of the Sumarokov song was simplicity and naturalness in expressing love feelings. And in search of means of expression for his songs, Sumarokov often turns to folklore.

A number of Sumarokov's songs appear to be a direct stylization of samples of Russian folk lyrics. Such are the songs “The girls walked in the grove”, “Wherever I walk or go”, “Don’t be sad, my light, I’m sad myself”, etc. Sumarokov borrows the plot motifs of folk songs, introduces traditional stable formulas of folk song poetics into the text of his songs , uses separate techniques of the compositional structure of folk choral lyrics. But all this does not go beyond the boundaries of external stylization of folklore forms.

In terms of genre, Sumarokov's song was the forerunner of the song lyrics of sentimentalism. His method of processing folk songs served as the basis for the tradition of using folklore for sentimentalist poets of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Y. Neledinsky-Meletsky, I. I. Dmitriev and others. In their own way ideological content Sumarokov's songs, along with his eclogues and idylls, developed one of the most common and characteristic themes for the poetry of sentimentalism - namely, the theme of opposing the venality and depravity of urban life to the purity and purity of the mores of the village. Eclogues and idylls with descriptions of the peaceful life of shepherds and shepherds, their love joys and sorrows in the bosom of nature were for Sumarokov a means of glorifying the conditional ideal realm of freedom and naturalness, a kind of return to the happy times of the "Arcade" golden age. In Sumarokov's songs, the anthologized world of idylls and eclogues gives way to the expression of the immediate feelings of his contemporaries. And use in a number of songs folklore motifs and folk poetics imitated the national flavor of their poetic structure, creating a sense of naturalness inherent in the poetry of the common people. It was this tradition that the poets-sentimentalists of the late 18th and early 19th centuries developed in their song stylizations.

Thus, in his mature work, Sumarokov was a kind of harbinger of two opposite directions in the development national literature 18th century One way of development of Sumarokov's traditions led to the growth of accusatory satirical

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direction, marked by the activities of Novikov and Fonvizin. Another path led to the isolation and ideological detachment of the intimate lyrics of Kheraskov and Muravyov, who in their own way prepared the artistic search for the poetry of sentimentalism.

By the 1760s The artistic system of classicism, established in the work of Sumarokov and his school, reaches the stage of maturity. And as a result of this, by the end of the 1770s. the development of Russian classicism begins to show signs of a certain completeness. This is especially evident in those searches that marked the poetic work of Sumarokov's students and followers.

New trends in the literary life of Russia begin to make themselves known at first, as if gradually, developing in the bosom of the traditions bequeathed by the leaders of previous decades. Sumarokov remains the main authority on which the young Russian authors of the new generation, who mostly come from noble circles, are guided. Following the initiative of Sumarokov's "Hardworking Bee", here and there the production of literary periodicals begins to be practiced. In St. Petersburg, teachers and graduates of the Land Gentry Corps are trying to publish a literary magazine "Idle time in favor of the used" (1759-1760). In Moscow, a circle of young noble authors, mainly poets, grouped around M. M. Kheraskov, began to publish their own periodicals Useful Amusement (1760-1762), Free Hours (1763), Good Intention (1764). In addition to Kheraskov, the group included A. Rzhevsky, A. and S. Naryshkins, V. Maykov, I. Bogdanovich, D. and P. Fonvizins, and others. Sumarokov himself took an active part in these publications at first.

Already by the titles of the listed publications, one can catch the general direction of the creative attitudes and the essence of the ideological position of their participants. The desire to see in literature a kind of means of filling leisure is combined with a moral and didactic approach to understanding the ultimate goals of art.

In the journals published by the Moscow circle, the estate approach to understanding the function of culture, inherited from Sumarokov, was realized in an attitude towards conscious detachment and intimacy of the problem-thematic content of these publications. The poems that filled the pages of Useful Amusement and Free Hours often bore the marks of purely formal experimentation. In this regard, the followers of Sumarokov also developed the search for their teacher.

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But there were, however, a number of significant points that shared the views of writers of two different generations. For Sumarokov, the recognition of the nobility as the highest privileged estate has always been inextricably linked with a whole range of requirements both for the estate itself and for the entire system of state institutions. The militant intransigence of Sumarokov's satire stemmed from this peculiarity of his position.

And it is precisely in relation to satire, in assessing its significance and effectiveness, that most of Sumarokov's followers are gradually at odds with their leader. Already in the magazine "Idle time ... » The social significance of satire is considered only in the aspect of its moral teaching. And although the importance of satire has not yet been questioned, its tasks are reduced mainly to ridiculing human passions. On the other hand, in the journal of Kheraskians “Useful Amusement” we already come across a statement about the actual uselessness of satire. None other than Kheraskov, after the first year of publishing the magazine, comes to the conclusion that the denunciation of vices does not achieve its goals: “I see with impartial eyes, and with inner regret that the vice is exposed little. The miser, seeing the mirror of his despicable passion, admires and thinks that he sees another in it; slanderer, reading about his vile vice, has food from it ... ; he lifts himself up proud and considers it unworthy of his hearing that his heart must tame ... in a word, each vice draws from that another malice. And the conclusion Kheraskov comes to is full of pessimism: “Let the vices perish in their fury, let their malice torment them themselves.”

With this opinion, it turns out that another feature is characteristic of the work of the poets of the Kheraskov circle. With the exception of Maykov and, to some extent, Bogdanovich, Sumarokov's followers remained completely alien to the interests that their teacher showed in national folklore. If we take into account that Sumarokov most actively and naturally used the folklore element in satirical genres (comedy, parable), as well as in songs, then the reason for indifference to folk poetry members of the Kheraskovsky circle. The caste isolation of the chamber lyrics of these poets left no room for folklore. Almost all of them wrote or translated fables. Kheraskov published the collection "Instructive Fables" (1764), A. Rzhevsky published about 20 parables on the pages of "Useful Entertainment" and "Free Hours", A. Karin printed several fables. But the satirical orientation of the fables of these poets does not go

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in comparison with the accusatory power of Sumarokov's satire. They were far from the social topicality and sharpness of the content of their teacher's parables. So, Rzhevsky's parables were mostly devoted to ridicule of everyday and moral shortcomings, envy, female infidelity, etc. Kheraskov's fables, mostly translated, do not go beyond the preaching of virtue and moderation. As N. L. Stepanov rightly noted, Kheraskov in fables “resolutely acts as an antagonist of social satire and Sumarokov’s “areal” style, creating a special fable genre of philosophical and moralizing allegory. The task of the fabulist is no longer satire, but the expression of truth under the guise of allegory, the combination of "useful" with "pleasant". Accordingly, the style of Kheraskov's parables is close to the middle poetic vocabulary of his "philosophical odes" and is alien to the vernacular and vulgarisms of the democratic phraseology of Sumarokov's parables. V. Maykov was the only one of the Kherask poets who adopted the traditions of Sumarokov's satire in the genre of parable. He, along with I. Bogdanovich, is credited with transferring the traditions of national folklore to the epic genre.

It is precisely by their contribution to the creation of samples of the Russian literary epic, both in the field of high heroic epic (“Rossiyada” by Kheraskov), and in the sphere of its burlesque-satirical and playful varieties (“Elisha, or the Annoyed Bacchus” by Maykov and “Darling” by Bogdanovich) that Sumarokov’s students played a role in the development of classicism.

The development of the system of classicism into an effective aesthetic doctrine, which regulated the artistic practice of a whole group of authors, resulted in a certain stabilization of individual genre forms and the creation of a strong national tradition in certain genres. First of all, this concerns the genres of ode, tragedy, parable, as well as comedy and a number of lyrical genres, such as romance songs. With the perception of classicism, Russian literature of the 18th century. mastered a whole range of ideas that in Russian conditions received a kind of understanding in accordance with the needs of a new state building and with their own cultural and ideological traditions inherited from previous eras. Thus, the assimilation of the idea of ​​subordinating a person to the transpersonal laws of a moral and legal order, characteristic of classicism, appeared in the interpretation of Russian authors of the 18th century. a source of approval of the high civic purpose of literature. The high patriotism of both Russian lyrics and satire of the 18th century was objectively connected with this. The literature of classicism passed these traditions on to subsequent stages, and their significance was not lost even in the 19th century.

Footnotes

1 Full coll. all Op. ... A. P. Sumarokova, part I. M., 1781, p. 345. (Further references to this edition in the text indicating parts and pages).

2 For more details on the originality of the structure of Sumarokov's tragedies, see: Gukovsky G. A. 1) About the Sumarokov tragedy. - In the book: Poetics. Sat. articles. L., 1926, p. 67-80; 2) Russian literature of the 18th century. M., 1939, p. 147-154.

3 For more details, see our article “Dramaturgy of the Petrine era and the first tragedies of Sumarokov. (To the formulation of the question). - In the book: Problems of literary development in Russia in the first third of the 18th century. Sat. "XVIII century", no. 9. L., 1974, p. 227-249.

4 In a letter to G. V. Kozitsky dated February 25, 1770, he writes: “ ... I would write a lot about the new tragedy, but the mail would go away. This tragedy will show Russia Shakespeare ... "- Bibliographic notes, 1858, No. 14-15, p. 452.

5 Poroshin S. Notes ... SPb., 1881, p. 453-454.

6 Lanson G. History of French literature of the 18th century. SPb., 1899, p. 154.

7 For a detailed analysis of this side of the content of Sumarokov's comedies, see the book: Berkov P. N. History of Russian comedy of the 18th century. L., 1977.

8 See about it: Chistov K.V."Proverbs" Sumarokov and Russian folk art. - Learned. app. Karelian-Finnish. ped. in-ta, 1955, v. 2. Ser. societies. sciences, vol. 1, p. 145-160.

9 See: Russian literature and folklore (XI-XVIII centuries). L., 1970, p. 155-162.

10 The facts of Sumarokov's direct appeal to facets are given by O. A. Derzhavina in a review article of his book “Facets. A translated short story in Russian literature (Moscow, 1962).

11 See: Kokorev A.V. Sumarokov and Russian folk pictures. - Learned. app. Moscow state un-ta, 1948, no. 127. Department of Russian. literature, book. 3, p. 227-236.

12 See more about this in the article: Makogonenko G.P. Ways of development of Russian poetry of the XVIII century. - In the book: Poets of the 18th century, vol. 1. L., 1972, p. 57-62.

13 Gukovsky G. A. Russian poetry of the 18th century. L., 1927, p. 57-58.

14 See more about this in the book: Russian literature and folklore (XI-XVIII centuries), p. 142-151.

15 This can be judged, for example, by the article “Letter of Permission of the Satyrs”. This translated article defended the thesis, later put forward by Catherine II's journal “Vskhodyaschina”: “Satire should blaspheme a vice, not a person” (see: Idle time in favor of the used, 1760, part 1, p. 214).

16 Useful entertainment, 1761, No. 1, p. 14, 16.

17 See: Russian fable of the 18th and 19th centuries. L., 1949 (B-ka poet. Large series), p. XXXI.