Ministry of Agriculture
Voronezh State Agrarian
University named after K.D. Glinka.
Department of Fatherland History
Test
in cultural studies on the topic:
Culture of Ancient Rome
Completed by: part-time student
1st year student of the Faculty of Economics
Ivanova Natalia Nikolaevna
Voronezh - 2010
Introduction
Architecture of Ancient Rome
Sculpture of Ancient Rome
Painting of Ancient Rome
Literature of Ancient Rome
Religion of ancient Rome
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The culture of ancient Rome passed hard way development, having absorbed the cultural traditions of many peoples and different eras. She gave the world classic examples of military art, state structure and law, urban planning, etc.
The formation of ancient Roman culture was influenced by the artistic values and traditions of the two great cultures of the ancient world: the Etruscans and the Greeks. According to the Etruscan model, round Roman temples were built. The Latin alphabet is also based on the Etruscan. The influence of the Greeks began from the 3rd century BC. after the conquest of the Greek colonies in southern Italy. The translation into Latin of the Odyssey determined the development of Roman poetry, but the source of inspiration for the poets was their own folklore.
The development of Roman civilization led to a significant growth and elevation of the capital of the state - the city of Rome, which in the I-III centuries. BC. numbered from 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. Roman cities developed around the urban center, which included a forum, a basilica, baths, amphitheaters, temples dedicated to local and Roman gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, equestrian statues, schools and roads.
Ancient Rome gave the world greatest creations sculpture, architecture, painting, literature
Architecture of Ancient Rome
The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and embodied it in larger cities. These layouts corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and severe discipline, the attraction to entertainment and splendor. In Roman cities, to a certain extent, the needs of the free population, sanitary needs were taken into account; front streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here. Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, livable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred to nymphs), palaces, villas and just good houses with good-quality beautiful furniture - everything that characteristic of a civilized society. The Romans for the first time began to build "typical" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which the city center was erected. The urban planning was subject to a strictly thought-out scheme.
The practical warehouse of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in the sobriety of thinking, the normative idea of \u200b\u200bthe expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account everything life situations, in gravitation towards exact historical facts, in the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion. Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans laid the foundation for a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects in the urban, rural ensemble and landscape. The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales, in the laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. A huge conquest of the Romans was the satisfaction of the practical everyday and social needs of not only the ruling class, but also the masses of the urban population.
Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to change. Work was carried out to drain the once marshy Forum, where shopping arcades and porticos were built. On the Capitoline Hill, a temple of Jupiter was erected by craftsmen from Etruria with a pediment decorated with a quadriga. Rome turned into a large populous city with powerful fortifications, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king - Tarquinius the Proud - the main underground sewer pipe was built in Rome - the Great cesspool, which serves the "eternal city" to this day.
The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which both geographically and spiritually united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.
Under the Etruscans, this lowland was a market place, and only after the birth of the Republic did the Forum become the center of political life. Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the Republicans built the Basilica of Aemilia and Tabularium (where the tribunal and the state archive, respectively, launched their activities), paving the entire space of the Forum with travertine slabs. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.
In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in Hellenistic cities, the new building plan proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized the hitherto free pattern of the republican forum ensemble. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of the Roman Empire to the whole world. The new Curia for holding senatorial assemblies, with marble stands for speakers, contributed to the glorification of the ideals of republican Rome in the context of the imperial form of government. In subsequent eras, Roman emperors continued to decorate the Forum. Diocletian restored the building of the Curia, destroyed after a fire in 283 AD. Septimius Severus erected an arch in his name. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Forum, however, forever remained a symbol of the greatness of republican Rome, an example for politicians and popular tribunes to follow in subsequent eras.
Sculpture of Ancient Rome
Roman sculpture, unlike Greek, did not create ideal patterns. beautiful person and was associated with the funeral cult of ancestors - the defenders of the hearth. The Romans sought to accurately reproduce the portrait resemblance to the deceased, hence such features of Roman sculpture as concreteness, sobriety, realism in details, sometimes seeming excessive. One of the roots of the realism of the Roman portrait was its technique: according to many scholars, the Roman portrait developed from death masks, which were customarily removed from the dead and kept at the home altar along with figures of lars and penates. In addition to wax masks, bronze, marble and terracotta busts of ancestors were kept in the lararium. Cast masks were made directly from the faces of the deceased and then processed in order to give them a greater natural resemblance. This led to an excellent knowledge by the Roman masters of the features of the muscles of the human face and its facial expressions.
During the Republic, it became customary to erect in public places statues (already in full growth) of political officials or military commanders. Such an honor was provided by decision of the Senate, usually in commemoration of victories, triumphs, political achievements. Such portraits were usually accompanied by a dedicatory inscription telling about the merits.
With the onset of the Empire, the portrait of the emperor and his family became one of the most powerful means of propaganda.
The Roman sculptural portrait as an independent and original artistic phenomenon can be clearly traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. - period of the Roman Republic. A characteristic feature of the portraits of this period is extreme naturalism and plausibility in the transfer of facial features that distinguish a particular person from any other person. These tendencies date back to Etruscan art.
The reign of Emperor Octavian Augustus was the golden age of Roman culture. An important aspect that influenced the formation of Roman art of this period was the Greek art of the classical period, whose strict forms came in handy when creating a majestic empire.
Female portrait gets more independent meaning than before.
Under the successors of Emperor Augustus - the rulers from the Julio-Claudian dynasty - the image of the deified emperor becomes traditional.
In the time of Emperor Flavius, there is a tendency to idealization - giving ideal features. Idealization went in two ways: the emperor was portrayed as a god or a hero; or virtue was given to his image, his wisdom and piety were emphasized. The size of such images often exceeded nature, the portraits themselves had a monumental image, the individual features of the face were smoothed out for this, which gave the features more regularity and generalization.
In the time of Trajan, in search of support, society turns to the era of the "valiant Republic", "the simple mores of the ancestors", including its aesthetic ideals. There is a reaction against the "corrupting" Greek influence. These moods corresponded to the severe character of the emperor himself.
During the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius - the philosopher on the throne - an equestrian statue was created, which became a model for all subsequent equestrian monuments in Europe.
Painting of Ancient Rome
Roman art, while developing within the framework of the ancient slave era, at the same time differed greatly from it. The formation and formation of the culture of the Romans took place in different historical conditions. The knowledge of the world by the Romans took on new forms. The artistic understanding of life by the Romans bore the stamp of an analytical attitude. Their art is perceived as more prosaic in contrast to the Greek. A striking feature of the art of Rome is its closest connection with life. Many historical events were reflected in artistic monuments. The change in the social system - the change of the republic by the empire, the change of dynasties of the rulers of Rome - directly influenced changes in pictorial, sculptural and architectural forms. That is why it is sometimes not difficult to determine the time of creation of a particular work by stylistic features.
With the transfer of emphasis to the interior and the appearance of ceremonial rooms in Roman houses and villas, a system of highly artistic murals developed on the basis of the Greek tradition. Pompeian paintings introduce the main features of ancient frescoes. The Romans also used painting to decorate facades, using them as signs for commercial premises or craft workshops. By their nature, Pompeian murals are usually divided into 4 groups, conditionally called styles. The first style, inlaid, widespread in the 2nd century. BC. Imitates wall cladding with squares of multi-colored marble or jasper. The murals of the first type are constructive, emphasizing the architectural basis of the wall, they correspond to the severe laconism of forms inherent in republican architecture. Since the 1980s BC. The second style was used - architectural and promising. The walls remained smooth and were divided by picturesquely - illusoryly executed columns, pilasters, cornices, and porticos. The interior acquired splendor due to the fact that a large multi-figured composition was often placed between the columns, realistically reproducing plots on mythological themes from the works of famous Greek artists. The attraction to nature inherent in the Romans prompted them to illusoryly reproduce landscapes on stages using linear and aerial perspectives and thereby, as it were, expand the interior space of the room. The third style, orienting, is characteristic of the era of the empire. In contrast to the splendor of the second style, the third style is distinguished by rigor, grace and a sense of proportion. Balanced compositions, linear ornament, on a bright background, emphasize the plane of the wall. Sometimes the central field of the wall stands out, where the paintings of some famous ancient master are reproduced. The fourth decorative style spreads in the middle of the 1st c. AD Splendor and decorativeness, spatial - architectural solution, it continues the tradition of the second style. At the same time, the richness of ornamental motifs is reminiscent of the murals of the third style. Fantastic and dynamic perspective-tuned structures destroy the isolation and flatness of the walls, create the impression of theatrical scenery, reproducing the intricate facades of palaces, gardens, visible through their windows, or art galleries - copies of famous originals, executed in a free pictorial manner. The fourth style gives an idea of the ancient theatrical scenery. Pompeian paintings played important role V further development decorative arts of Western Europe.
Literature of Ancient Rome
The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical Greek literature, although they used Roman subjects and some Roman forms. There is no reason to deny the existence of oral Roman poetry that arose in a distant era. The earliest forms of poetic creativity are undoubtedly associated with a cult.
Thus arose a religious hymn, a sacred song, the model of which is the song of the Salii that has come down to us. It is composed of Saturnian verses. This is the oldest monument of Italian free meter, analogies to which we find in the oral poetry of other peoples.
In patrician families, songs and legends were composed that glorified famous ancestors. One of the types of creativity was elogies, composed in honor of the deceased representatives of noble families. by the most an early example The epitaph dedicated to L. Cornelius Scipio the Bearded, which also gives a sample of Saturnian size, can serve as an elogy. Other types of Roman oral art include funeral songs performed by special mourners, all kinds of incantations and incantations, also composed in verse. Thus, long before the appearance of Roman fiction in the true sense of the word, the Romans created a poetic meter, a Saturnian verse, which was used by the first poets.
The beginnings of Roman folk drama are to be found in various rural festivities, but its development is connected with the influence of neighboring peoples. The main type of dramatic performances were atellani.
Oki appeared in Etruria and were associated with cult activities; but this form was developed by the Oscans, and the very name "atellan" comes from the Campanian city of Atella. Atellani were special plays, the content of which was taken from rural life and the life of small towns.
In atellani, the main roles were played by the same types in the form of characteristic masks (glutton, boastful fool, stupid old man, hunchbacked cunning, etc.). Initially, the Atellani were presented impromptu. Subsequently, in the 1st c. BC, this improvisational form was used by Roman playwrights as a special genre of comedy.
The beginning of Roman prose also belongs to ancient times. In the early era, written laws, treaties, liturgical books. The conditions of social life contributed to the development of eloquence. Some of the speeches delivered were recorded.
Cicero, for example, was aware of the speech of Appius Claudius Caecus, delivered in the Senate on the proposal of Pyrrhus to make peace with him. We also find indications that eulogies appeared in Rome already at an early age.
Roman literature arises as imitative literature. The first Roman poet was Livius Andronicus, who translated the Odyssey into Latin.
By origin, Livy was a Greek from Tarentum. In 272 he was brought to Rome as a prisoner, then he was released and taught the children of his patron and other aristocrats. The translation of the Odyssey was done in Saturnian verse. His language was not distinguished by elegance, and even word formations alien to the Latin language were found in it. It was the first poetic work written in Latin. In Roman schools for many years they studied according to the translation of the Odyssey made by Andronicus.
Livius Andronicus wrote several comedies and tragedies which were translations or adaptations of Greek works.
During the life of Livy, the poetic activity of Gnaeus Nevius (about 274 - 204), a Campanian native, who owns an epic work about the first Punic war with summary prior Roman history.
In addition, Nevius wrote several tragedies, among them those that were based on Roman legends.
Since the Romans performed in the tragedies of Naevius, dressed in a solemn costume - a toga with a purple border. Neviy also wrote comedies in which he did not hide his democratic convictions. In one comedy, he ironically spoke of the then omnipotent Scipio the Elder; at the address of the Metellus, he said: "The fate of the evil Metellus in Rome is consuls." For his poetry, Nevius was imprisoned and released from there only thanks to the intercession of the people's tribunes. However, he had to retire from Rome.
Religion of ancient Rome
Early Roman religion was animistic, i.e. recognized the existence of all kinds of spirits, it also had elements of totemism, which affected, in particular, in the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. Gradually, under the influence of the Etruscans, who, like the Greeks, represented gods in human form, the Romans switched to anthropomorphism. The first temple in Rome - the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill - was built by Etruscan masters. Roman mythology in its initial development was reduced to animism, i.e. faith in the inspiration of nature. The ancient Italians worshiped the souls of the dead, and the main motive for worship was the fear of their supernatural power. For the Romans, as for the Semites, the gods seemed to be terrible forces that had to be reckoned with, propitiating them with strict observance of all rituals. Every moment of his life, the Roman was afraid of the displeasure of the gods and, in order to enlist their favor, did not undertake and did not do a single thing without prayer and established formalities. In contrast to the artistically gifted and mobile Hellenes, the Romans did not have folk epic poetry; their religious ideas were expressed in a few, monotonous and meager in content myths. In the gods, the Romans saw only the will (numen), which interfered with human life.
The Roman gods did not have their own Olympus or genealogy, and were depicted as symbols: Mana - under the guise of snakes, Jupiter - under the guise of a stone, Mars - under the guise of a spear, Vesta - under the guise of fire. The original system of Roman mythology - judging by the data modified under the most diverse influences that ancient literature tells us - was reduced to a list of symbolic, impersonal, deified concepts, under the auspices of which a person's life consisted from his conception to death; no less abstract and impersonal were the deities of souls, whose cult was ancient basis family religion. At the second stage of mythological representations were the deities of nature, mainly rivers, springs and the earth, as the producer of all living things. Next come the deities of heavenly space, the deities of death and the underworld, the deities - the personification of the spiritual and moral aspects of man, as well as various relationships in social life, and, finally, foreign gods and heroes.
Along with the gods, the Romans continued to worship impersonal forces. Matzos - the souls of the dead, geniuses - spirits - patrons of men, lares - keepers were considered to be disposed towards people. hearth and families, penates - patrons of the house and the whole city. Larvas were considered evil spirits - the souls of the unburied dead, lemurs - the ghosts of the dead, chasing people, etc. Already in the tsarist era, one can notice some formalism in the attitude of the Romans towards religion. All cult functions were distributed among various priests united in colleges. The high priests were the pontiffs, who oversaw other priests, were in charge of rituals, funeral cult, etc. One of their important duties was the compilation of calendars that marked the days favorable for holding meetings, concluding treaties, starting hostilities, etc. There were special colleges of priests - soothsayers: the augurs guessed by the flight of birds, the haruspices - by the entrails of sacrificial animals. Flamnin priests served the cults of certain gods, fetial priests monitored the exact observance of the principles of international law. As in Greece, the priests in Rome are not a special caste, but elected officials.
Conclusion
The culture and art of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to mankind, the significance of which can hardly be overestimated. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a vast part of the world. Only for this he is worthy of enduring glory and memory of his descendants. In addition, the art of the Roman period left many remarkable monuments in various fields, ranging from works of architecture to glass vessels. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical end. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to which it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of the Christian art of modern times.
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INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Ancient Eastern civilizations lost their priority in social development and gave way to a new cultural center that arose in the Mediterranean and was called "ancient civilization". It is customary to refer to it the history and culture of Ancient Greece, as well as Ancient Rome.
In my work, I would like to trace the main directions in the development of Roman culture and highlight a number of features in it. Also, during the analysis, try to determine how great was the influence of the cultures of the conquered countries. Is it possible to consider the culture of Ancient Rome as an independent phenomenon, or did it develop in the course of endless borrowings? Besides, could not the cultural factor in any way contribute to the collapse of the empire? These are the questions I will try to answer in my work.
The center of the future great power - the city of Rome - arose in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. An ancient parable, transmitted by Roman historians - Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Titus Livius and the poet Virgil, attributes the foundation of the city to the legendary Romulus and refers this event to 754 - 753 years. BC. on the day of the celebration of the shepherd goddess Palea (April 21).
More than twelve centuries (VIII century BC - V century AD) existed Roman culture, which was a phenomenon more complex than Greek. Rome, later Greece, appeared on the arena of world history and was the capital of an immense empire that captured all the territories around the Mediterranean. The very word "Rome" was synonymous with greatness, glory and military prowess, wealth and high culture.
The Roman mentality differed sharply from the Greek. If the Greeks were an amazingly gifted people in the field of artistic creativity, then the Romans had the greatest ability for practical activities. This main feature of the Roman temperament left its mark on Roman culture.
The Romans were good, disciplined soldiers, excellent organizers and administrators, legislators and lawyers. They achieved great success in the field of urban planning and urban improvement, they were excellent rural owners. The Romans created outstanding architectural monuments, striking with the perfection of engineering technology.
The history of ancient Roman civilization is a complex phenomenon. The population of ancient Italy consisted of multilingual peoples who gradually submitted to the authority of Rome. Ancient Rome as a whole means not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples conquered by it that were part of the colossal Roman power - from the British Isles to Egypt. The Roman Empire was the largest state, covering all the territories adjacent to the Mediterranean. Over a long period (4th century BC - 3rd century), the Roman Republic turned from a small city-state into a world slave-owning power, based on imperial power.
“All roads lead to Rome,” says the proverb, as travelers and merchants rushed here from all over the world.
The whole system of culture of Ancient Rome was devoted to substantiating the superiority of the Roman political system, to educating good citizens from the Romans, proud of their belonging to the “master people”. The main value for the Romans was Rome itself, the Roman people, destined to conquer other peoples and rule them for their own happiness. The Roman Empire developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and agriculture, the conquest of vast territories, the conquest of many peoples and cultures, which necessitated the creation of a huge bureaucracy and the development of sophisticated political methods of management.
The history of ancient Roman culture is divided into three main stages:
.Early or royal period (VIII - VI centuries BC)
.Roman Republic (v - 1st centuries BC)
.Roman Empire (I - V centuries AD)
The basis of Roman art was ancient Italian culture, in which the art of the Etruscans played a leading role. The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skillful metallurgists, shipbuilders, merchants, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples inhabiting its coast, while creating a high and unique culture. They began to create something new that the ancient Romans later developed: engineering structures, wall monumental painting, realistic sculptural portrait. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans subsequently borrowed the experience of urban planning, handicraft technology, the technology of making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of priests and some customs, for example, celebrating victory with a triumph.
However, a powerful cultural movement begins in Rome only at the end of the 3rd century. BC. its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, the Greek language and education. Numerous figures of Roman culture of that time - prose writers, philosophers, doctors, architects, artists - were overwhelmingly non-Romans.
Rome exerted its influence on the Hellenistic territories conquered by it. Thus, a synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed, which resulted in the Late Antique Greco-Roman culture (I-V centuries AD), which underlay the civilization of Byzantium, Western Europe and many Slavic states.
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
For ancient period Roman history is especially characterized by the cult of family and tribal patron spirits. First of all, they included manna - the souls of dead ancestors; the ancient Romans believed in the existence of the afterlife, where the souls of the dead go - these are Orc and Elysium. Penates were also revered - patron spirits of the house and lares, which were patron spirits with broader functions, there are references to lares of crossroads, roads, navigation, etc. important place also occupied the cult of the fire of the hearth, personified in the goddess Vesta. In the most ancient beliefs, traces of totelism can also be traced, for example, the legend of the she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. There were also agrarian cults.
Later, some tribal gods turned into objects of state worship, becoming patron gods of the city-state. TO ancient gods can be attributed to Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus (Romulus), which were the most important for the Romans. If the first two have correspondences among the Greeks, then the god Quirinus has no analogues in the Greek pantheon.
One of the revered purely Italic deities was Janus, depicted with two faces, as the deity of entry and exit, of every beginning. Olympically, the gods were considered the patrons of the Roman community and were revered by the entire civil community. Among the plebeians, the divine trinity was especially popular: Ceres, Libera-Proserpina - the goddess of vegetation and the underworld, and Liber - the god of wine and fun.
One of the most popular goddesses in Rome is Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and the fire that burns in it. Vestal priestesses served in the temple of Vesta, who took a vow of virginity and chastity. Girls 6-10 years old were selected very carefully, without the slightest flaw. For ten years they were trained, then they were initiated, received the name Amata in addition to their own, and served in the temple for ten years. For violation of the vow of chastity, the punishment was cruel: the sinner was buried in the ground alive. For lesser offenses they could be flogged. Vestal Virgins enjoyed great honor and respect. Insulting them was punishable by death. After serving ten years, they spent another ten teaching the younger generation of priestesses. After all this, the Vestal could return to the family and even get married.
The Romans had many gods of fertility: Flora - the goddess of blooming flowers, Pomona - the goddess of apple trees, Faun and Faun - the deities of forests, groves and fields, and others.
Mythology was practically absent, there were also no images of the gods - they worshiped their symbols, so the symbol of Vesta was fire, Mars - a spear. All the deities were completely faceless. The Roman did not dare to claim with complete certainty that he knew the real name of the god, or that he could discern whether it was a god or a goddess. In his prayers, he also maintained the same caution and said: "Jupiter the Most Benevolent Greatest, or if you like to be called by some other name." And making a sacrifice, he said: "Are you a god or a goddess, are you a man or a woman." On the Palatine (one of the seven hills on which Ancient Rome was located) there is still an altar on which there is no name, but only an evasive formula: “To God or goddess, husband or woman”, and the gods themselves had to decide to whom the sacrifices offered on this altar belong.
Roman mythology is characterized by the animation and deification of abstract concepts and values, such as Freedom, Valor, Consent. Glory stood out in particular. In honor of the outstanding commanders, emperors and their victories, the arches of Triumph were erected, on which the exploits of the victor were depicted.
After the conquest of Greece, there is some transformation of the image of the Roman gods and their convergence with the Greek ones: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, Mars - Ares, Neptune - Poseidon, Mercury - Hermes, Bacchus - Dionysus, Diana - Artemis , Vulcan - Hephaestus, Saturn - Uranus, Ceres - Demeter. Among the Roman gods, the main Olympic gods stood out under the influence of Greek religious ideas: Jupiter - the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, Mars - the god of war, Minerva - the goddess of wisdom, the patroness of crafts, Venus - the goddess of love and fertility, Vulcan - the god of fire and blacksmithing, Ceres is the goddess of vegetation, Apollo is the god of the sun and light, Juno is the patroness of women and marriage, Mercury is the messenger of the Olympic gods, the patron of travelers, trade, Neptune is the god of the sea, Diana is the goddess of the moon.
Before starting a war with any people, the Romans tried to win over the gods of this people to their side, promising these gods all the necessary sacrifices.
The Roman pantheon never remained closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. The inclusion of new gods was thought to increase the power of the Romans. So, the Romans borrowed almost the entire Greek pantheon, and at the end of the 3rd century. BC. the veneration of the Great Mother of the Gods from Phrygia was introduced.
The slaves who arrived in Rome and Italy professed their cults, thereby spreading other religious beliefs.
Priests of the gods were considered officials, in the late Republican period they were elected. The priests observed the cult of individual gods, the order in the temples, prepared sacrificial animals, monitored the accuracy of prayers and ritual actions, and could give advice on which deity to turn to with the necessary request. Also in each temple there were priests who specialized in divination: augurs - predictors of the future by the flight of birds or in relation to their food; haruspex - predicting the future by the entrails of sacrificial animals and by lightning strikes.
The Romans expected help from the gods in specific matters and therefore scrupulously performed the established rituals and made the necessary sacrifices. In relation to the gods, the principle “I give so that you give” worked.
In the imperial period, the cult of the geniuses of emperors was gradually established - first posthumous, and then intravital. Julius Caesar was the first to be deified (posthumously). Caligula declared himself a god during his lifetime.
In the 1st century AD in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, Christianity was born, which played an important role in the history of world culture.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
In the 1st century BC in Palestine - on the outskirts of the Roman Empire - Christianity arises, and already in the time of Nero (second half of the 1st century AD) there was a Christian community in Rome.
During the I - III centuries. Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The imperial authorities are suspicious of Christians, attributing to them misanthropy, because Christians of that time not only waited, but also called for the End of the World and the Last Judgment, Christians refused to perform official sacrifices in front of statues of state gods (including emperors). This led to numerous persecutions of Christians, initiated by Nero. They took place with special force under the emperors - Domitian, Trojan, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Diocletian.
But, despite all the persecution, Christianity continued to live and spread, and by the 4th century it became a force that the emperors themselves had to reckon with. In 313, Emperors Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed the equality of all religions, including Christianity, and in 325, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion. By decree of Theodosius the Great in 395, all pagan temples were closed, from that moment Christianity became the only official religion of the Roman Empire.
Already at the end of I - beginning. 2nd century the Gospels (“Good News”) were written in Greek, the Epistles and Acts of the Apostles were written, as well as the Apocalypse, i.e. the books that made up the New Testament. To discuss and resolve complex theological issues, and first of all, to combat the Arian heresy, which were then hotly discussed by Christians, by decree of Emperor Constantine in 325, a cathedral was created in the city of Nicaea, which became the first of the seven Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church.
ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTAL WALL PAINTING
ancient roman civilization culture painting
In order to understand the general nature of Roman architecture, the reasons for the appearance of giant front squares, large spectacular buildings and memorial ensembles, it is necessary to understand the socio-economic life of Ancient Rome. The development of trade, successful wars and the influx of slaves favor the rise of the economy, the further enrichment of the tribal nobility (patricians), the promotion of the rich from among the common people (plebeians) and the formation of a new Roman nobility - nobles. Increasing wealth inequality; free community members are forced out of the lands and rush to the city, where they are engaged in crafts, petty trade, and become professional soldiers. Wars are turning into one of the main means of profit for the Roman nobility. Generals - the winners were the idols of the Romans, they were given high honors. To commemorate the victories, many days of festivities were held with solemn parades of troops, distribution of bread and money, grandiose performances, and gladiator fights. In accordance with the way of life, the architecture of Rome also took shape - a complex system of public buildings, temples, squares that could accommodate tens of thousands of people.
The Etruscans were the teachers of the Romans. It was they who taught how to build buildings, but very soon the Romans surpassed them in this art. They began to make better use of materials that had already been used before, adapted new ones, and improved methods of construction.
early city It was built without a plan, randomly, had narrow and crooked streets, primitive dwellings made of wood and mud brick. Only temples were large public buildings, for example, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built in the 6th century BC, a small temple of Vesta in the forum. Inside the city, wastelands and undeveloped plots were preserved, the houses of the nobility were surrounded by gardens. The sewers were at first open, but then they were covered with wooden flooring, and later with a stone vault.
Roman roads were of great strategic importance, they united various parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome (VI-III centuries BC) for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of the network of roads that later covered all of Italy. Near the Aricci valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, rubble, lava and tuff slabs, went because of the terrain along a massive wall (197 m long, 11 m high), dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.
At the beginning of the 4th century BC. the fire of Rome after the capture of it by the Gauls destroyed most city buildings. After the fire, the city was surrounded by new, so-called Servian walls. They consisted of the main outer walls and a powerful earthen rampart resting on it, which was supported by another, less high wall from the side of the city.
In the 1st century BC arise multi-story houses, villas of the nobility, built of baked brick and concrete, and even marble. The city was divided into quarters, the quarters were grouped into districts.
The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of strength, power and greatness that suppress a person. Hence the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their structures, which amaze with their size, was born.
Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lush decoration of buildings, rich decorations, a lot of decorations, to create mostly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs (bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths). Roman architects developed new constructive principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns, they used pillars and pilasters. Arches and vaults were borrowed from the Etruscans.
The arched structure is based on two elements: pillars and an arch resting on them. So, the horizontal overlap is replaced by a curved arch. The rectangular massive shape of the pillars is less individualized than the column.
The clearest example of the use of an arched structure - triumphal arches. These typically Roman memorial structures were erected already in the Republican period. Most often they were established in honor of victories.
Triumphal Arch of Titus was erected in honor of the capture of Jerusalem by the troops of Emperor Titus (180s BC). its architectural appearance consists of a powerful monolith cut through in the center by an arched span. Here we are faced with the decorative use of the order system, characteristic of the Romans: creating a purely visual impression of the constructiveness of the order system by “imposing” it on the wall array. The “facade” of the arch is clearly divided into a base, a middle part, consisting of Corinthian semi-columns and an entablature, and an upper part in the form of a massive attic, where the urn with the ashes of the emperor was enclosed.
Unlike the Greek architects, who drew up the plan of buildings without following the dry geometry of its different parts, the Romans proceeded from strict symmetry. They widely used Greek orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (the most beloved, magnificent order). The Romans used orders only as a decorative, decorating element.
The Romans developed the order system and created their own orders, different from the Greek ones.
Spectacles occupied a large place in the public life of the Romans. Theaters and amphitheatres are typical of ancient cities. Even during the period of the late Republic in Rome, a peculiar type of amphitheater developed. The latter was entirely a Roman invention. If the Greek theaters were arranged in the open air, the seats for spectators were located in the recess of the hill, then the Roman theaters were independent closed multi-tiered buildings in the city center with seats on concentrically erected walls. The amphitheaters were intended for the crowd of the lower classes of the capital population, greedy for spectacles, in front of which gladiator battles and naval battles were played out during the days of the festivities.
After the civil war of 68 - 69 AD, Vespasian, who came to power, began the construction of an amphitheater, known throughout the world as Coliseum. The completion of its construction fell on the reign of the son of Vespasian - Titus (80 AD) in honor of the opening of the Colosseum, hundred-day gladiatorial games were given.
In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 meters in circumference), dissected by transverse and annular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance, monumental and majestic, is determined by the ring wall, designed in the form of a multi-tiered order arcade: below - Tuscan, above - Ionic, in the third tier - Corinthian, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.
One of the most perfect examples of a temple with a dome was Pantheon in Rome (c. 120), created by Apollodorus of Damascus. Here, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating a large-span domed space are brilliantly resolved. Rounded in plan (rotondo type), the temple had an 8-column portico of the Corinthian order. The building had a powerful domed volume outside, a single and whole space inside. The interior is dominated by a dome, at the top of which a light aperture is left (a spherical vault, which is a monolithic mass without a frame, rests on a wall 6 m thick). the wall is divided into two tiers: the lower one, where deep niches alternate with massive columns of the Corinthian order, and the upper one, as an intermediate one between the support and the dome.
For the first time in architecture, the main focus has shifted to the interior space, which, with its solemn and festive decision, contrasts with the external appearance, where the space of a monumental volume dominates.
Grandiose dome coverings were used in baths, representing a complex of rooms and courtyards where the Romans rested and had fun. The basis of the composition was ablution halls (baths). Most famous Baths of Caracalla (206 - 216).
The Romans create a type of public square called the forum. Appearing in the Republican period, the forums of the empire acquired a ceremonial appearance, becoming also a grandiose architectural ensemble, which includes many buildings of various functional affiliations, glorifying one or another emperor.
Famous forum of Trajan (trans. floor. II century AD) was created by Apollodorus of Damascus. It included:
.The main rectangular square with a triumphal arch at the entrance and a colonnade behind which were semicircles of trading shops;
.The five-nave basilica of Ulcia, deployed perpendicular to the central axis;
.A small peristyle courtyard with Trajan's column, covered with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the military exploits of the emperor. It was located on the central axis between two symmetrical library buildings;
.The last peristyle courtyard, rounded on the side where the temple of Trajan stood.
The whole ensemble was united by the motif of colonnades and porticos of various sizes, sometimes reaching huge ones.
All these grandiose constructions were demanded by Rome as the center of a vast empire. And indeed, built up with all these structures, rich in monuments, the city in the III - IV centuries. looked impressive. In the III century. a lot of construction was still going on - arches, magnificent baths, palaces were erected. “But, in the words of A. Blok, “there was no longer a single painful place on the body of the Roman Empire,” the creative potential gradually faded away.” Thus, architecture begins to outlive itself, to become more and more primitive. Perhaps this is due to the fact that in the pursuit of innovation and luxury, the Roman nobility too quickly exhausted the possibilities of borrowed building techniques.
Developing in Rome monumental wall painting. The so-called "Pompeian" frescoes are usually divided into four groups:
."Inlaid style" - II century BC Imitation of facing the wall with squares of multi-colored marble - "House of the Faun".
."Architectural-perspective" style. Between the picturesquely executed columns, pilasters, cornices, large multi-figure compositions were placed on subjects borrowed from Greek painting. The realistic interpretation of images dominates - the painting of the "Villa of the Mysteries".
."Candelabra" style - from the end of the 1st century BC. The most rigorous and elegant, with a variety of decorative motifs (garlands, candelabra, ornaments), which framed plot images of small sizes - "The House of Punished Cupid".
."Magnificent" style - from the middle of the 1st century AD. It combines the characteristic features of the second style (promising architectural constructions) and the third (a wealth of ornamental decorations) - murals in the palace of Nero - the Golden House, the house of the Vettii.
SCULPTURE
According to legend, the first sculptures in Rome appeared under Tarquinius Proud, who decorated the roof of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol built by him with clay statues according to the Etruscan custom. The first bronze sculpture was a statue of the goddess of fertility Ceres, cast at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. From the 4th century BC. they begin to erect statues of Roman magistrates and even private individuals. Bronze statues were cast in the early era by Etruscan masters, and starting from the 2nd century. BC. - Greek sculptors. The mass production of statues did not contribute to the creation of truly artistic works, and the Romans did not strive for this. For them, the portrait resemblance to the original seemed important in the statue. The statue was supposed to glorify this person and therefore it was important that the image was not confused with someone else.
For the development of the Roman individual portrait influenced by the custom to remove the wax masks from the deceased, which were kept in the main room of the Roman house. In sculptural work, the craftsmen apparently used them. The appearance of the Roman realistic portrait was influenced by the Etruscan tradition, which was guided by the Etruscan masters who worked for Roman customers. In this art, Rome reached its greatest heights.
Despite the complexity of the development of a sculptural portrait, the main milestones of this process can be distinguished:
.The period of hard realism - I century. BC. - "Portrait of an old patrician", portraits of Caesar (the birth of a psychological trend)
.The period of the classics (idealization of the image) - con. I century BC - early 1st century - portrait statues of Augustus.
.The period of complicated realism (psychologization and pomposity) - the second half. IV. - portraits of Vitelius, Nero, Flaviev.
.Reminiscence of the periods of realism and classics - II century. - portrait of Plotina, wife of Emperor Trajan, portraits of private individuals, portrait of Antinous
.The period of acute psychologism - III century. - portraits of Caracalla, Philip the Arabian.
.Late period- IV century.
In this area of art, the Romans, who used Etruscan traditions, introduced new artistic ideas and created excellent masterpieces, such as the Capitoline Wolf, Brutus, Orator, busts of Cicero, Caesar and others.
From the end of the III century BC. Greek sculpture begins to influence Roman sculpture. When plundering Greek cities, the Romans captured a large number of sculptures. Despite the abundance of originals taken out of Greece, there is a great demand for copies from the most famous statues. Greek sculptors copy the originals of famous masters. An abundant influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying retarded the flourishing of their own Roman sculpture.
LITERATURE
Roman literature arises as imitative literature. The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical Greek literature, although they used Roman subjects and some Roman forms.
During the development of civil society, literature has become one of the leading means of dialogue with the authorities.
At the end of the III century. BC. in Rome, the Latin literary language is being formed and on its basis - epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appears, who usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. One of the first Roman tragedians was a freedman Livy Andronicus , a Greek by origin, translated into Latin the "Odyssey" by Homer (III century BC). His works played an important role in the development of Roman literature. They introduced the Romans to wonderful Greek literature, mythology, epic and theater. Livy Andronicus laid the foundation for Roman fiction.
The younger contemporaries of Livius Andronicus were Roman poets Gnaeus Nevius (c. 274 - 204 BC) and Ennius (239 -169 BC). Nevy wrote tragedies and comedies, borrowing plots from Greek authors, but the influence of Roman life in his works is felt much stronger than in Andronicus. Nevius compiled poems about the first Punic War (264 - 241 BC) with a summary of the previous history of Rome. Ennius was the first to describe in verse the entire history of Rome, arranging events by year. Ennius' main work was the Annales, but he also wrote tragedies and comedies like his predecessors. Ennius was the first to introduce the hexameter, a more euphonious poetic meter among the Greeks, into Latin literature. Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Nevius wrote their works in archaic Saturnian verse.
The largest Roman writer of the late III - early II century. BC. was Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC), actor by trade. He compiled 130 comedies, of which only 20 have come down to us. He worked only in the comedy genre. The plots of the comedies were very diverse - scenes from family life, from the life of mercenary warriors, urban bohemia. One of the indispensable heroes of Plautus' comedies were slaves - cunning, resourceful, dexterous and greedy. In terms of plot and character, Plautus' comedies are imitative. His characters have Greek names, and his comedies are set in Greek cities. The comedies of Plautus are usually published in alphabetical order. The first is called "Amphitryon". The comedy "Boastful Warrior" was more popular. The comedy was probably directed against mercenary troops and reminded the audience of the victory over Hannibal. Despite the fact that the action of Plautus' comedies is played out in Greek cities, and their heroes bear Greek names, they contain many lively responses to Roman reality. In his comedies, to a certain extent, the interests and views of the broad masses of the urban plebs are reflected.
Roman comedy and tragedy developed largely under the influence of Greek models and were considered non-Roman genres. Originally a Roman literary genre, the ball was the genre of the so-called satura. This is a mixture of different verses - long and short, written in Saturn and other sizes. As a literary genre, satura received a deep development in creativity Gaia Lucilia (180 - 102 BC). He wrote 30 books of saturas, where he denounced the vices of contemporary society: greed, bribery, moral decay, perjury, greed. Plots for saturas Lucilia gave real life. These plots marked the beginning of the realistic trend in Roman literature.
Roman poetry, 1st c. BC. climbed to a new, higher level. Many poets lived at this time, but among them are more prominent - Titus Lucretius Car (95 - 51 BC) and Gaius Valerius Catullus (87 - 54 BC). Lucretius owns a wonderful poem "On the Nature of Things" in six books. This philosophical poem expounds the teachings of the Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus about the nature of the gods, about the origin of the earth, sky, sea, about the development of mankind and human culture from the primitive state to the time of Lucretius. In the poem, the Latin language reached a new height; the language of farmers and warriors, short, abrupt and poor, thanks to the art of Lucretius, turned out to be capacious, rich, full of shades, suitable for conveying the finest human feelings and deep philosophical categories.
Catullus is the greatest poet of the end of the Republic, a master of lyric poetry. He wrote small poems, where he described the feelings of a person: love and jealousy, friendship, love for nature, etc. A number of poems are directed against the dictatorial intentions of Caesar, his greedy slanderers. On poetic creativity Catullus was influenced by Alexandrian poetry with its special attention to mythology, sophistication of language, and the author's personal experiences. In the world of lyric poetry, the poems of Catullus occupy a prominent place. His poetry was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.
Drama and poetry were the main, but not the only, types of Latin literature. In parallel, prose developed. Until the 2nd century BC writings in prose were rare and were brief records of historical events and legal norms. Early Roman prose, like poetry, was imitative.
The first prose work in Latin was Mark Portia of Cato the Elder (II century BC) “About agriculture". Cato published about 150 of his speeches, wrote a Roman history, an essay on medicine, oratory.
The most prominent Roman writers, masters of the prose word, lived and worked in the 1st century BC. BC. Mark Terence Varro (116 - 27 BC) - a unique writer, wrote about 74 essays in 620 books. The main work of Varro is "Antiquities of divine and human affairs" in 41 books. Works - "On the Latin Language", "On Latin Speech", "On Grammar", "On the Comedies of Plautus". He also wrote a treatise "On Agriculture", where the issues of agriculture are presented in an elegant literary form. "The Menippean Satura" in 150 books is a cheerful and witty poetic work. The merits of Varro in the development of Roman literature were so great that a monument was erected to him, the only Roman writer, during his lifetime.
Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - wrote in various prose genres: philosophical works ("On the limits of good and evil", "Tusculan conversations", "On the nature of the gods", etc.), legal writings ("On State”, “On Duties”), speeches (“against Verres”, “against Catiline”, “Philippis against Antony”), on the theory of oratory (“On the Orator”, “Brutus”), numerous letters.
A major Roman writer was Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), author of "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil War". Acting as a writer, Caesar pursued political goals: to justify his aggressive and often treacherous actions in Gaul, to blame his opponents for unleashing a civil war.
In the "Golden Age of Augustus" (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman literature reached its highest peak: masterpieces of world literature were created, enriching its treasury. This heyday is associated with the work of such poets as Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
Publius Virgil Maro (70 19 BC), he owns three main works that glorified his name - "Bukoliki" (42 - 39 BC), a poem about agriculture "Georgics" (37 -30 years BC) and the historical and mythological poem "Aeneid" (29 - 19 BC).
Quintus Horace Flaccus (65-8 BC), contributed to the formation of imperial ethics, the morality of a loyal new regime, more than any of the other poets. Was one of the favorite poets of Augustus. He wrote several well-known works: a small collection of poems of a satirical nature, epods and satyrs, four books of "Ods", or "Songs", of a lyrical nature, two books of "Messages", or "Letters". By order of Augustus, Horace wrote the majestic hymn to the Roman state "Song of the Century". Horace owns the poetic manifesto of the prophetic mission of the poet - the famous "Monument". Subsequently, based on the "Monument" of Horace in Russian poetry, the great Russian poets Derzhavin and Pushkin created similar "monuments".
Publius Ovid Nason (43 BC - 18 AD), the main theme of creativity was love, as one of the most important manifestations of human relationships. Two poetry collections have been written - "Elegies", or "Songs of Love", and "Heroides" (letters from heroines known from mythology to their beloved). The infamous treatise - "The Art of Love", served as the main reason for the exile of the poet. In the second period of his work, Ovid wrote two large historical and mythological poems, Metamorphoses and Fasty. By the time of the link are works - "Letters from Pontus" and "Tristia", "Sorrowful Elegies".
Of the works of prose literature, a worthy place is occupied by a grandiose historical work. Tita Livia (59 BC - AD 17) "From the Foundation of Rome" in 142 books.
Roman literature cannot be imagined without Plutarch (c. 46 - c. 126) he owns 227 works, of which more than 150 have survived. literary heritage Plutarch can be divided into two categories: a series of treatises on moral topics, including religion, philosophy, politics, literature and music, and biographies.
CONCLUSION
Shaken by the powerful blows of the barbarians, the Roman Empire was heading towards its death. Ancient art was completing its journey. After the death of Constantine (337), the crisis of the ancient order sharply worsened in Rome. The attacks of the barbarians on the borders of the empire intensified, the Romans lost almost all their provinces. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. The city of Rome remained the capital of the western half, and the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (future Byzantium).
In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the Vandals. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, deposed the infant emperor Romulus-Augustulus. This event is considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The Eastern Roman Empire did not perish under the blows of the barbarians and lasted for almost a thousand years.
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient culture also perished, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of European peoples, became their common property, the basis of the entire culture of new Europe. Most early images The originality of this culture manifested itself at the level of the most ancient forms of folk art, in particular mythology, the plots of which have been the richest material for painters, sculptors, composers, and poets for many centuries.
Ancient Rome gave Europe a developed jurisprudence, from which the modern system of law grew, and also left a rich cultural heritage that became part of life and culture. modern humanity. The majestic remains of Roman cities, buildings, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, roads, aqueducts and bridges, baths and basilicas, triumphal arches and columns, temples and porticos, port facilities and military camps, high-rise buildings and luxurious villas amaze modern man not only with their splendor , good technology, quality of construction, rational architecture, but also aesthetic value. In all this - real connection Roman antiquity with modern reality, visible proof that Roman civilization formed the basis European culture, and through it the entire modern civilization as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Grinenko G.V. Reader on the history of world culture. Tutorial- 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher education, 2005. - 940 p.
2.History of Ancient Rome: Proc. for universities on special "History" / V.I. Kuzishchin, I.L. Mayak, I.A. Gvozdev and others; Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 383 p.
.Pivoev V.M. Culturology. Introduction to the history and philosophy of culture: Textbook / V.M. Pivoev. - Ed. 2nd, revised. and additional - M.: Gaudeamus; Academic Prospect, 2008. - 564 p.
.Sadokhin A.P. World art culture: a textbook for university students / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2008. - 495 p.
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The culture of ancient Rome is briefly studied in all humanitarian courses of a civilizational orientation, however, all the diversity can hardly be seen in an overview course. In many ways, the culture of ancient Rome is briefly taught in order to only affect the cognitive interest of students, to force them to acquire knowledge themselves.
Let us pay some attention to the peculiarities of Roman culture in order to nevertheless form, albeit a flawed, but superficial impression of the heritage of ancient civilization.
Roman culture largely continued Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.
Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.
The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then they completely ceased to fulfill them, leaving only the pantheon familiar to us. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion took on a more slender outline, and the gods have long become mythology.
The Romans are also known for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. What are the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the works of these scientists, the first philosophical problems arose, many of which have not been resolved to this day.
In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved particular success; in the history of Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livius; in literature Livius Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valery Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Nason, Plutarch. It is also necessary to recall the Roman law, which is used by all of Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.
A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for the inhabitants was the circus, in which gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with burning scenes of battles, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.
A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome will not even describe half of what was built in the then city-state.
The Etruscans and Hellenes left to the Romans their rich heritage, on the basis of which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the buildings were public aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.
But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, you can add to this the rapid flowering of portraits depicted in stone, the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.
The culture of ancient Rome gave the world a rich heritage, the significance of which is difficult to assess. But we still managed to apply the main achievements.
Artistic culture of ancient Rome
By the end of the 1st century BC, the Hellenic states were dying out and the leading place was occupied by ancient Rome. Roman culture absorbed the traditions of the Greek and embodied them in the artistic practice of the vast Roman Empire. Greek anthropocentrism was complemented by Roman pragmatism and sobriety, the Romans did not recognize any power other than the power of force, it was they who created a powerful and great state, and all Roman life was determined by this great power. Personal talents were not put forward and not cultivated, hence the formula of Roman culture: all the great deeds were performed by the Romans, but among them there were no great people, that is, geniuses = ancient Greece. The state expressed its strength in construction. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which a huge place was given to public buildings or public buildings designed for a huge number of people, the Roman spent most of his life in the crowd and this was not a forced inconvenience, on the contrary, it was perceived as a value, as a source of acute, collective, positive emotion, as compensation for the disappeared sense of communal solidarity, therefore, all mass spectacles were considered as part of the people's business, which was regulated by special officials. Spectacles strengthened power, gave the thoughts of the crowd a certain direction in favor of the existing regime.
Stages of Roman culture:
1. Etruscan culture. An ancient civilization that enriched Roman culture with the art of urban planning.
2. Royal. 8th-6th centuries BC. Rome is a city of the state of the Greek type. According to legend, there were 7 kings in Rome, during their reign the city was surrounded by a stone wall, a sewage system was installed, a circus for gladiator fights, a temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill were built.
3. The period of the republic. XI-I century. BC. Great influence of the conquered Greek cities, hence the influence of Greek culture. The Roman gods are equivalent to the Greek ones, the leading role is occupied by architecture, but there is more space not for temple complexes, but for buildings and structures for practical needs: basilicas, amphitheatres, circuses, baths. The Romans applied new design principles: arches, vaults, domes. In the 1st century BC. the Romans used the bud and fold structures.
4. The period of the empire. End of the 1st century BC. - V c. AD The Roman Empire is a huge state lying in various parts of the world, the main center is Athens. Architecture, philosophy, and literature are developing here. The Roman period ends the period ancient culture. In 395, the Roman Empire splits into Western and Eastern, and Rome itself is destroyed by the barbarians, it will become empty, but its traditions will enter European culture.
Sources: oldgoods.ru, www.skachatreferat.ru, prezentacii.com, gumfak.ru
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Ancient Rome is an ancient state that existed for 12 centuries and left a huge cultural heritage. The heyday and completion of the ancient period is associated with Rome. Having gone from a small city to a huge empire, Rome was able to become the cradle of modern European civilization.
1. The period of kings (VIII ‒ VI century BC)
According to Varro, Rome arose on the banks of the Tiber River in 753 BC. The myth of the brothers Remus and Romulus, who were fed by a she-wolf and founded a great city, is widely known.
Rome was inhabited by Latins, Sabines, Etruscans and other nationalities. The descendants of the founders of the city called themselves patricians. Plebeians were called settlers from other places.
During this period, Rome was ruled by kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tull Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarquinius the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud.
The king was elected by the people. He led the army, was considered the chief priest and ruled the court. The king shared power with the Senate, which included 100 elders of the patrician families.
In Roman society, the clan was the basis. His family later replaced him. The head of the family had unquestioned authority and absolute power over its members.
During the royal period, the religion of the ancient Romans was animistic. Everything around was filled with different entities and deities, which should be sacrificed and worshiped.
Under the influence of the Etruscan and Greek religion, the Romans began to form their own pantheon of gods, who were given human features. The faith of the Romans required the most exact observance of numerous rituals. This was followed by the development of the institution of the priesthood. Priests in ancient Rome were elected by the people. There were so many of them that they formed their own colleges.
Applied arts during this period still retained Etruscan and Greek influences. Red or black pottery had intricate complex shape in the form of people, animals or plants. To decorate the products of the master, like the Greeks, they used geometric patterns.
Painting was mostly decorative. The walls of houses and tombs were painted with bright frescoes depicting domestic and religious scenes. Images of battle scenes, flora and fauna, and mythical creatures were widely used.
Sculptures were mainly made in small forms from bronze, wood, stone, and ivory. Masters were just beginning to depict human figures, so they are carved in a simplified way. But the artists tried to convey the realism of the depicted. This is especially noticeable in tomb statues. Relief sculptural images were used in everyday items (jugs, chests, caskets, weapons, etc.).
During this period, a protective wall around Rome was built, expanded and strengthened. An aqueduct was erected to bring water to the city. The buildings were made laconic, but durable, little attention was paid to the decor. In 509 BC The Temple of Jupiter was erected on the Capitoline Hill. Its architecture combined elements of the Etruscan and Greek cultures. Construction began on the Forum, a popular place in Rome. There was a market here, solemn and religious ceremonies, elections of officials, trial of criminals were held.
Until the VI century BC. mostly used oral creativity: songs, fairy tales, myths. Then the Romans began to write down tales of deities and heroes, ritual songs and texts. Many stories were adopted from the Greeks and transferred to Roman realities.
During this period, Roman culture was just beginning to take shape. She carried many borrowings from other peoples, mainly the Etruscans and Greeks. But at the same time, the originality of the Romans and their own worldview were already manifesting.
2. Republic (VI ‒ I century BC)
2.1 Early Republic period (VI-III century BC)
The last king, Tarquinius the Proud, turned out to be a tyrant and was overthrown. In 510 BC a republic was formed in Rome. It was ruled by two consuls, who were elected every year. A little later, the position of a dictator with extraordinary powers appeared. He was appointed for 6 months by consuls by decision of the Senate at times when Rome was in danger.
During this period, there were many wars in Rome. Society was torn apart by internal contradictions. As a result of the aggressive policy, Rome manages to establish dominance in the Apennines.
In the middle of the 5th century BC. Laws of 12 tables are adopted. They become the first written source Roman law and regulate property, family, inheritance relations.
In the IV century BC. monetary relations came instead of natural ones - the first copper coins entered circulation.
By the 4th century BC. the influence of the Etruscans is weakening, original Roman products in ceramics and bronze appear. However, in the 5th century BC. there was a certain decline in crafts compared to the Tsarist period.
As for architecture, the influence of the Etruscans is still strong here. The Romans built wooden temples with terracotta sculptures and wall paintings. Dwellings were built without much frills, copying Etruscan houses with an atrium (patio with a shallow pool to collect rainwater).
Folk art was represented by songs (wedding, magic, triumphal, heroic).
In writing, Etruscan letters are replaced by Greek ones, and the Latin alphabet is further formed.
In 304 BC Aedile Gnaeus Flavius published a calendar. It is considered the first Roman literary work.
In 280 BC A public speech delivered in the Senate by Appius Claudius was recorded. He also published a collection of moral sayings "Sentences". One of them is still in use today: "Every blacksmith of his own happiness."
2.2 The period of the late Republic (III ‒ I century BC)
Numerous wars in the 2nd century BC (Punic, Macedonian) led to the expansion of the power of Ancient Rome. Carthage, which competed with Rome, was destroyed, Greece and Macedonia turned into Roman provinces. This led to the enrichment of the Roman nobility. Slaves and gold during the wars were the main trophies. Gladiator fights appear - the favorite pastime of the ancient Romans. Rome becomes a strong state, but contradictions are brewing within it that have caused civil wars. The establishment of the dictatorship of Sulla and Caesar in the II-I centuries BC subsequently led to the principate of Octavian Augustus.
Gaius Julius Caesar
Under the Greek influence, the architecture of the city is changing. Wealthy Romans build houses with marble cladding, they use mosaics and frescoes to decorate their homes. Statues, paintings and other art objects are placed inside. In sculpture, a realistic portrait becomes a characteristic phenomenon. By the 1st century BC. Roman architecture takes on its own identity. Under Caesar, a new Forum was built, gardens and parks began to be laid out in the city.
New customs came to Rome from the East and Greece. The Romans began to dress in colorful clothes, richly decorating themselves with jewels. Men began to shave and cut their hair short.
Family customs also changed. Women got more freedom. They could manage their property and even file for divorce. However, by the end of the period of the republic, the number of divorces increased greatly. This speaks of the decline of the family institution.
In 240 BC. A freed Greek named Titus Livius Andronicus translated Greek plays into Latin. From that time began Roman literature. His follower was Naevius of Campania. He composed plays based on Greek ones, but used events close to him and recognizable people. The comedian Titus Maccius Plautus was also famous. At the same time, folk farces and mimes were popular among the Romans.
There were also descriptions of modern history. So at the end of the III century BC. Quintus Fabius Pictor and Lucius Cincius Aliment wrote the Annals, a detailed account of the history of Rome. Also known are the works of Cato the Elder "On Agriculture", "Beginnings", "Instructions to the Son", where he advocates patriarchal Roman values, criticizing the fashion for everything Greek.
During the late republic great heritage in the life of Rome left Varro. His main work was called "Antiquities of divine and human affairs." In addition, he wrote many historical, biographical, philosophical works, creating an encyclopedic picture of knowledge about Ancient Rome.
During this period comes the fashion for political journalism. Many famous personalities strive to capture their activities in written works. Among them are Scipio the Elder, Sulla, Publius Rutilius Ruf, Gaius Julius Caesar and others.
Developing oratory. Cicero played a special role in its formation. The Romans took lessons in eloquence, it was very important for them to be able to speak publicly in the Senate, the court, at the Forum. Successful speeches were recorded. In Rome, the Greek school of eloquence prevailed, but soon the Roman school also appeared - more concise and accessible to the simple strata of the population.
In the 1st century BC. poetry flourishes. Talented poets were Lucretius and Catullus. Lucretius wrote the poem "On the Nature of Things", and Catullus was famous for his lyrical and satirical works. Satirical pamphlets were popular and were a method of political struggle.
At the same time there was a further Hellenization of Roman religion. The cult of the Greek gods Apollo, Demeter, Dionysus, Hermes, Asclepius, Hades, Persephone, and others came. The rites became more and more magnificent and complex. The cult of the goddess Cybele also entered Rome from the east. By the end of the 1st century BC. Egyptian sacred cults appeared in Rome. Astrology, divination, magic became popular.
3. Empire (1st century BC - 5th century AD)
3.1 Early Imperial period (principate) (1st century BC – 2nd century AD)
In the 30s BC. Caesar's nephew Octavian Augustus became the sole ruler of Rome. He called himself "princeps" - the first among equals. And later he received the title of emperor, concentrating all power in his hands. Thus began the imperial period in the history of Rome - the "golden age" of Roman culture. Patronage of poets and artists was provided by a friend of Octavian Augustus Gaius Cylnius Maecenas, whose name became a household name.
At this time, poetry reached special heights. The most famous poets were Horace, Ovid, Virgil. The works of Virgil - "Bucoliki", "Georgics", "Aeneid" glorified Augustus and predicted the onset of the "golden age". At the same time, he lovingly describes the nature of Italy, refers to the traditions and self-consciousness of the Romans. Horace's "Odes" are still a model of lyric poetry. Ovid became famous love lyrics. Most famous acquired his works "Metamorphosis", "Fast", "Science of Love". At this time, the realistic Roman novel gains great popularity. The most famous are the "Satyricon" by Petronius and the "Golden Ass" by Apuleius.
During the time of Augustus, scientific thought also developed. The historical works of Titus Livius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus spoke about the greatness of Rome and its role in ancient history.
The geographer Strabo described many peoples and countries, Agrippa compiled maps of the empire. Vitruvius wrote a treatise on architecture. Pliny the Elder wrote the Natural History. Ptolemy outlined in his work "Almagest" all modern astronomical knowledge. The physician Galen wrote a treatise on anatomy, "On the Parts of the Human Body."
In order to connect parts of the vast empire, roads and aqueducts were built, which have survived to this day. In Rome itself, temples were erected - Apollo and Vesta on the Palatine, Mars the Avenger on the new Forum of Augustus. In the I ‒ II century AD. such famous architectural monuments as the Pantheon and the Colosseum were built.
New architectural forms appeared - a triumphal arch, a two-story colonnade. The provinces also built temples, baths, theaters and circuses for gladiator fights.
3.2 The period of the late Empire (III ‒ V century AD)
After the death of Augustus, emperors come to power, possessing unlimited, despotic power in the manner of Eastern tyrannies. Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Vespasian carried out cruel bloody repressions and, in turn, were killed as a result of conspiracies of their entourage.
However, there were also emperors who left behind a good reputation - Trajan, Adrian, Marcus Aurelius. Under them, the role of the provinces increased. Their natives were granted access to the Senate and the Roman army. At the same time, it was no longer possible to hide the internal contradictions among Roman society. Despite Rome's attempts to establish strong power, the colonies sought independence.
Architecture becomes monumental, embodying the idea of the power of the supreme power. Grandiose buildings were built: stadiums, forums, mausoleums, aqueducts. Trajan's forum can serve as an example of such an architecture.
By the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was in decline. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts: Western and Eastern. At this time, Christianity was born. At first it is banned, its followers are severely persecuted. Emperor Constantine allows Christians to practice their faith, and soon Christianity becomes the official religion.
Unfortunately, the triumph of the Christian faith led to the destruction of many ancient monuments. Early Christian art began to develop on the basis of Roman art: basilica temples were built, painting appeared in the caves in the form of murals. The figures of people in them are shown rather schematically, more attention is paid to the internal content of the scene.
The Eastern Roman Empire under the guise of Byzantium lasted until 1453. In 410, Rome was sacked by the barbarians. In 476, the Western Empire, and with it the ancient world, ended its existence after the abdication of the last emperor.
Nevertheless, the legacy of Ancient Rome is difficult to overestimate. It had a huge impact on the development of culture around the world.
The culture of ancient Rome existed from the 8th century. BC e. and until 476 AD. e. Unlike the ancient Greek culture, which, as a rule, is awarded the highest words and ratings, the ancient Roman culture is evaluated differently by everyone. Some well-known culturologists (O. Spengler, A. Toynbee) believed that Rome did not go beyond borrowing and popularizing what was done by the Greeks, never rose to the heights of Hellenic culture. More reasonable, however, is the view that Roman culture and civilization are no less distinctive and original than others.
Roman civilization became the last page in the history of ancient culture. Geographically, it originated on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, having received the name Italy from the Greeks. Subsequently, Rome gathered into an immense empire those countries that arose as a result of the collapse of the power of Alexander the Great, subjugating almost the entire Mediterranean. The consequence of this was the centuries-long wars with neighbors, in which several generations of Roman citizens participated in a row.
Later Roman legends linked the founding of Rome with the Trojan War. They reported that after the death of Troy (Asia Minor, the territory of modern Turkey), some Trojans, led by King Aeneas, fled to Italy. Aeneas founded a city there. Another legend says that the king was overthrown by his brother. New king, fearing revenge from the children and grandchildren of Aeneas, forced his daughter Sylvia to become a vestal (priestess of the goddess Vesta), who took a vow of celibacy. But Sylvia had twin sons from the god Mars - Romulus and Remus. Their uncle ordered the boys to be thrown into the river. Tiber. However, the wave washed the twins ashore, where they were suckled by a she-wolf. Then they were brought up by a shepherd, and when they grew up and found out about their origin, they killed their treacherous uncle, returned the royal power to their grandfather and founded a city on the Palatine Hill on the banks of the Tiber. By lot, the city was named after Romulus. Later, a quarrel arose between the brothers, as a result of which Romulus killed Remus. Romulus became the first Roman king, divided citizens into patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (ordinary people), created an army. The Romans considered April 21, 753 BC, the day of the founding of Rome. e., it was from him that the Romans conducted their reckoning.
In fact, the name "Romulus" was formed from the name of the city, and not vice versa. The territory of the Apennine Peninsula from 2 thousand BC. e. was inhabited by Indo-European tribes who came from Central Europe(Italics, Sabines, Latins, etc.), later the Etruscans (Rasen, Tus) came to the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Italian Tuscany - a tribe of non-European origin, disputes about the origin of which are still ongoing. It was the Etruscans (from the north) and the Greeks (who settled in the southern part of Italy and Sicily) that had the strongest impact on the development of Roman culture. The Etruscans were both experienced farmers and skilled artisans. It was from them that the Romans inherited handicraft and construction equipment, writing, "Roman" numerals, toga clothes, and many others. etc. (It is characteristic that even the "Capitolian she-wolf", which, according to legend, nurtured Romulus and Remus and was a symbol of Rome, was a work of Etruscan masters, taken out as a military trophy).
In the culture of Rome, 2 periods are distinguished:
- 1) the culture of the royal and republican times (from the founding of Rome in the 8th century BC to 30 BC);
- 2) the culture of Imperial Rome (from 30 BC to 476 AD).
Unlike the ancient Greeks, mythology did not become the basis for the development and flourishing of Roman culture. The ancient Romans had a custom to lure the gods of hostile tribes with the help of a certain formula and establish a cult for them. So, many gods of the Italic and Etruscan cities moved to Rome, and later - the anthropomorphic gods of the ancient Greeks, whom the Romans renamed, retaining their functions: so Zeus became Jupiter, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Poseidon - Neptune, Hermes - Mercury, Hera - Juno, Athena - Minerva, Dionysus - Bacchus, etc. The original Roman gods indicated in the priestly books were the deities of sowing, seed growth, flowering, ripening, harvesting, marriage, the first cry of a child, etc. The Romans also believed in souls the dead, patronizing their kind (manas), into unburied souls who do not find peace (larvas or lemurs), into deities guarding the house and family (lares), into the keepers of the hearth (penates). The guardian of a person, who forms his character and accompanies him all his life, was the Genius, to whom the birthday of a Roman citizen was dedicated. Cities, communities, families had their own Genius-patron. Janus was considered the most ancient Italian god, who took over the overthrown Saturn, the father of Jupiter, the god of farmers and harvest. He was depicted as two-faced.
The Romans treated their gods with disinterestedness. But the main thing for every Roman was not the gods, but historical legends and traditions that were formed during the formation of Roman statehood.
WITH early years the Roman citizen was inspired by the ideas of concor - consent, internal unity, legality, developed in the course of the development of Roman law, and his patroness - the goddess Justice, fidelity to the morals of ancestors, valor. Real historical figures of early Rome became role models. Thus history became myth, and myth became history.
In the first period of Roman history and culture - the era of the reign of seven kings (Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Gastilius, Ankh Marcius, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud) there was a transition from the primitive communal system to the early class society. In 510 BC. e., after the expulsion of Tarquinius the Proud, Rome became a city-state (civitas), which was ruled by a senate of 300 people, a popular assembly (comitia), headed by two consuls, elected for a period of 1 year.
Formed in 510 BC. e. The aristocratic slave-owning Roman Republic lasted until the 1930s. n. e. Then came the period of empire, culminating in the fall of the "eternal city" in 476 AD. e.
The Romans were in many ways similar to the Hellenes, but at the same time they differed significantly from them. They created their own system of ideals and values, the main ones among which were patriotism, honor and dignity, fidelity to civic duty, veneration of the gods, the idea of the Roman people being specially chosen by God, of Rome as the highest value, etc. The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of a free person, allowing violation of the established laws of society. On the contrary, they in every way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. For them, the public interest was above the interests of the individual. At the same time, the Romans intensified the antagonism between the free-born citizen and the slave, deeming unworthy of the former not only the occupation of a craft, but also the activity of a sculptor, painter, actor or playwright. The most worthy occupations of a free Roman were considered politics, war, development of law, historiography, and agriculture. The Romans in their own way and more clearly defined the qualities of a free person, excluding from them such "servile vices" as lies, dishonesty and flattery. Rome reached the highest level of development of slavery.
One of the highest virtues of the Romans was military prowess. Military booty and conquest served as the main source of livelihood. Military prowess, feats of arms and merit were the main means and basis for success in politics, for obtaining high positions and employment. high position in society.
Thanks to the wars of conquest, Rome turned from a small town into a world empire.
A real revolution in the cultural life of the Roman Empire occurred by the 1st century BC. e. after the conquest of Hellenistic Greece. The Romans begin to study the Greek language, philosophy and literature; they invite famous Greek orators and philosophers, and they themselves go to Greek policies to join the culture before which they secretly bowed. However, it should be noted that, unlike Greek, Roman culture is much more rational, pragmatic, aimed at practical benefit and expediency. This feature was well shown by Cicero on the example of mathematics: "the Greeks studied geometry in order to know the world, the Romans - in order to measure land."
Greek and Roman cultures were in a state of strong interaction and mutual influence, which, in the end, led to their synthesis, to the creation of a single Greco-Roman culture, which later formed the basis of Byzantine culture and had a huge impact on the cultures of the Slavic peoples and Western Europe.
Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The basic principles of Roman architecture were used during the Renaissance and remain relevant today. Its essential difference from the Greek one consisted in the orientation not on the order system, but on the widespread use in the construction of arches, domed and vaulted ceilings, as well as the creation of structures that were round in plan. On the basis of arched structures, viaducts were built for the movement of pedestrians, carts and troops, and aqueducts that supplied cities with water from sources sometimes located tens of kilometers away.
The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into the urban and rural landscape. This happened thanks to the discovery of a completely new building material- concrete. First, 2 parallel brick walls were erected, the space between which was filled with alternating layers of gravel and sand. When the mass of concrete hardened, it formed a solid monolith with the walls. The Romans used cladding made of stone blocks or marble slabs rather than building with these materials like the Greeks did. The most gigantic spectacular building of Ancient Rome is the Colosseum (75-80 AD), in its amphitheater (it differed from the theater in that it had a closed oval plan with rows of seats around the arena, gradually rising and surrounded on the outside by a powerful ring wall ) could accommodate 50 thousand spectators at the same time. Until 405, gladiator fights were held in the Colosseum.
Spectacles occupied a very important place in the life of the Romans. Roman architects turned to those types of public buildings that most fully embodied the ideas of the power of the state and imperial power: forums (from the Latin “fora” - the center of the city), triumphal arches, basilicas, circuses, baths, amphitheatres. During the imperial period, each of the emperors, following the example of Julius Caesar, built his own forum, decorated with triumphal arches, memorial columns and monuments that glorified the deeds of the emperor. The ensemble of the forum also included temples and libraries, squares for mass gatherings. New types of dwellings are also being created: villas (country houses for patricians), domusi (city houses for rich Romans), insulas (multi-storey houses for the Roman poor).
One of the most visited places in Rome, especially during the Roman Empire, were the terms (baths). This is a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens, stadiums, promenades, libraries; works of art were exhibited in the baths, rhetoricians and poets performed. Of the 11 terms of Imperial Rome, the baths of the emperors Titus and Caracalla became famous for their luxury, wall paintings and mosaics.
Great are the achievements of the Roman artistic genius in the field of sculptural portraiture, which originates from the Etruscans, in whom the image of the head of the deceased covered the urn with ashes (canopa), as well as from the wax masks of the dead Romans. Unlike the Greeks, who strove for typification, Roman sculptors try not to flatter their models even when they create an ideal image, accurately conveying the most remarkable features of the external appearance. It was the Roman portrait that laid the foundation for the European sculptural portrait.
Roman science had an applied character. The greatest scientists of the era of the Roman Empire were the Greeks Ptolemy, Menelaus of Alexandria, Galen, Diophantus. A kind of encyclopedia, summarizing natural science knowledge about the world and man, was the huge work of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) "Natural History" in 37 books.
One of the brightest and most significant pages of world history and culture is Roman law. On the one hand, it put the interests of the individual owner at the center of legal relations, and on the other hand, it developed the value basis of the legal order, the content of which was:
- - justice, equality;
- - expediency;
- - conscientiousness;
- - good morals.
Roman law was characterized by precise formulations, it reaches perfect legal forms, its decisions are justified, and terms and concepts form the basis of modern jurisprudence. Analysis of cases from ancient Roman legal practice even today contributes to the development of legal thinking, sharpens the arguments “for” and “against”, systematizes logical generalizations.
In the 1st c. BC e. in Rome, rhetoric, or the art of political and judicial eloquence, is developing powerfully, which was the result of reflecting a stormy social life transitional era from the Republic to the Empire. Achieving authority in society and a successful political career were impossible without a virtuoso mastery of the living word.
Rhetoric becomes a stepping stone on the path to entry into the Roman elite. The most prominent orator of Rome was Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC). Being, moreover, a fine connoisseur of philosophy, he did much to introduce the Romans to the classical Greek philosophy of Plato and the Stoics.
The population of the empire was characterized high level literacy. The system of school education and upbringing included 3 levels - primary, secondary and higher. Graduates of the highest level prepared for state, practical and cultural activities. Higher education began to emerge.
The development of Roman literature went through several stages. During the tsarist and partially republican periods literary creativity existed in the form of cult chants, generic epic, primitive drama, legal texts. The first known Roman writer whose name has come down to us was Appius Claudius Caecus (c. 300 BC). Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave, a freedman (end of the 3rd century BC), translated the Odyssey and thus laid the foundation for the creation of Roman literature on the Greek model. Significant development was later achieved by dramaturgy (the comedies of Plautus and Terence). The first Roman prose writer is Cato the Elder, who wrote in Latin the history of Rome and the Italic tribes. Cicero, with his writing and oratory, opened the era, which is commonly called the era of "Golden Latin". During the time of the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus (1st century BC), the flourishing of literature, called the "golden age of Roman poetry", was associated with the names of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, Petronius. Virgil's famous poem "Aeneid" about the mythical divine ancestor of the Roman aristocracy and Augustus himself (King Aeneas) exalted the special historical mission of Rome, glorified the Roman spirit and Roman art. In comparison with Greek samples, the works of Roman authors were distinguished by greater drama, a more sober analysis of reality.
At the end of the 2nd c. n. e. a crisis began in the Roman Empire: a frequent change of emperors, the separation of provinces, the emergence of independent rulers in various parts of the empire. From the 1st century n. e. in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (in Palestine), Christian ideas began to spread, proclaiming the equality of all before God, which was essential for consolidating a society torn by contradictions. The emergence of a new myth about the possibility of universal achievement of the kingdom of God on earth and the idea of rewarding the suffering and disadvantaged with happiness in the kingdom of heaven became very attractive, especially for the lower social strata of Rome. Christianity adopted many elements of Eastern cults and religions, and also included the achievements of Hellenistic philosophy in its ideology. Cruelly persecuted and persecuted at first, Christianity gradually captured the Roman aristocracy and intelligentsia with its ideas, and in the 4th century. AD became the official religion of the Roman Empire.
From 410 to 476 Rome is being defeated by barbarians - Goths, Vandals, Franks, Huns, Germans, etc. The eastern part of the Roman Empire (Byzantium) lasted another thousand years, and the western part, having died, became the foundation for the culture of the emerging Western European states.
Greco-Roman antiquity (9th century BC - 5th century AD) left the following achievements as a legacy to world culture:
the richest myth-making;
experience of a democratic structure of society;
the system of Roman law;
enduring works of art;
the laws of truth, goodness and beauty;
variety of philosophical ideas;
acquisition of the Christian faith.
Personalities: Herodotus, Aesop, Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, A. Macedonian, J. Caesar.
Control tasks
- 1. Consider the differences between Greek and Roman architecture.
- 2. Why is Greek culture called "the culture of philosophers" and Roman "culture of rhetoricians"?
- 3. List 7 wonders of the world in the view of ancient society.
- 4. Name the outstanding figures of literature and science of ancient Greek culture, accompany your story with a description of their works.
- 5. Name the outstanding figures of literature and science of Roman civilization, accompany the story with a description of their creations.
- 6. Prepare a presentation on any aspect of the topic.
- 7. What made the Greek miracle possible? Submit your version.
