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Spiritual life of the Silver Age Enlightenment. The science

Spiritual life of the Silver Age Enlightenment. The science

23.02.2019

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Ural State University of Communications

abstract

On the topic: "The Silver Age of Russian Culture"

Checked by: Evteev I.A.

Completed: Art. group MT-114

Blinnikova D.A.

Yekaterinburg 2015

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

A new stage in the development of Russian culture conditionally, from the reform of 1861 to October revolution 1917 is called the "Silver Age". For the first time this name was proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest achievements of the culture of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of the previous "golden" eras, but this phrase finally entered the literary circulation in the 60s of the last century.

The Silver Age occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This contradictory time of spiritual searches and wanderings significantly enriched all kinds of arts and philosophy and gave rise to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative people. On the threshold of a new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. The traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - could not cope with their functions, and the age of modernity was born.

However, sometimes they say that the "Silver Age" is a Western phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his guidelines the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche's superman. The "Silver Age" found its ancestors and allies in the most different countries Europe and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gauthier, Baudelaire, Verhaarn.

In other words, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries there was a reassessment of values from the standpoint of Europeanism. But in the light new era, which was the complete opposite of the one that she replaced, the national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different, brighter than ever light. Truly, it was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897 the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: for men - 29.3%, for women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. AT high school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher education (universities, institutes).

In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education issued a draft law "On the introduction of universal primary education in Russian Empire” for consideration by the II State Duma, however, this project did not receive the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university admitted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education also received further development. female education, and in 1911 the right of women to higher education was legally recognized.

The development of the periodical press and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses were operating. In the 1890s - 100 newspapers and about 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and in the cities there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores.

In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices: Suvorin's "cheap library" and Sytin's "library for self-education".

The educational process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public increased rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the XIX century. there were about 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo folk reading rooms, and already in 1914 in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries.

Not less than important role in the development of culture played "illusion" - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg just a year after its invention in France. By 1914 in Russia there were already 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign, but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were made. In 1911-1913. V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant success in the development of domestic science: it claims to be equal to Western European science, and sometimes even to be superior. It is impossible not to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that led to world-class achievements. D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 discovers the periodic system of chemical elements. A. G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" was published. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin - an incandescent light bulb. AS Popov invents the radiotelegraph. A.F. Mozhaisky and N.E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K.E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of astronautics. P.N. Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. II Mechnikov explores the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And this is not a complete list of people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is only now becoming clear.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in the natural sciences. Scientists in the humanities, like V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others, fruitfully worked in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and the spiritual, the assertion of a "new" religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but of the whole culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the "Silver Age" of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Solovyov. His system is an experience of the synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “moreover, it is not the Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but, on the contrary, he introduces into philosophy Christian ideas and enriches and fertilizes them philosophical thought"(V. V. Zenkovsky). Possessing brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible wide circles Russian society, moreover, he brought Russian thought to the universal spaces.

This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others - largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, ethics, not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological search of the intelligentsia and the "little" man with his daily worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin.

At the end of the 19th century, when in an atmosphere of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was seized by moods of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in culture XIX-XX centuries, marked by the rejection of citizenship, immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motives of this trend have become the property of a number of artistic movements modernism that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.

Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to remarkable poetry, and the most significant trend was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign, and represented the connection between the two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism main reason the decline of literature, and proclaimed "symbols", "mystical content" as the basis of the new art. Along with the requirements of "pure" art, the Symbolists professed individualism, they are characterized by the theme of "elemental genius", close in spirit to Nietzsche's "superman".

It is customary to distinguish between "senior" and "junior" symbolists. "The Elders", V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. "Younger" Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, put forward philosophical and theosophical quests.

The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the steady popularity of poetry in this direction becomes understandable. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest, captivating artistry of a creative manner was experienced not only by the acmeists and futurists who replaced the symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, "symbolism had completed its circle of development" (N. Gumilyov), it was replaced by acmeism. The members of the group of acmeists were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the “ideal”, the return to it of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests, a penchant for aestheticism. A. Blok, with his inherent heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of acmeism: "... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general." However, the acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, this is evidenced by the psychologism of the first collections of A. Akhmatova, the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. In essence, the acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship. silver age symbolism enlightenment

At the same time, another modernist trend arose - futurism, which broke up into several groups: "Association of Ego-Futurists", "Mezzanine of Poetry", "Centrifuge", "Hilea", whose members called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budutlyans, i.e. people from the future.

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game”, the Futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. In contrast to the symbolists with their idea of "life-building", i.e. transforming the world with art, the Futurists emphasized the destruction of the old world. Common to the futurists was the denial of traditions in culture, the passion for form creation. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the steamer of modernity” received scandalous fame.

The groupings of acmeists and futurists that arose in polemics with symbolism turned out to be very close to him in practice in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and predominant attention to form.

There were bright individualities in the poetry of this time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets, like N. Klyuev. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motives with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their work. “Klyuev is popular because he combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic tune of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelstam). With peasant poets, especially with Klyuev, S. Yesenin was close at the beginning of his journey, combining in his work the traditions of folklore and classical art.

Architecture

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. revolutionized the construction industry. Buildings of a new type, such as banks, shops, factories, railway stations, occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials(reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the approval of the Art Nouveau style!

In the work of F.O. Shekhtel, the main development trends and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of style in the work of the master went in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, an asymmetric planning principle is applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric protrusions of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle of assimilation of an architectural structure to an organic form inherent in Art Nouveau. AT decorative trim The mansion used such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained-glass windows and a mosaic frieze encircling the entire building with floral ornament. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interweaving of stained-glass windows, in the pattern of balcony bars and street fences. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. Furniture and decorative details of the interiors of the building form a single whole with general idea buildings - to turn the domestic environment into a kind of architectural performance, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalist tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, features of constructivism were outlined - a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially brightly, in particular in the work of one of the founders of Russian Art Nouveau, L.N. Kekusheva A.V. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.

By the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, the priority was asserted. art forms reflecting reality only indirectly. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century, the controversy of multiple artistic groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.

In the historical canvases of A. V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. Creativity M.V. Nesterov was a variant of a retrospective landscape, through which the high spirituality of the characters was conveyed.

I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air writing, continuing the lyrical direction in the landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of the “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which has a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections about the frailty of everything earthly.

K.A. Korovin is the brightest representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists who consciously relied on the French impressionists, more and more departed from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even drama, trying to convey this or that state of mind with music of color. He created a series of landscapes, uncomplicated by either external plot-narrative or psychological motifs. In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense manner of painting, especially in his favorite still lifes. With all his art, the artist affirmed the inherent value of purely pictorial tasks, he forced to appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “etude” of the pictorial manner. Korovin's canvases are a "feast for the eyes".

The central figure in the art of the turn of the century is V.A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and dynamics of a free stroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to "poetic realism" (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a heightened sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in the artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of paintings of the 80s and 90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is a reality turned into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so unlike the surrounding one. The art of Borisov-Musatov is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow with the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was thirsting for renewal, and very many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light and air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Borisov-Musatov's work is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.

The theme, far from modernity, "dreamy retrospectivism" is the main association of St. Petersburg artists "World of Art". Rejecting the academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the "World of Art" searched for artistic image in the past.

B.M. Kustodiev, the most gifted author of the ironic stylization of the popular popular print, Z.E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism.

The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

Artists Association " Jack of Diamonds”(1910-1916), referring to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the methods of Russian popular print and folk toys, they solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, building a form with color. The initial principle of their art was the assertion of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put forward in the first place. The materialized, "still life" beginning was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre- portrait.

"Lyrical Cubism" R.R. Falka was distinguished by a peculiar psychologism, subtle color-plastic harmony. The school of excellence passed in the school of such outstanding artists and teachers, like V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the "Jack of Diamonds" I.I. Mashkov, M.F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulov determined the origins of Falk's original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous "Red Furniture".

Since the mid-10s, an important component fine style"Jack of Diamonds" was futurism, one of the techniques of which was the "assembly" of objects or their parts taken from different points and in different time.

The primitivist trend associated with the assimilation of the style of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the Jack of Diamonds. Both folk naive art and Western expressionism are close to the fantastically irrational canvases of M.Z. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life on Chagall's canvases is akin to Gogol's stories. The unique work of P.N. Filonov.

Conclusion

The "Silver Age" became exactly the milestone that predicted future changes in the state and became a thing of the past with the advent of the blood-red 1917, which unrecognizably changed people's souls. And no matter how today they wanted to assure us of the opposite, it all ended after 1917, with the outbreak of the civil war. There was no "Silver Age" after that. In the twenties, inertia (the heyday of imagism) continued, for such a wide and powerful wave as the Russian “Silver Age” was, could not move for some time before collapsing and breaking. If most of the poets, writers, critics, philosophers, artists, directors, composers were alive, whose individual creativity and common work created the Silver Age, but the era itself ended. Each of its active participants was aware that, although people remained, the characteristic atmosphere of the era, in which talents grew like mushrooms after rain, came to naught. There was a cold lunar landscape without atmosphere and creative individualities - each in a separately closed cell of his creativity.

An attempt to "modernize" culture, associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin, was unsuccessful. Its results were smaller than expected and gave rise to new controversy. The increase in tension in society was faster than the answers to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures were aggravated, which was also expressed in the contradictions of economic forms, interests and motives of people's creativity, in the political life of society.

Profound social transformations were required in order to provide space for cultural creativity people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society, its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage did not save, private support and funding of significant public, cultural events. Nothing could fundamentally change the cultural face of the country. The country fell into a period of unstable development and found no other way out than a social revolution.

The canvas of the "Silver Age" turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, longing for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age”, perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

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Silver age of Russian culture

Introduction

1. Education and enlightenment

2. Science

3. Literature

4. Theater and music

5. Architecture

6. Sculpture

7. Painting

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Late 19th - early 20th century represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of Russia. The great upheavals that the country experienced in a relatively short historical period could not but be reflected in its cultural development. An important feature of this period is the intensification of the process of Russia's integration into European and world culture.

The attitude towards the West for Russian society has always been an indicator of landmarks in its forward historical movement. For centuries, the West was presented not as a certain political, and even more so geographical space, but rather as a system of values - religious, scientific, ethical, aesthetic, which can either be accepted or rejected. The possibility of choice gave rise to complex collisions in the history of Russia (let us recall, for example, the confrontation between the "Nikonians" and the Old Believers in the 17th century). The antinomies "ours" - "foreign", "Russia" - "the West" were especially acute in transitional epochs. Late XIX - early XX century. was just such an era, and the problem of "Russian Europeanness" acquired at that time a special meaning, figuratively expressed in the well-known lines of A. A. Blok:

We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,

And the gift of divine visions

Everything is clear to us - and the sharp Gallic sense,

And the gloomy German genius...

The ideals of "Russian Europeanness", orienting the development of Russian society along the path of European cultures, receive a worthy embodiment in education, science, and art. Russian culture, without losing its national identity, increasingly acquired the features of a pan-European character. Increased whether its ties with other countries. This was reflected in the widespread use of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress - the telephone and gramophone, automobile and cinema. many Russians scientists led scientific and pedagogical work abroad. The most important thing is that Russia has enriched world culture with achievements in the most diverse fields.

An important feature of the development of culture at the turn of the century is the powerful rise of the humanities. "Second wind" got a story in which the names of V.O. Klyuchevskogo, S.F. Platonov, N.A. Rozhkov and others. Philosophical thought reaches true peaks, which gave rise to the great philosopher N.A. Berdyaev called the era "religious and cultural renaissance".

The Russian cultural Renaissance was created by a whole constellation of brilliant humanitarians - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, S.N. Trubetskoy, I.A. Il-other, P.A. Florensky and others. Mind, education, romantic passion were companions of their works. In 1909 S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Berdyaev, S.L. Frank and other philosophers published the collection "Milestones", where they called on the intelligentsia to repent and renounce the destructive and bloodthirsty revolutionary plans.

The Russian "Renaissance" reflected the attitude of people who lived and worked on the verge of centuries. According to K.D. Balmont, people who think and feel at the turn of two periods, one completed, the other not yet born, debunk everything old, because it has lost its soul and has become a lifeless scheme. But, preceding the new, they themselves, having grown up on the old, are unable to see this new with their own eyes - that is why in their moods, next to the most enthusiastic outbursts, there is so much painful melancholy. The religious-philosophical thought of that period painfully searched for answers to the "sick questions" of Russian reality, trying to combine the incompatible - material and spiritual, the denial of Christian dogmas and Christian ethics.

The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century is often called the "Silver Age" today. This name also belongs to N.A. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest achievements of the culture of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of the previous "golden" eras. Poets, architects, musicians, artists of that time were the creators of art, striking with the intensity of premonitions of impending social cataclysms. They lived with a sense of dissatisfaction with "ordinary dullness" and longed to discover new worlds.

1. Education and enlightenment

The education system in Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. still included three stages: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes). According to the data of 1813, literate citizens of the Russian Empire (with the exception of children under 8 years old) averaged 38-39%.

To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with the activities of the democratic public. The policy of the authorities in this area does not appear to be consistent. So, in 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law "On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration by the II State Duma, but this draft never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912 there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia. To the previous number of universities, only one, Saratov (1909), was added, but the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the middle. 90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Private higher educational institutions (Volnaya graduate School P.F. Lesgaft, Psychoneurological Institute V.M. Bekhterev and others). Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-18. at the expense of the liberal figure in public education A.L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who provided secondary and higher education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university admitted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Further development at the beginning of the 20th century. received a female higher education. At the beginning of the XX century. in Russia there were already about 30 higher educational institutions for women (Women's Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, 1903; Higher Women's Agricultural Courses in Moscow under the direction of D.N. Pryanishnikov, 1908, etc.). Finally, women's right to higher education was legally recognized (1911).

At the same time with Sunday schools new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - working courses (for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among whose teachers were such prominent scientists as the physiologist I.M. Sechenov, historian V.I. Picheta, etc.), educational workers societies and people's houses are original clubs with a library, an assembly hall, a tea shop and a trading shop (Lithuanian People's House of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development of the periodical press and book publishing had a great influence on education. At the beginning of the XX century. 125 legal newspapers were published, in 1913 - more than 1000. In 1913. 1263 magazines were published. By 1900, the circulation of the mass literary-artistic and popular-science "thin" magazine Niva (1894-1916) had grown from 9,000 to 235,000 copies. In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan). In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone.

The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices (Suvorin's Cheap Library, Sytin's Library for Self-Education). In 1989--1913. in St. Petersburg there was a book publishing association "Knowledge", which since 1902 was headed by M. Gorky. Since 1904, 40 “Collections of the “Knowledge” partnership” have been published, including works by outstanding realist writers M. Gorky, A.I. Kuprina, I. A. Bunin and others.

The enlightenment process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public gradually increased. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1914 there were about 76,000 various public libraries in Russia.

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by "illusion" - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 in Russia there were already 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign, but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were made. The beginning of professional cinema in Russia was laid by the film "Stenka Razin and the Princess" (1908, directed by VF Romashkov). In 1911-1913. V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations. Films directed by B.F. Bauer, V.R. Gardin, Protazanov and others.

2. Science

For rub. 19th-20th centuries new areas of science were developed, including aeronautics. NOT. Zhukovsky(1847 - 1921) - the founder of modern hydro- and aerodynamics. He created the theory of hydraulic shock, discovered the law that determines the magnitude of the lift force of an aircraft wing, developed the vortex theory of a propeller, etc. The great Russian scientist was a professor at Moscow University and the Higher Technical School.

K.E. Tsiolkovsky(1857-1935) developed the theoretical foundations of aeronautics, aero- and rocket dynamics. He owns extensive research on the theory and design of an all-metal airship. In 1897, having built the simplest wind tunnel, together with Zhukovsky, he conducted research on models of airships and aircraft wings in it. In 1898 Tsiolkovsky invented the autopilot. Finally, the scientist, substantiating the possibility of interplanetary flights, proposed a liquid-propellant engine - a rocket (“Study of world spaces with jet devices”, 1903).

Works of an outstanding Russian physicist P.N. Lebedev(1866-1912) played an important role in the development of the theory of relativity, quantum theory and astrophysics. The main achievement of the scientist is the discovery and measurement of the pressure of light on solid bodies and gases. Lebedev is also the founder of research in the field of ultrasound.

The scientific significance of the works of the great Russian scientist physiologist I.P. Painfishing(1849-1934) is so great that the history of physiology is divided into two large stages: pre-Pavlovian and Pavlovian. The scientist developed and introduced fundamentally new research methods into scientific practice (the method of "chronic" experience). Pavlov's most significant research relates to the physiology of blood circulation, and for research in the field of physiology of digestion, Pavlov was the first among Russian scientists to be awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Decades of subsequent work in these areas led to the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mechnikov(1845-1916), soon became a Nobel laureate (1908) for research in comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid IN AND. Vernadsky(1863--1945). The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is only now becoming clear.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in the natural sciences. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and the spiritual, the assertion of a "new" religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but of the whole culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the "silver age" of Russian culture, were laid V.S. FROMaboutLovyov(1853--1900). The son of a famous historian, who grew up in the “severe and pious atmosphere” that reigned in the family (his grandfather was a Moscow priest), in his gymnasium years (from 14 to 18 years old) he experienced, in his words, the time of “theoretical denial”, a passion for materialism , and from childish religiosity moved to atheism. AT student years- first, for three years, at the natural, then at the historical and philological faculties of Moscow University (1889--73) and, finally, at the Moscow Theological Academy (1873--74) - Solovyov, doing a lot of philosophy, as well as studying religious and philosophical literature, he experienced a spiritual turning point. It was at this time that the foundations of his future system began to take shape.

Solovyov's teaching was fed from several roots: the search for social truth; theological rationalism and the desire for new form Christian consciousness; an unusually keen sense of history—not cosmocentrism or anthropocentrism, but historical centrism; the idea of Sophia, and, finally, the idea of God-manhood is the key point of his constructions. It "is the most full-sounding chord that has ever been heard in the history of philosophy" (S.N. Bulgakov). His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science. “Moreover, it is not the Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but, on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought with them” (V. V. Zenkovsky). Solovyov's significance is extremely great in the history of Russian philosophy. Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society, moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal spaces (“Philosophical Principles of Integral Knowledge”, 1877; “Russian Idea” in French, 1888, in Russian. - 1909; "Justification of the Good", 1897; "The Tale of the Antichrist", 1900, etc.).

The Russian religious-philosophical Renaissance, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers -- ON THE. Berdyaev (1874-1948), S.N. Bulgakov (1871-1944), D.S. Merezhkovsky (1865-1940), S.N. Trubetskoy(1862-1905) and E.N. TratBetskoy (1863-1920), G.P. Fedotov (1886-1951), P.A. Florensky (1882-1937), S.L. Franc(1877-1950) and others - largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, ethics, not only in Russia, but also in the West, anticipating, in particular, existentialism. Scientists in the humanities worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, literary criticism ( IN. keyinsky, S.F. Plataboutnew, V.I. Semevsky, S.A. Vengerov, A.N. Pypin and etc.). At the same time, an attempt was made to consider the problems of philosophy, sociology, history from a Marxist position ( G. V. Plekhanew, V.I. Lenin, M.N. Pokrovsky and etc.).

3. Literature

realistic direction in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy("Resurrection", 1880-99; "Hadji Murad", 1896-1904; "The Living Corpse", 1900); A.P. Chekhov(1860-1904), who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the "little" man with his daily worries ("Ward No. 6", 1892; "House with a mezzanine", 1896; "Ionych", 1898; " Lady with a Dog, 1899; The Seagull, 1896, etc.), and young writers I.A. Bunin(1870-1953; collection of stories "To the Ends of the Earth", 1897; "Village", 1910; "The Gentleman from San Francisco", 1915) and A.I. Kuprin(1880-1960; Molokh, 1896; Olesya, 1898; Pit, 1909-15).

At the same time, new artistic qualities appeared in realism (an indirect reflection of reality). Related to this is the spread neo-romanticism. Already the first neo-romantic works of the 90s (“Makar Chudra”, “Chelkash”, etc.) brought fame to the young A.M. Gorky(1868--1936). The best realistic works of the writer reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century. with its inherent originality of economic development and ideological and social struggle (the novel Foma Gordeev, 1899; the plays The Petty Bourgeois, 1901; At the Bottom, 1902, etc.).

At the end of the 19th century, when in an atmosphere of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was seized by moods of social and moral decline, artistic culture became widespread decadence ([from late Latin decadencia - decline] a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by the rejection of citizenship, immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. The aesthetic concept is characterized by the cult of beauty), many of the motives of which became the property of a number of artistic movements modernism , arising on rub. 20th century

Russian literature of the early 20th century, without creating a great novel, gave rise to wonderful poetry, the most significant trend in which was symbolism . V.S. had a huge influence on the Symbolists. Solovyov, who communicated to them his faith in Sophia and formulated the essence of symbolism in this way:

Everything we see

Only reflections, only shadows

From what is invisible to the eye.

Sophia, understood by Solovyov as a synthesis of Wisdom, Goodness and Beauty, as an intermediary between man and God, as the “World Soul”, was embodied in cycles of poems about beautiful lady A.A. Blok(1880--1921), creativity Andrey Bely (pseudonym B.N. Bugaev, 1880-1934) and others. For the symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign and represented the connection between the two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, who considered the predominance of realism to be the main reason for the decline of literature, proclaimed “symbols”, “mystical content” as the foundations of the new art (“On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature”, 1893). His own novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas (trilogy "Christ and Antichrist", 1895-1905). Along with the requirements of "pure" art, the Symbolists professed individualism, they are characterized by the theme of "elemental genius", close in spirit to Nietzsche's "superman".

It is customary to distinguish "senior" and "junior" symbolists. "Seniors" ( V. Bryusov. K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius), who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. "Junior" symbolists (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov) brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore. The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the steady popularity of poetry in this direction becomes understandable. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest, captivating artistry of a creative manner was experienced not only by the acmeists and futurists who replaced the symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, “symbolism had completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilyov), he was replaced by acmeism . Members of the acmeist group ( N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzbmin) declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the “ideal”, the return to it of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests, a penchant for aestheticism. A. Blok, with his inherent heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of acmeism: "... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general." However, the acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, this is evidenced by the psychologism of the first collections of A. A. Akhmatova (1889-1966), the lyricism of the early 0.3. Mandelstam (1981-- 1938). In essence, the acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship.

At the same time, another modernist trend arose - f at tourism , divided into several groups: "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin and etc.); "Mezzanine of Poetry" (V. Lavrenev, R. Ivlev and etc.), "Centrif at ha" (N. Aseev, B. Pasternak and etc.), "Gilea" , whose members D. Burliuk, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov and others called themselves cubo-futurists , will be I us , i.e. people from the future. “We are a new kind of people-rays. They came to illuminate the universe” (V. Khlebnikov).

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game”, the Futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the symbolists with their idea "life e buildings", those. transformation of the world with art, the futurists focused on destruction of the old world. Common to the futurists was the denial of traditions in culture, the passion for form creation. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists to "throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the steamboat of modernity" (manifesto "Slap in the Face of Public Taste", 1912) received scandalous notoriety.

The groupings of acmeists and futurists that arose in polemics with symbolism turned out to be very close to it in practice in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and predominant attention to form .

There were bright individualities in the poetry of this time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin (1877--1932), M. Tsvetaeva(1892--1941). No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets (N. Klyuev, P. Oreshin). Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, their ideas (combination of religious and mystical m about tivov with the problem of protection of trad and of peasant culture) they embodied in creativity. Later, Osip Mandelstam in his “Letter on Russian Poetry” (1922) named N.A. Klyuev (1887-1937), who gained fame in the 10s (the collection The Pines Chime, 1912), hunted down in the twenties and killed in the late thirties, in essence, for the deep connection of his poetry with the origins of Russian culture - folklorism and some patriarchy . “Klyuev is an alien from the majestic Olonets, where Russian life and Russian peasant speech rests on Hellenic importance and simplicity. Klyuev is popular because he combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic tune of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelstam). With peasant poets, especially with Klyuev, S. Yesenin (1895-1925) was close at the beginning of his journey, combining in his work the traditions of folklore and classical art (the collection Radunitsa, 1916, etc.).

4. Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the XIX century. was the opening of an art theater in Moscow (1898), founded K. S. Stanislavsky (1863--1938) and V.I. HeMirovich-Danchenko(1858--1943). In staging plays by Chekhov and Gorky, new principles of acting, directing, and design of performances were formed. The outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically received by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative criticism (newspaper Novoye Vremya), as well as representatives of symbolism - V. Bryusov made a critical article "Unnecessary Truth" in the journal "World of Art". He, a supporter of the aesthetics of the conventional symbolic theater, was closer to experiments V.E. Meyerhold the founder of metaphorical theatre.

In 1904, a theater arose in St. Petersburg V.F. Komissarzhevskaya(1864-1910), whose repertoire (plays by Gorky, Chekhov, etc.) reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. Director's work of a student of Stanislavsky E.B. Vakhtangov(1883-- 1922) marked by the search for new forms, his productions in 1911--12. are joyful, spectacular (“Miracle of St. Anthony” by M. Maeterlinck, “Princess Turandot” by K. Gozzi, etc.). In 1915, Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became the theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, the founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater (1914) AND I. Tairov(1885-1950) sought to create a "synthetic theater" of a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, to form actors of virtuoso skill.

Development of the best traditions musical theater associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi theaters, as well as with private opera S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. prominent representatives Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F.I. Chaliapin (1873--1938), L.V. Sobinov (1872-1934), N.V. Nezhdanova(1873-1950). The ballet master became the reformers of the ballet theater MM. Fokin(1880--1942) and ballerina A.P. Pavlova(1881--1931). Russian art has received worldwide recognition ("Russian Seasons" by S.P. Diaghilev in Paris, 1909--12).

Outstanding Composer ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre fairy tale operas ("Sadko", 1896; "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", 1900; "The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh", 1904; "The Golden Cockerel", 1907). the highest example real and stic drama was his opera The Tsar's Bride (1898). Professor of the St. Petersburg Conservatory in the class of composition, Rimsky-Korsakov brought up a galaxy of talented students (A.K. Glazunov, A.K. Lyadov, N.Ya. Myaskovsky and others).

In the work of composers younger generation at the turn of the 20th century. there was a departure from social issues, gain int e res to philosophical and ethical problems. This found its fullest expression in the work of brilliant pianist and conductor, outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninov(1873--1943), who was in many ways the direct heir Tchaikovsky(operas Aleko, 1892; Francesca da Rimini, 1904, etc.); in emotionally tense, with sharp features of modernism music A.N. Scriabin(1871/72--1915; " divine poem”, “Poem of Ecstasy”, “Prometheus” (“Poem of Fire”, 1910), etc .; in works I.F. Stravinskaboutth, which harmoniously combined interest in folklore and the most modern musical forms (1882-1971; ballets The Firebird, 1910; Petrushka, 1911; The Rite of Spring, 1913, etc.).

5. Architecture

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. revolutionized the construction industry. In the urban landscape, an increasing place was occupied by new type buildings (banks, shops, factories, stations). The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the approval of the style modern !

In creativity F.O. Shekhtel(1859-1926) the main development trends and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The architect worked on projects of almost all types of structures ( tenement houses and private mansions, buildings of stations and trading companies). The formation of style in the work of the master went in two directions - national romantic , in line with neo-Russian style (Yaroslavsky railway station in Moscow, 1903) and rational (printing house of A. A. Levenson in Mamontovsky per., 1900). The features of Art Nouveau were most fully manifested in the architecture of the Ryabushinsky mansion at the Nikitsky Gate (1900--02), where the architect, abandoning traditional schemes, applied an asymmetric planning principle. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric protrusions of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle of assimilation of an architectural structure to an organic form inherent in Art Nouveau. The building organically fits into the surrounding space. In the decoration of the mansion, Shekhtel used such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained-glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral ornaments encircling the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interweaving of stained-glass windows, in the pattern of balcony bars and street fences. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the interiors of the building are also made according to the architect's drawings and form a single whole with the general idea of the building - to turn the living environment into a kind of architectural performance, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, features constructivism -- a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

The trading house of the Moscow Merchant Society in Maly Cherkassky Lane (1909) and the building of the printing house "Morning of Russia" (1907) can be called pre-constructivist .

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially brightly, in particular in the work of one of the founders of Russian modernity. L.N. Kekusheva(house of the heirs of the Khludovs on Mokhovaya, 4, 1894--96; Nikolsky malls on Nikolskaya st., 5; 1899-- 1903 and others). AT neoru With com style worked A.V. Shchusev(1873 - 1949) - the building of the Kazan station in Moscow (1913 - 24), V.M. Vasnetsov- the building of the Tretyakov Gallery in Lavrushinsky Lane (1901--06), etc. In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism (Mansion of A.A. Polovtsev on Kamenny Island, 1911-13, architect I. A. Fomin).

In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, modern is one of the most consistent styles.

6. Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence impressionism . The first successive representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy(1866--1938), formed as a master in Italy, where he spent his childhood and youth. Already in the first Russian works of the sculptor (portrait of I. I. Levitan and bust of L. N. Tolstoy, both 1899, bronze), the features of the new method appeared - “looseness”, tuberosity of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light.

The most remarkable work of Trubetskoy is the monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg (1909, bronze). The grotesque, almost satirical image of the reactionary emperor is made as an antithesis to the famous Falcone (Bronze Horseman) monument: instead of a proud rider who easily curbed a rearing horse, there is a “fat-ass martinet” (Repin) on a heavy, backward horse. By abandoning the impressionistic modeling of the surface, Trubetskoy intensified the overall impression of oppressive brute force.

In its own way, monumental pathos is alien to the wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow (1909) by the sculptor ON THE. Andreeva(1873-- 1932), subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, "weariness of the heart", so consonant with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep reflection with a touch of melancholy gloom.

The original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in creativity A.S. Golubkina(1864-1927), who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of awakening the human spirit ("Walking", 1903; "Seated Man", 1912, Russian Museum). Women's images, created by the sculptor, are marked by a sense of compassion for people who are tired but not broken life's trials("Izergil", 1904; "Old", 1911, etc.).

Impressionism had little effect on creativity S. T. Konenkova(1874--1971), distinguished by stylistic and genre diversity (allegorical "Samson Breaking the Bonds", 1902; psychological picture"Worker-militant 1905 Ivan Churkin", 1906, marble; gallery of generalized symbolic images on topics Greek mythology and Russian folklore - "Nike", 1906, marble; "Stribog", 1910; fantastic and at the same time frighteningly real figures of wretched wanderers - "The Beggar Brotherhood", 1917, tree, State Tretyakov Gallery).

7. Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, there was an assertion of the priority of artistic forms that reflect reality only indirectly. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century, the controversy of multiple artistic groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.

Genre painting lost its leading role in the 1990s. Artists in search of new themes turned to changes in the traditional way of life. They were equally attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community (S.A. Korovin, "On the World", 1893, Tretyakov Gallery), the prose of stupefying labor (A.E. Arkhipov, "Washerwomen", 1901, Tretyakov Gallery) and the revolutionary events of 1905. (S.V. Ivanov, "Shooting", 1905, State Musical Revolution, Moscow). The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of historical household n ra . Not global historical events interested the inspired singer of Russian antiquity A.P. Ryabushkin(1871-1924), and the aesthetics of the Russian way of life XVII c., the refined beauty of ancient Russian patterning, emphasized decorativeness. Penetrating lyricism, a deep understanding of the originality of the way of life, characters and psychology of people pre-Petrine Russia the best canvases of the artist (“Russian women XVII century in the church", 1899; "Wedding train in Moscow of the 17th century", 1901; “They are going” or “The people of Moscow during the entry of a foreign embassy into Moscow at the end of the 17th century”, 1901; "Moscow girl of the 17th century", 1903 and others. State Tretyakov Gallery). history painting Ryabushkina is a country of the ideal, where the artist found rest from the "lead abominations" of contemporary life. That's why historical life on his canvases appears not dramatic but aesthetic side .

In historical canvases A. V. Vasnetsova we find the development of the landscape beginning (“Street in Kitai-Gorod. Beginning of the 17th century”, 1900, Russian Museum). Creation M.V. Nesterov(1862--1942) represented retrospective landscape , through which the high spirituality of the heroes is conveyed (“Vision to the youth Bartholomew”, 1889-90, State Tretyakov Gallery, “Great tonsure”, 1898, Russian Museum).

Savrasov's student I.I. Levitan(1860-1900), who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air writing, continuing the lyrical direction in the landscape, he approached impressionism (“ Birch Grove", 1885--89) and was the creator of "conceptual landscape" or “mood landscape”, which has a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation (“March”, 1895, State Tretyakov Gallery; “Lake”, 1900, Russian Museum) to philosophical reflections on the frailty of everything earthly (“Above Eternal Peace”, 1894, State Tretyakov Gallery) .

K.A. Korovin(1861 - 1939) - the brightest representative of the Russian impressionism , the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French Impressionists. Having started his career as an artist in the Abramtsevo circle of patron S. I. Mamontov (1841-1918), which united the best artistic forces of Moscow, in the second half of the 80s, together with Mamontov, Korovin visited Paris and Spain, this predetermined the beginning of a new stage in his work. The artist increasingly departed from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even drama, trying to convey this or that state of mind with the music of color. Having visited Paris again, he created a series of landscapes, not complicated by either external plot-narrative or psychological motives (Paris, 1902; Paris in the Evening, 1907; Paris. Capuchin Boulevard, 1911, State Tretyakov Gallery). In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense manner of writing, especially in his favorite still lifes (Flowers, 1911; Roses and Violets, 1912; Lilacs, 1915, etc.). With all his art, the artist affirmed the inherent value of purely pictorial tasks, he forced to appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “etude” of the pictorial manner. Korovin's canvases are a "feast for the eyes".

The central figure of art at the turn of the century-- V.A. Serov(1865--1911). A student of Repin, familiar with the best museum collections in Europe, he also experienced the influence of the art circle that rallied around S. I. Mamontov. The first mature works of the artist appeared in Abramtsevo (“Girl with Peaches”, 1887; “Girl, Illuminated by the Sun”, 1888, all in the State Tretyakov Gallery), the impressionistic luminosity of which and the dynamics of a free brushstroke marked turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to the "realism of the about ethical" (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a heightened sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, was especially significant (portraits of K. Korovin, 1891; M. Yermolova, 1905, State Tretyakov Gallery; Prince Orlova, 1911, all in the Russian Museum). The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in the artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions (Peter I, 1907, Tretyakov Gallery) and the cycle on antique stories(“The Abduction of Europe”, 1910, State Tretyakov Gallery).

One by one, two masters entered Russian culture alive about written symbolism who created in their works the sublime world - M. Vrubel and V. Borisov-Musatov. Creative individuality of M.A. Vrubel (1856-1910) manifested itself in various types of art: in a monumental decorative panel ("Spain", 1894) and easel painting ("The Swan Princess", 1900, State Tretyakov Gallery), portrait (S.I. Mamontov, 1897, State Tretyakov Gallery; portrait of the artist’s wife N.I. Zabela-Vrubel, 1904, Russian Museum) and theatrical scenery (to Rimsky-Korsakov's operas The Snow Maiden, etc.), book illustration Yu stration (to Lermontov) and majolica sculpture ("Volkhova"). The central image of Vrubel's work is the Demon, who embodied the rebellious impulse that the artist himself experienced and felt in his best contemporaries ("Seated Demon", 1890; "Flying Demon", 1899; "Defeated Demon", 1902; all in the State Tretyakov Gallery). The art of the artist is characterized by the desire to stage philosophical problems. His reflections on truth and beauty, on the lofty purpose of art are sharply and dramatically, in the symbolic form inherent in it, embodied in the painting “The Six-winged Seraphim” (1904, Russian Museum), inspired by A. S. Pushkin’s poem “The Prophet” and music by N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Gravitating towards the symbolic-philosophical generalization of images, Vrubel developed his own pictorial language - a broad stroke of "crystal" form and color, understood as colored light. Paints, sparkling like gems, enhance the feeling of a special spirituality inherent in the works of the artist.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer V.E. Borisov-Musatov (1870-1905) is a reality turned into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so unlike the surrounding one. The art of Borisov-Musatov is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow with the feelings that many people of that time experienced, “when society was thirsty for renewal and many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light and air effects to a picturesque and decorative version. post-impressionism ("May Flowers", 1894; "Tapestry", 1901; "Ghosts", 1903; "Emerald Necklace", 1903--04; all in the State Tretyakov Gallery). In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the work of Borisov-Musatov is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena. However, true recognition came to the artist only after his death.

Subjects far from modernity, "dreamy retro about spectivism" Borisov-Musatov is related to "World of Art" (1898-1924) - an association of St. Petersburg artists ( Bakst, Dobuzhinsky, Lansere, Somov etc.) led by A.N. Benoit(1870-- 1960). A huge role in it was played by the philanthropist S.P. Diaghilev (1872-1922), who organized exhibitions, published a magazine with the same name, the World of Art artists were participants in the famous Russian Seasons organized by Diaghilev. Rejecting both academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the "World of Art" showed interest in life only insofar as it had already been expressed in art. Hence the search for an artistic image in the past. For such a frank rejection of modern reality, the "World of Art" was criticized from all sides, accusing of passeism (flight into the past), in decadence, in anti-democratism. However, the appearance of such artistic movement it wasn't an accident. The "World of Art" was a kind of response of the Russian creative intelligentsia to the general politicization of culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. and excessive publicity of the fine arts.

K.A. Somov (1869-1939), who combined aestheticism and sober irony (“Echo of the Past Time”, 1903, State Tretyakov Gallery; “The Ridiculous Kiss”, 1908, State Russian Museum; “Lady in Blue”, 1897-1900, State Tretyakov Gallery), A.N. Benois (Versailles versions, 1896-1906); HER. Lansere (1875-1946; Nikolsky Market in St. Petersburg, 1901, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Empress Elizaveta Petrovna in Tsarskoye Selo", 1905).

Creation N.K. Roerich(1874--1947) turned to pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity ("Messenger", 1897, State Tretyakov Gallery; "Overseas Guests", 1901, Russian Museum; "Nikola", 1916, KMRI). The basis of his painting has always been a landscape, often directly natural. And this is not accidental, because Roerich's teacher at the Academy of Arts was the famous landscape painter A.I. Kuindzhi. The features of Roerich's landscape are connected both with the assimilation of the experience of the Art Nouveau style (the use of elements of parallel perspective in order to combine in one composition various objects, understood as pictorially equivalent), and with a passion for culture ancient india(the opposition of earth and sky, understood by the artist as a source of spirituality).

To the second generation of "World of Art" belonged B.M. Kustodiev. (1878--1927), most gifted author ironic style and zation of the popular popular print ("Merchant", 1915, Russian Museum), Z.E. Serebryakova, professed neo-clear aesthetics With sicism (“Pierrot / Self-portrait in a Pierrot costume /”, 1911, OHM; “Peasants”, 1914, State Tretyakov Gallery).

The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

Moscow exhibitors, opposing the Westernism of the "World of Art" with national themes, and graphic stylism with an appeal to the open air, established an exhibition association "Union of Russian Artists" (1903-23). In the bowels of the "Union" developed Russian version of impressionism (I.E. Grabar, « february blue", 1904; F. Malyavin, "Whirlwind", 1906, State Tretyakov Gallery) and original synthesis of everyday genre with architectural landscape (K.F. Yuon, "Trinity Lavra in winter", 1910, Russian Museum; " March sun", 1915, State Tretyakov Gallery).

In 1907, another large art association arose in Moscow "Blue Rose" , which included symbolist artists, followers of Borisov-Musatov. The Blue Bearers were influenced by the Art Nouveau style, hence the characteristic features of their painting - a flat-decorative stylization of forms, the search for sophisticated color solutions ( P.V. Kuznetsov, "Mirage in the steppe", 1912; M.S. Saryan, "Date Palm", 1911, State Tretyakov Gallery). Working fruitfully in the theatre, the Blue Bearers came into direct contact with the dramaturgy of symbolism ( N.N. Sapunov designed performances based on plays by Maeterlinck, Ibsen, Blok).

Association Artists "Jack of Diamonds" (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism as well as to the techniques of the Russian popular print and folk toys, they solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, building a form with color. The initial principle of their art was the assertion of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was promoted to the first place ( I.I. Mashkov"Blue Plums", 1910, State Tretyakov Gallery). The materialized, "still life" beginning was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre - portrait (P.P. Conchaloinsky"Portrait of G. Yakulov", 1910, Russian Museum). "Lyrical Cubism" R.R. Falka(1886-- 1958) was distinguished by a peculiar psychologism, fine color-plastic harmony (“At the piano. Portrait of E.S. Potekhina-Falk”, 1917). The school of skill, passed at the school with such outstanding artists and teachers as V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the "Jack of Diamonds" I. I. Mashkov, M.F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulova determined the origins of Falk's original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous "Red Furniture" (1920).

Since the mid-10s, an important component of the pictorial style of the "Jack of Diamonds" has become futurism , one of the methods of which was the "mounting" of objects or their parts taken from different points and at different times (decorative panel A. V. Lentulova Basil the Blessed, 1913, State Tretyakov Gallery).

Primitivist tendency , associated with the assimilation of the style of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work M.F. Larionova(1881-1964), one of the organizers of the "Jack of Diamonds" ("Resting Soldier", 1910, State Tretyakov Gallery) and his artist wife N.S. Goncharova(“Washing the canvas”, 1910, State Tretyakov Gallery). Both folk naive art and Western expressionism close fantastically irrational polo t on the M.Z. Chagall(1887-1985, "Wedding", 1918, State Tretyakov Gallery; "I and the Village", 1911, Musical Modern Art., New York, etc.). The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life on Chagall's canvases is akin to Gogol's stories. Unique creativity was in contact with the primitivist line P.N. Filonova(1883-1941, "East and West", 1912-13; "Feast of Kings", 1913; "Peasant Family", 1914, Russian Museum).

By the 10s, the first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art , one of the first manifestos of which was Larionov's book "Luchism" (1913), and the real theorists and practitioners were AT. V. Kandinsky(1866--1944) and K.S. Malevich(1878--1935). At the same time, creativity K.S. Petrova-Vodkina, declaring a successive connection with ancient Russian icon painting, testified to the vitality of the tradition (“Bathing the Red Horse”, 1012, Tretyakov Gallery). The extraordinary diversity and inconsistency of artistic pursuits, numerous groups with their own program settings reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

Conclusion

The creators of art, who today are referred to as the "Silver Age", are connected by invisible threads with a renewed worldview in the name of freedom of creativity. The development of social conflicts at the turn of the century imperiously demanded a reassessment of values, a change in the foundations of creativity and means of artistic expression. Against this background, artistic styles were born, in which the usual meaning of concepts and ideals shifted. "The sun of naive realism has set," A.A. Block. The historical-realistic novel, life-like opera, and genre painting were a thing of the past. In the new art, the world of fiction seems to have diverged from the world of everyday life. At times, creativity coincided with religious self-consciousness, gave room for fantasy and mysticism, free soaring of the imagination. The new art, whimsical, mysterious and contradictory, longed for either philosophical depth, or mystical revelations, or knowledge of the vast Universe and the secrets of creativity. Symbolist and futuristic poetry, music that claims to be philosophy, metaphysical and decorative painting, new synthetic ballet, decadent theater, architectural modernity were born.

At first glance, the artistic culture of the "Silver Age" is full of mysteries and contradictions, which are difficult to logically analyze. It seems that numerous art movements, creative schools, individual, fundamentally unconventional styles intertwined on a grandiose historical canvas. Symbolism and futurism, acmeism and abstractionism, "world art" and " New school church singing"... There were much more contrasting, sometimes mutually exclusive artistic trends in those years than in all previous centuries of the development of Russian culture. However, this versatility of the art of the "Silver Age" does not obscure its integrity, because from contrasts, as noted by Heraclitus, the most beautiful harmony is born.

The unity of the art of the "Silver Age" is in the combination of old and new, outgoing and emerging, in the mutual influence of different types of art on each other, in the interweaving of traditional and innovative. In other words, in the artistic culture of the "Russian Renaissance" there was a unique combination of the realistic traditions of the outgoing 19th century and new artistic trends.

The unifying beginning of the new artistic trends of the "Silver Age" can be considered super-problems, which were simultaneously put forward in different types of art. The globality and complexity of these problems is amazing even today.

The most important figurative sphere of poetry, music, painting was determined by the leitmotif of the freedom of the human spirit in the face of Eternity. The image of the Universe entered Russian art - immense, calling, frightening. Many artists touched the secrets of space, life, death. For some masters, this theme was a reflection of religious feelings, for others - the embodiment of delight and awe before the eternal beauty of Creation.

different beginnings" space theme"- many inspired pages of Russian art were devoted to the cosmos of the Soul. The cult of quivering Feeling was unusually strong, and its ardor gave rise to a state of "Dionysianism", an all-devouring ecstasy. Intoxication with love, the sensual beauty of the world, the stormy elements of fire and water , intoxication with the joy of being - a fairly bright figurative sphere of art of this time. The word "love" in the art of the "Silver Age" was not declared, but deeply suffered. Personal love experiences were only one of the facets of this immense "microcosm". No less strong were the themes of love for God and Russia:

From the sea of tears, from the sea of torment

Your fate is visible, clear:

You stretch up like arms

Your holy flames...

(A. Bely)

With all the "cosmic" general significance and European orientation of many new trends (symbolism, neo-classicism, futurism, etc.), they begin to develop the "Russian theme" with special depth, the symbolism of national original beauty.

The appeal to the origins is not exhausted by the "Russian theme". The "eternal harmony" of the art of past eras, its enigmatic faces, images, objects, slightly overshadowed by centuries, seem to be awakening to a new life in the work of the neoclassical direction.

Artistic experimentation in the era of the "Silver Age" opened the way for new trends in the art of the 20th century. Representatives of the artistic intelligentsia of the Russian Diaspora played a huge role in integrating the achievements of Russian culture into world culture.

After the revolution, many figures of the "Russian cultural Renaissance" found themselves out of the fatherland. Philosophers and mathematicians, poets and musicians, virtuoso performers and directors left. In August 1922, on the initiative of V.I. Lenin was expelled the color of the Russian professorship, including opposition-minded philosophers of world renown: NA Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.0. Lossky, S.L. Frank, L.P. Karsavin, P.A. Sorokin (total 160 people). They left, scattered around the world I.F. Stravinsky and A.N. Benois, M.3. Chagall and V.V. Kandinsky, NA. Medtner and S.P. Diaghilev, N.S. Goncharov and M.F. Larionov, S.V. Rachmaninov and S.A. Koussevitzky, N.K. Roerich and A.I. Kuprin, I.A. Bunin and F.I. Shalya pin. For many of them, emigration was a forced, essentially tragic choice "between Solovki and Paris." But there were also those who remained, sharing their fate with their people. As AA wrote. Akhmatova in autumn 1917:

He said, "Come here

Leave your land deaf and sinful,

Leave Russia forever..."

But indifferent and calm

I covered my ears with my hands

So that this speech is unworthy

The mournful spirit was not offended.

Today, the names of the "lost Russians" are returning from the "zone of oblivion". This process is difficult, since over the decades many names have disappeared from memory, memoirs and priceless manuscripts have disappeared, archives and personal libraries have been sold.

Thus, the brilliant "Silver Age" ended with a mass exodus of its creators from Russia. However, the "disintegrated connection of times" did not destroy the great Russian culture, the multifaceted, antinomic development of which continued to mirror the contradictory, sometimes mutually exclusive trends in the history of the 20th century.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. L.A. Rapatskaya "Artistic culture of Russia", Moscow, "Vlados", 1998

2. T.I. Balakin "History of Russian culture", Moscow, "Az", 1996

3. A.N. Zholkovsky Wandering Dreams. From the history of Russian modernism”, Moscow, “Sov. Writer, 1992

4. D.S. Likhachev "Russian art from antiquity to avant-garde", Moscow, "Art", 1992

5. "Russian avant-garde in the circle of European culture", Moscow, 1993

6. S.S. Dmitriev "Essays on the history of Russian culture early. XX century”, Moscow, “Enlightenment”, 1985

Silver age of Russian culture

1. Education and enlightenment

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912 there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia. To the previous number of universities, only one, Saratov (1909), was added, but the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the middle. In the 1990s, up to 35.3 thousand in 1907, private higher educational institutions became widespread (P.F. Lesgaft’s Free High School, V.M. Bekhterev’s Psychoneurological Institute, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-18. at the expense of the liberal figure in public education A.L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who provided secondary and higher education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university admitted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - working courses (for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among whose teachers were such prominent scientists as the physiologist I.M. Sechenov, historian V.I. Picheta and others. ), educational workers' societies and people's houses - a kind of clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea and trading shop (Lithuanian People's House of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The enlightenment process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public gradually increased. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1914 there were about 76,000 various public libraries in Russia.

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Silver age of Russian culture

Goals:

consider the features of the development of the spiritual life of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century;
form an idea of the essence of the socio-cultural phenomenon of the Silver Age
using specific examples to show the achievements of Russian science and philosophy, to reveal the social essence and artistic value of new trends in art.

Basic concepts: Silver Age, modernization, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, impressionism.

Equipment: multimedia projector, screen, presentation in the Power Point system “Spiritual life of the Silver Age”, fragments of musical works.

Plan for studying a new topic(slide 2. Cm. Application)

The state of the spiritual life of Russian society.
Education, enlightenment, science
Literature.
Sculpture.
Painting.
Architecture
Theater and music.

During the classes

1. Introductory speech of the teacher:

Late 19th – early 20th century represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of Russia. The great upheavals that the country experienced in a relatively short historical period could not but be reflected in its cultural development. An important feature of this period is the intensification of the process of Russia's integration into European and world culture.

Late 19th – early 20th century in Russia, this is a time of change, uncertainty and gloomy omens, this is a time of disappointment and a sense of the approaching death of the existing socio-political system.

A new stage in the development of Russian culture is conditionally, from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917, called the Silver Age.

2. We update the knowledge of students during the conversation

what was the name of the first period half of XIX century in the history of Russian culture? ("Golden age")
why was it called that, what was it connected with? (During this period, masterpieces of Russian classics were created in almost all areas of Russian art, represented by A.S. Pushkin, M.M. Glinka, A.A. Ivanov and many others).

3. Teacher's story

N. Berdyaev, who called this phenomenon "the Russian cultural renaissance" (or "the Russian spiritual renaissance"), described it this way: "Now we can definitely say that the beginning of the 20 religious and mystical sensibility. Never before has Russian culture reached such refinement as at that time."

The Silver Age” occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This contradictory time of spiritual searches and wanderings significantly enriched all kinds of arts and philosophy and gave rise to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of a new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. The traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - could not cope with their functions, and the age of modernity was born.

However, sometimes they say that the Silver Age is a Western phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his guidelines the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, the superman of Nietzsche.

The creators of art, who today are attributed to the Silver Age, are connected by invisible threads with a renewed worldview in the name of freedom of creativity. The development of social conflicts at the turn of the century imperiously demanded a reassessment of values, a change in the foundations of creativity and means of artistic expression. Against this background, artistic styles were born in which the usual meaning of concepts and ideals shifted. "The sun of naive realism has set," A.A. Block. The historical-realistic novel, life-like opera, and genre painting were a thing of the past. In the new art, the world of fiction seems to have diverged from the world of everyday life. The new art, whimsical, mysterious and contradictory, longed for either philosophical depth, or mystical revelations, or knowledge of the vast Universe and the secrets of creativity. Symbolist and futuristic poetry, music that claims to be philosophy, metaphysical and decorative painting, new synthetic ballet, decadent theater, architectural modernity were born.

At first glance, the artistic culture of the Silver Age is full of mysteries and contradictions that are difficult to logically analyze. It seems as if numerous artistic movements intertwined on a grandiose historical canvas, creative schools, individual, fundamentally unconventional styles. Symbolism and futurism, acmeism and abstractionism, "world art" and the "New School of Church Singing"... There were much more contrasting artistic trends in those years than in all previous centuries of the development of national culture. However, this versatility of the art of the Silver Age does not overshadow its integrity, because from the contrasts, as Heraclitus noted, the most beautiful harmony is born.

The unity of the art of the Silver Age is in the combination of old and new, outgoing and emerging, in the mutual influence of different types of art on each other, in the interweaving of traditional and innovative. In the artistic culture of the "Russian Renaissance" there was a unique combination of the realistic traditions of the outgoing 19th century and new artistic trends.

4. Update students' knowledge during the conversation

guys, what words can we characterize the Silver Age? (contradictory, fantasy, realistic, mysterious, religious, creating something new, a new upsurge in art, causing the collapse of the old, etc.)
try to independently formulate a definition of the concept of the Silver Age. Then write it down on the slide. ( slide 3)

5. Continuation of the explanation according to the plan

Education

(slide 4) At the turn of the century, the education system still included three stages: In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the II State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. ( slide 5) In 1897, the All-Russian population census was conducted. In secondary school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university admitted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Education

(slide 6) Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate. - working courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - a kind of clubs with a library, an assembly hall, a tea shop and a trading shop. The development of the periodical press and book publishing had a great influence on education. ( slide 7, 8) In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to the familiarization of the people with literature, releasing books at affordable prices: Suvorin's "cheap library" and Sytin's "library for self-education". The educational process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public increased rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact slide 6)

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema ( Slide 9), which appeared in St. Petersburg just a year after its invention in France. VA Starevich created the world's first 3D animations.

The science

6. Conversation with students on questions

what caused the need for competent and qualified specialists at the beginning of the 20th century? (The industrial revolution that began at the end of the 19th century, the development of new industries, the use of technology that was bought abroad, the growth of people's self-awareness)
What do you think was the most important thing in the education of this period? (growth of educational institutions, elimination of discrimination against women)
What do you think gave impetus to this development of education during this period? (growth of educational institutions, growth of literate population)
name, in your opinion, the most important discoveries of Russian scientists in the field of natural, technical or humanitarian sciences, justify your answer.

Literature

(slide 12, 13) The realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological search of the intelligentsia and the “little” man with his daily worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin. ( Slide 14)

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works of A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent peculiarity of economic development and ideological and social struggle. Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to remarkable poetry, and the most significant trend was symbolism. ( slide 15) The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about the world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. ( slide 16) By 1910, “symbolism had completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilyov), it was replaced by acmeism. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the “ideal”, the return to it of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). At the same time, another modernist trend arose - futurism. Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game”, the Futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. In contrast to the symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world with art, the Futurists emphasized the destruction of the old world. Common to the futurists was the rejection of traditions in culture. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the steamboat of modern times” became notorious.

There were bright individualities in the poetry of that time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity. A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets, like N. Klyuev. “Klyuev is popular because he combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic tune of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelstam). With peasant poets, especially with Klyuev, S. Yesenin was close at the beginning of his journey, combining in his work the traditions of folklore and classical art.

7. Conversation with students on questions

Describe the Russian literature of the Silver Age.
what art styles were represented?

6. Continuation of the explanation according to the plan

Sculpture

Sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, unevenness of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light. ( Slide 17) The very first consistent representative of this direction P.P. Trubetskoy, abandons the impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force. ( Slide 18) In its own way, monumental pathos is alien to the wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow by sculptor N.A. Andreev, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, the “fatigue of the heart”, so consonant with the era.

Painting

(Slide 19) At the turn of the century, instead of a realistic method of directly reflecting reality, the priority of artistic forms that reflect reality only indirectly took place. Genre painting lost its leading role in the 1990s. The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of a historical genre. ( Slide 20) In the historical canvases of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape beginning. ( slide 21) I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air writing, continuing the lyrical direction in the landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of the “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which has a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of everything earthly. ( slide 22) K.A. Korovin is the brightest representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists, who tried to convey this or that state of mind with the music of color. One by one, the masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating an exalted world in their works - V.A. Serov M.A. Vrubel and V.E. Borisov-Musatov. At the same time, associations of artists appeared in Russia. "World of Art" ( slide 23) The main goal is the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities; The "Union of Russian Artists" is the development of the Russian version of impressionism and the original synthesis of the everyday genre with the architectural landscape. Artists of the association "Jack of Diamonds" ( slide 24) (1910-1916) solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, constructing a form with color. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put forward in the first place. “Lyrical Cubism” R.R. Falka was distinguished by subtle color-plastic harmony, which determined the origins of Falk's original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”. The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s of the last century; V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. Malevich. ( Slide 25)

Architecture

(slide 26) The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction technology made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the approval of the Art Nouveau style. ( slide 26) In the work of F.O. Shekhtel, the main development trends and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of style in the work of the master went in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, an asymmetric planning principle is applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric protrusions of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle of assimilation of an architectural structure to an organic form inherent in Art Nouveau. In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, modern is one of the most consistent styles.

8. Conversation with students on questions

What are the characteristics of Russian painting?
what were the artistic achievements in architecture and sculpture?

Theater and music

Given the specifics of our educational institution, I would like to dwell in more detail on the development of Russian musical, ballet and theatrical art.

The second-year students of the classical dance department prepared reports on the development of theatrical ( slide 28, 29), ballet ( slide 30), musical ( Slide 31) art.

9. Conversation with students on questions

what new phenomena were characteristic of Russian ballet and theatrical art?

Final word from the teacher. (slide 32)

Homework

Paragraph 8, p. 63 task 1.2

Enlightenment Modernization of the country required competent specialists. Spending on education has increased 5 times. Approximately 6 million people studied in schools. The number of gymnasiums and real schools increased. Commercial schools and other professional institutions appeared. New technical universities appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, Tomsk. A university opened in Saratov. Pedagogical institutes were opened in the capitals. 60% of all students were not noblemen.

Science At the beginning of the 20th century, science developed rapidly in Russia. Physicist P. Lebedev developed a unified wave theory. N. Zhukovsky and S. Chaplygin created the aircraft industry in the country. K.E. Tsiolkovsky in 1903 substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined the ways to achieve this goal. V. Vernadsky developed the doctrine of the noosphere. P.N. Lebedev N.E. Zhukovsky

Such luminaries as V. Klyuchevsky, S. Platonov, R. Vipper, E. Tarle worked in historical science. Philosophy developed through the efforts of N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, V. Solovyov, P. Florensky. About twenty scientific and technical societies operated in the country, which were centers scientific works widely promoted them among the population. V. Klyuchevsky N. Berdyaev

Literature The image of the "Silver Age" is most clearly manifested in literature. Critical realism was preserved in the work of Leo Tolstoy, and his letters to the tsar caused a wide response in society. A. Chekhov in his work reflected changes in the structure of society. I. Bunin studied the life of the peasantry, and A. Kuprin - army everyday life. M. Gorky first described the life of the proletariat. S. Yesenin, N. Klyuev and others came to Russian poetry.

The desire not only to display but also to change the world has led to the emergence of new directions. Symbolists (K. Balmont, A. Blok, V. Bryusov), starting with decadent ideas, after 1909. promote doom Western civilization and the revival of Russia on the basis of the "Russian soul". They were opposed by the Acmeists. They proclaimed the inherent value of real life. In the work of N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova and others, one can observe the aesthetic taste and refinement of the artistic word. A Akhmatova S. Gumilyov

Futurists were prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde. They paid the main attention not to the content, but to the form of the poetic construction. They used vulgar language, poster language and posters. The collections of the futurists had characteristic names - "Dead Moon", "Slap in the Face of Public Taste", etc. Most prominent representatives directions V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov and others, united in the group "Gileya".

Painting Realistic foundations are preserved in the works of I. Repin, V. Surikov, M. Nesterov. At the same time, modernists united in the World of Art group. They believed that art does not depend on political circumstances and should exist independently. The group included almost all prominent artists - A. Benois, L. Bakst, B. Kustodiev, E. Lansere, N. Roerich, K. Somov and others. his"

In 1907, an exhibition of 16 young artists "Blue Rose" was held in Moscow. N. Sapunov, M. Saryan tried to find individuality by combining Western experience and national traditions. They were closely associated with the Symbolists. Symbolism in painting was not a single direction and included such different artists as M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin and others. M. Vrubel "The Swan Princess"

Sculpture. Architecture. Impressionism successfully developed in sculpture. P. Trubetskoy created busts of S. Witte, L. Tolstoy and a monument to Alexander III A. Golubkina tried to create sculptures in the form of a generalized image. S. Konenkov reflected the new trends in realism ("Stone fighter", "The Beggar Brothers"). At the same time, he retained the features of individuality, which is clearly seen in the bust of A.P. Chekhov. S. Konenkov bust of Chekhov.

In architecture, Art Nouveau and its variety Neo-Russian style were popular. F. Shekhtel built the building of the Yaroslavl railway station, the mansion of S. Ryabushinsky. Then he moves on to “rationalist modernity (Ryabushinsky Bank. V. Walcott, using eclecticism, built the building of the Metropol Hotel in Moscow. Many buildings in the capitals were erected in the neoclassical style. Metropol Hotel Ryabushinsky Mansion Yaroslavl Station

Music. Ballet. Theatre. Cinema. In the beginning of the 20th century, innovative composers A.Skryabin, I.Stravinsky, S.Rakhmaninov, who sought to go beyond the traditional classical music. vocal school gave the world such outstanding singers as F. Chaliapin, A. Nezhdanova, L. Sobinov, I. Ershov. Composer S.Rakhmaninov. Singer F. Chaliapin

At the beginning of the century, outstanding directors K. Stanislavsky, V. Meyerhold, E. Vakhtangov appeared on the Russian stage. The star of M. Petipa rose in ballet art. Another outstanding director was A. Gorsky. For their performances, they used the scenery of K. Korovin, A. Benois, N. Roerich and others. K. Stanislavsky and one of his roles in the play “The Imaginary Sick” by E. Vakhtangov and one of his roles.

In the city of S. Diaghilev, he organized the "Russian Seasons" in Paris. Cinematography appeared in Russia at the beginning of the century. In 1908, the first Russian film was released - “Stepan Razin” in “The Defense of Sevastopol”. Director Protazanov, actress V. Kholodnaya, film entrepreneur V. Khanzhonkov became prominent figures of Russian culture Stepan Razin, 1908 Silent film actress Vera Kholodnaya in different images.

Spiritual life of the Silver Age Enlightenment. The science

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Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

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Silver age of Russian culture

Introduction

1. Education and enlightenment

2. Science

3. Literature

4. Theater and music

5. Architecture

6. Sculpture

7. Painting

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

1. Education and enlightenment

The enlightenment process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public gradually increased. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1914 there were about 76,000 various public libraries in Russia.

2. Science

3. Literature

Everything we see

Only reflections, only shadows

From what is invisible to the eye.

The groupings of acmeists and futurists that arose in polemics with symbolism turned out to be very close to it in practice in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and predominant attention to form .

There were bright individualities in the poetry of this time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin (1877--1932), M. Tsvetaeva(1892--1941). No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

4. Theater and music

5. Architecture

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, features constructivism -- a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

The trading house of the Moscow Merchant Society in Maly Cherkassky Lane (1909) and the building of the printing house "Morning of Russia" (1907) can be called pre-constructivist .

In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, modern is one of the most consistent styles.

6. Sculpture

7. Painting

The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

Conclusion

The unifying beginning of the new artistic trends of the "Silver Age" can be considered super-problems, which were simultaneously put forward in different types of art. The globality and complexity of these problems is amazing even today.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. L.A. Rapatskaya "Artistic culture of Russia", Moscow, "Vlados", 1998

2. T.I. Balakin "History of Russian culture", Moscow, "Az", 1996

3. A.N. Zholkovsky Wandering Dreams. From the history of Russian modernism”, Moscow, “Sov. Writer, 1992

Silver age of Russian culture

1. Education and enlightenment

During the classes