The mentality and customs of the Pamirs. Pamirs: the most mysterious people of the USSR

(Dari), Uyghur

caucasoid

Pamirs(self-name in Taj. "pomiri", also called badakhshans) - a set of small Iranian peoples inhabiting the highlands of the Pamir-Hindukush (the historical region of Badakhshan), divided between Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China (southwest of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region). They speak the heterogeneous Pamir languages ​​​​of the Eastern Iranian group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, which is how they differ from the actual Tajiks, whose language (see Tajik language) belongs to the Western Iranian languages. In addition, most of the Pamirs are united on a religious basis by the confession of Ismailism, also opposed to the main religion of the Tajiks - Sunnism.

resettlement

The areas of settlement of the Pamirs - the western, southern and eastern Pamirs, which merges with the Hindu Kush in the south - are high-mountainous narrow valleys with a rather harsh climate, almost never falling below 2,000 m above sea level and surrounded by steep ridges covered with eternal snows, the height of which in some places approaches 7,000 m. To the north of the Hindu Kush watershed, the valleys belong to the basin of the upper reaches of the Amu Darya (Upper Kokcha, Pyanj, Pamir, Vakhandarya. The eastern slopes of the Pamirs belong to the Yarkand river basin, south of the Hindu Kush begins the Indus basin, represented by the Kunar (Chitral) rivers and Gilgit... Administratively, this entire territory, which has long been an eclectic, but a single area, was divided between Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China as a result of the expansion in the 19th century of the Russian, British and Chinese empires and their satellites (Bukhara and Afghan emirates). As a result, the areas of many Pamir peoples were artificially divided.

Ethno-geographical units in the Pamirs are the historical regions: Shugnan, Rushan, Ishkashim, Vakhan, Munjan, Sarykol, Yazgulyam - in general, they initially coincided with the peoples formed in them. If, in terms of material and spiritual culture, the Pamirs, thanks to millennial mutual contacts, have become much closer to each other, then the study of their languages ​​shows that different Pamir peoples came out of at least four ancient Eastern Iranian communities, only remotely related to each other and brought to the Pamirs independently.

Pamir-speaking peoples

The classification of the Pamir peoples is usually based on the linguistic principle.

Northern Pamirs

• Yazgulyam people- inhabit the Yazgulyam valley (taj. Yazgulom, yazg. Yůzdom) in the Vanj district of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (hereinafter referred to as GBAO) of Tajikistan, 8 - 10 thousand people.
• Shugnano-Rushans- a group of peoples inhabiting adjacent valleys that do not have a common self-consciousness, but speak closely related dialect languages, which allows them to understand each other tolerably when communicating; often the most prestigious Pamir language, Shugnan, is used as the intervalley Shugnano-Rushan language.
  • Shugnans- Shugnan (Taj. Shughon, Shugn. Xuγ˘nůn) - part of the river valley. Pyanj in the Khorog region, the valleys of its right tributaries (Gunt, Shakhdara, Bajuv. The right bank of the Pyanj River belongs to the Shugnan and Roshtkala regions of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left bank belongs to the Shignan region of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The leading ethnic group of the Pamirs, numbering about 110 thousand people, of which in Afghanistan about 25 thousand
  • Rushantsy- Rushan (taj. Rӯshon, rush. Rix˘ůn), an area below Shugnan along the Pyanj at the confluence of the Bartang River. The right-bank part is located in the Rushan region of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left-bank part is in the Shignan region of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The total number is approx. 30 thousand people It also includes small adjacent groups with separate languages ​​and separate self-consciousness:
    • Khuftsy- Huf (taj. Huf, huf. xuf) southeast of Rushan;
    • Barthangians- the middle and upper reaches of the river. Bartang;
      • roshorvtsy- Roshorv (taj. Roshorv, rosh. Rōšōʹrv, self-named rašarviǰ) - the upper course of the Bartang.
• Sarykoltsy(Chinese 塔吉克语 Tǎjíkéyǔ"Tajiks") inhabit Sarykol (Uig. ساريكۆل , Chinese 色勒库尔 Sеlēiküěr) in the river valley. Tiznaf (Tashkurgan-Tajik Autonomous County) and the upper Yarkand in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. This is an isolated group of Shugnan-Rushans, who have lost mutual understanding and unity with them. Number approx. 25 thousand people

Southern Pamirs

The Southern Pamirs are a relic population group south of Shugnan, speaking two closely related dialect languages:

Close and neighboring peoples

Tajik-speaking Pamirs

From the west, the valleys of the Pamir peoples surround the territories occupied by Tajiks - the speakers of the Badakhshan and Darvaz dialects of the Tajik language (Dari). The Badakhshan Tajiks are largely close to the Pamirs proper. In some areas, the Tajik language has supplanted the local Pamir languages ​​in historical time:

• Darvaz (Taj. Darvoz, Dari درواز, Darvaz district of GBAO and the district of the same name in Badakhshan province) - in the XIV century. (unrecorded "Darvaz language")
• Yumgan (dari یمگان , Yamgan, district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 18th century. (Shughni language)
• Vanj (taj. Vanҷ, Vanj district of GBAO) - in the 19th century. (Old Vanjic)
• Zebak (Dari زیباک , district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 20th century. (zebak language)

In addition, in the array of Pamir-speaking peoples there are Tajik-speaking groups of villages:

• Goron region (taj. Goron) on the river. Panj between Ishkashim and Shugnan (right bank in the Ishkashim district of GBAO)
• Right-bank Wakhan (4 villages).

neighboring nations

Ethnogenesis and history

The origin of the Pamiris speaking heterogeneous Eastern Iranian languages ​​is associated with the expansion of the nomadic Saks, which, in all likelihood, took place in several waves, different ways, and various Iranian-speaking communities, which emerged even outside the region, participated in the settlement of the Pamirs. One of them, the Pravakhans, was originally close to the Saks of Khotan and Kashgar and penetrated into the Wakhan, apparently from the east - from the Alai Valley. In historical times, the Kirghiz came to the Pamirs along the same route. Praishkashims formed in the Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan and penetrated here from the southwest. The Munjan language shows the greatest affinity with the Bactrian language and more distant with Pashto. Probably, the Munjans are a remnant of the Bactrian community, who survived in the mountains like the Yaghnobis - the remnants of the Sogdians. The North Pamir community, which broke up into the Vanj, Yazgulyam and Shugnan-Rushans, judging by the dialect division, penetrated the Pamir from the west along the Pyanj and its expansion ended in Shugnan. Approximate dates for the beginning of the Iranianization of the region (according to linguistic data and archaeological excavations of the Saka burial grounds) - VII-VI centuries. BC . The earliest waves are Pravakhans and Praishkashims. It should be noted that initially the Pamirs inhabited only the Pyanj basin and its tributaries. The expansion of the Sarykol people into Xinjiang, the Yidga and the Wakhans into the Indus Valley belong to a later era.

Since ancient times, probably long before Iranianization, the mountains of Badakhshan were one of the main suppliers of lapis lazuli and ruby ​​for the ancient world. Nevertheless, the life of the ancient Badakhshans remained very closed. The isolation of the Pamirs was interrupted starting from the 2nd century BC. BC e., when, with the establishment of Central Asian-Chinese relations through the Pyanj valley, caravan trade was established, which was called the Great Silk Road (in the form of its southern segment). Numerous attempts to conquer the Pamirs by world empires (Sassanids, Turks, Chinese, Arabs, Mongols, Timurids, etc.) either failed or ended only in temporary successes and the establishment of nominal dependence on external power. In fact, until the 19th century the Pamir regions were independent or semi-independent principalities. During the Great Game and the struggle for Central Asia after the city, the Russian Empire and the Emirate of Afghanistan, which was under the influence of the British Empire, finally approved the boundaries of the zones of influence in the east Central Asia the border passed along the Pyanj. At the same time, the Wakhan corridor went to Afghanistan as a buffer between the Russian and British empires. The Russian government helped its dependent Emirate of Bukhara subdue the Pamir principalities. Border along the river. The Pyanj between Afghanistan and Bukhara, and later the USSR, essentially passed "on the fly", dividing the Pamir peoples along the banks of the river and interrupting intra-valley ties.

Religion

With the establishment starting from the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. connections with the plains Iranian world the polytheistic Iranian beliefs of the ancient Pamiris began to be strongly influenced by Zoroastrianism. The binding of this religion to solar cults was reflected in the naming of the sun in the Ishkashim language remozd, which comes from the name of Ahura Mazda (*Ahura-Mazdā-). The positions of Zoroastrianism were especially strong in Shugnan, where open fire temples were built on the hills, some of which operated until the 14th century. Legends about the ancestors - “fire worshipers” and “kafirs-siyavushs” (distorted under the influence of the name of the Iranian hero Taj. Siyopush “dressed in black”) are still popular in the Pamirs.

Another important religion of the Pamirs was Buddhism, which penetrated here from India by caravan route. The positions of Buddhism were especially strong in Wakhan, through which Buddhist preachers from India and pilgrims from Khotan and China moved en masse.

Settlement and housing

A specific habitat with a complex relief was the most important natural and geographical factor in the construction of settlements and the formation of the architecture of this nation. In addition to the specific relief, folk architecture was influenced by a dry, contrasting climate. The long warm period of the year is characterized by an almost complete absence of precipitation and sharp diurnal temperature fluctuations. The cold period is set in November and lasts until April. The minimum temperature in winter is -30, the maximum in summer is +35. The temperature regime also varies with altitude. The abundance of water sources provides irrigated agriculture, and the meadows in the side gorges at an altitude of more than 3000 m - distant pasture cattle breeding. (Mamadnazarov 1977: 7-8) Pronounced building traditions determine the regional character of settlements, estates and residential buildings. When choosing a settlement site, the possibility of rockfalls, snow avalanches and flood waters was taken into account. The traditional form of settlement of mountain Tajiks - kishlak Pri in large numbers land suitable for farming, dwellings in the village are located freely, each house has a yard of a larger or smaller size and very often vegetable gardens and small plots of fields.

There are villages in which dwellings are located in several groups at a considerable distance from each other, creating the impression of separate farmsteads connected to each other by common ditches, between which areas of fields and gardens stretch almost continuously. Closely related families usually live in such farms. If the village is located in a place inconvenient for agriculture, then the location of the dwellings is very concentrated. There are almost no courtyards in such a village, and the dwellings are located in steps along the mountainside. Such villages are usually found in narrow mountain gorges. The water supply of the villages is different. According to the sources of supply and use of water, villages can be divided into three categories: 1 - villages that use water from mountain springs; 2 - using water mainly from turbulent mountain streams and rivers; and 3 - using very long ditches coming from afar with a more or less slow flow of water. The dwelling of the mountain Tajiks, despite the seeming uniformity, however, presents very significant differences, depending on natural building resources, climate, household skills, and the social and property status of its owner. Usually the dwelling is one-story, but if it is located on a steep slope, then sometimes a barn is arranged below. An attached second floor is very rare in larger and more affluent homes. The building material is usually the earth (loess or clay), from which the walls are made. In villages located in narrow gorges on stony soil, where loess is expensive and inaccessible, most of the dwellings and all outbuildings are made of stones fastened with clay. The basis for the roof is several logs laid on the walls, on which a flooring of poles is laid, covered with earth and clay from above. From the inside of the building, the roof is supported by pillars. The dwelling is usually divided into winter and summer premises. The winter part - hona - is a square or rectangular room, most of the floor of which is raised in the form of a platform or adobe bunks, which serve for sleeping, seating, etc. covered with wooden grating. A small door leads to the khona either from the street or courtyard, or from the summer room. A window for letting in light is a hole in the wall, which usually has a wooden sash.

Until the 1930s, there were almost no glazed windows in mountain villages. To heat the premises, a fire pit was built, which is used for baking bread (flat cakes). Food is cooked in the hearth, which is a recess in the form of a cone cut off from the top and side, with smooth walls and a wider bottom. A fire is kindled at the bottom of the recess, and a flat, wide cauldron is placed on top. Why is it arranged either in a special elevation in the corner or along one of the walls, or in the aisle, thicker than the bunks. Young cattle and poultry are kept in the khona in winter, for which a special room is arranged on the side of the entrance, closed by a door. It is necessary to mention the so-called “summers”, where livestock is driven away for the summer and where most of the women of the village with small children live for several summer months, storing dairy products for future use. For housing there are small huts made of stones, often not plastered over and not insulated. Almost every village has a mosque, except for the smallest ones (Ginzburg, 1937: 17-24). The houses of the Pamir Tajiks are not like the dwellings of other peoples. Their device remains unchanged for many centuries, passing from generation to generation. Each architectural element of the Pamir house has its own esoteric meaning- pre-Islamic and Islamic. Each element of the house is important in a person's life. The house embodies the whole universe, reflecting the divine essence of man and the harmony of his relationship with nature. The support of the Pamir house are 5 pillars. They are named after 5 saints: Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Pillar Muhammad - the main one in the house. This is a symbol of faith, male power, the eternity of the world and the inviolability of the house. Beside him, a newborn boy is placed in the cradle. Fatima pillar - a symbol of purity, the guardian hearth. During the wedding, near this pillar, the bride is dressed and decorated so that she is as beautiful as Fatima. Ali's pillar is a symbol of friendship, love, fidelity, agreements. When the groom brings the bride to his house, they are seated near this pillar so that they family life was full of happiness and healthy children were born to them. The Hassan pillar serves the earth and protects it, taking care of its prosperity. Therefore, it is longer than other pillars and is in direct contact with the ground. The pillar of Hussein is a symbol of light and fire. Prayers, religious texts are read near it, prayers are performed and the ceremony of lighting a candle (“charogravshan”) is performed after the death of a person. The four-step arch of the house - "chorkhona", symbolizes 4 elements: earth, water, wind, fire.

Marriage and family

The most archaic family form among the mountain Pamirs was a large patriarchal family based on the principles of agnatic kinship. The undivided economy was the basis of existence big family, which in turn was based on joint ownership of land. At the head of such a family was an elder who disposed of all property, the distribution of work in the family and other matters. Within the family, patriarchal relations dominated, the younger unquestioningly obeyed the elders, and all together the elder. However, with the penetration of commodity-money relations into the areas of settlement of mountain Tajiks, the communal way of life was undermined, which led to the disintegration of large patriarchal families. For changing patriarchal family a monogamous family came, which still retained patriarchal relations to one degree or another.

With the establishment of Islam, the superiority of men over women was legalized. According to Sharia law, the husband had an advantage in the matter of inheritance, as a witness, the husband's right to divorce was legalized. In fact, the position of a woman in the family depended on the degree of her participation in production, rural labor, therefore, in the mountainous regions, where a woman took a greater part in productive activities, her position was relatively freer. Family marriages played a significant role among Tajiks; they were also stimulated for economic reasons. Cousin marriages were especially favored, mainly marriages to the daughter of the mother's brother and the daughter of the father's brother.

Among the mountain Tajiks, the first ceremony associated with marriage was matchmaking. The next stage of the marriage was the engagement. After the matchmaking and engagement, the bride and groom begin to hide from their new relatives. During the year, the entire dowry is collected and paid to the bride's father, and relatives help the groom's father to collect it. Kalym was mainly of a natural character. Marriage is matrilocal (Kislyakov 1951: 7-12). As traces of the matrilocality of marriage, the custom remains, according to which the bride after the wedding stays in her husband's house for only 3-4 days, and then returns to her father's house and the actual marriage begins here. (Peshchereva 1947: 48)

traditional food

In connection with the predominance of agriculture over cattle breeding, meat is rarely eaten, there are few meat dishes, and they are prepared very primitively. The main food products are wheat in the form of flour (noodles, dumplings, mash, flatbread), in crushed form (for thick or liquid porridge), fruits, walnuts, legumes and vegetables, sheep cheese and sour milk, tea with milk, with the addition of butter (tea of ​​the Tibetan llamas), in Pamir "Shircha". They often drank tea with milk, and butter only wealthy people could afford. Wheat or flour dishes are boiled with vegetables, fruits; flour dishes are never boiled with meat. Ritual dishes include pancakes, havlo, ozaq - pieces of dough fried in oil, and “kashk” - porridge made from wheat, beans, peas and lentils during the firing of dishes, and the pot in which kashk is boiled is placed next to the heap of fired dishes. and kashk must be cooked on this fire. It is eaten only by craftswomen and other women, and it is not given to men. (Peshchereva 1947: 48)

Traditional activities

• Agriculture, cattle breeding
  • The main occupation of the mountain Pamirs is high-mountain agriculture with artificial irrigation in combination with animal husbandry. In the peasant economy there were cows, sheep and goats, less often horses and donkeys. In the highlands, as an exception, one could meet a yak called "kutas". Scott was no different. good quality, was a little hardy, undersized. annual cycle livestock care was divided into two main periods: the winter stay of cattle in the village, in the barn, and the grazing of cattle on summer pastures, far from the ort of the village, far in the mountains. Two other periods wedged between these main periods. short period falling in spring and autumn, when cattle freely roamed the still unsown or already compressed kishlak fields or were driven away to scarce grassy areas near the kishlak.

Bulls and donkeys were not driven out for grazing in the spring, since during this period they were needed in the village for agricultural work. Most of the land is occupied by the so-called junk lands (glaciers, rocks, steep slopes, heaps of stones). The irrigation system is unique: water is discharged from the main irrigation canal by a series of waterfalls or discharges. Of these, water is diverted through canals to plowed fields and irrigation furrows. (Monogarova 1972: 52)

• Traditional crafts
  • Home crafts - mainly wool processing, dressing of fabrics, patterned knitting of colored wool for long socks, felt felting, woodworking, handmade female pottery, hunting, manufacturing jewelry, blacksmith craft. Women were engaged in wool processing, they beat the wool with a bowstring of a special small bow and spun it on a hand spindle, as well as on a spinning wheel of the usual Central Asian type. Weaving was a traditional male occupation. Fabrics for clothing were woven on a horizontal loom. From the wool of goats and yaks, men usually wove striped lint-free carpets in winter, for this a vertical loom was used. Felts were made mainly by women. The processing of horns, especially of wild goats, was developed. Handles for knives and combs were made from the horn.
    • • Among the Pamir peoples, the national wrestling-gushtingiri, reminiscent of sambo, is popular. IN modern sports representatives of the Pamir peoples manifest themselves in such sports as sambo, boxing, fighting without rules and other martial arts, as well as volleyball.

Notable Pamiris

• Notable statesmen:
  • Shirinsho Shotemur - Hero of the Republic of Tajikistan - one of the founders of the Tajik SSR
  • Mastibek Toshmukhammedov - Soviet military figure, major general (1962), the first Tajik general by nationality in the USSR.
  • Goibnazar Pallaev - Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Tajikistan (1984-1990)
  • Shodi Shabdolov - Chairman of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.
  • Nazarsho Dodkhudoev - Soviet Tajik statesman, chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR (-), chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Tajik SSR (-).
  • Mamadayoz Navjuvanov - commander of the military unit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR, and later the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Tajik SSR (1989-1992). Personnel Soviet officer, major general (1989). The regiment under the leadership of M. Navzhuvanov became the winner of the All-Union socialist competition in the internal troops of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs.
  • Davlat Khudonazarov - Chairman of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR (1990).
  • Odzhiev Rizoali - chairman of the soldiers of the internationalists of the USSR
• Famous athletes:
  • Vladimir Gulyamhaydarov - born February 26, 1946, Master of Sports of the USSR, Honored Coach of the Republic of Tajikistan, famous football player FC Energetik Dushanbe (1964-1968, 156 games, 11 goals), Pamir Dushanbe (1971-1977, 241 games, 30 goals) and Torpedo Moscow (1969-1970, 19 games, 3 goals), member USSR Olympic team (1968-1970, 8 games, 3 goals), Vakhsh Kurgan-Tyube (2 games), coach of FC Vakhsh Kurgan-Tyube, Pamir Dushanbe.
  • Azalsho Olimov - Master of Sports of the USSR, the first champion of the USSR and Europe in sambo from Central Asia,
  • Raimkul Malakhbekov - Honored Master of Sports of Russia, two-time world boxing champion in 1995 and 1997, bronze medalist 26 Olympic Games 1996 in Atlanta (USA), silver medalist of the 27th Olympic Games in 2000 in Sydney (Australia), repeated champion of Europe and Russia.
  • Oleg Shirinbekov - Master of Sports of the USSR, famous football player of FC "Pamir" Dushanbe and "Torpedo" Moscow.
  • Khursand Jamshedov is a master of sports of international class, world champion-2006, Europe, Russia in kickboxing, champion of Europe in professional kickboxing, two-time champion of the KITEK league.
  • Artur Odilbekov is a multiple champion of Russia in fights without rules.
  • Ruslan Zarifbekov is the champion of Tajikistan and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Umed Khasanbekov - Tajik and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Sanjar Sarfarozov - Tajik and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Khushbakht Kurbonmamadov - winner and prize-winner of international and all-Russian judo tournaments in Russia, 5 places at the European Cup in Orenburg-2010-2011 and the European Cup among juniors (under 20) in St. Petersburg-2011.
  • Madadi Nagzibekov - bronze medalist of the Asian Boxing Championship, multiple winner of the Cup of the Governor of St. Petersburg, winner of the international tournament amber gloves-2006.
  • Shomirzoev Hakim - Winner of the World Championship in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu 2009 Dubai, Multiple champion of the Moscow Sambo Championship, Prize winner of the Russian Sambo Championship, multiple champion of Europe and the Super Cup in Jiu Jitsu, Prize winner of the World Championship in Jiu Jitsu 2012.
  • Shomirzoev Amir - International Master of Sports in Kyokushinkai Karate, 5-time champion of Russia, multiple champion of Moscow and Europe, Prize-winner of the World Championship in Kyokushinkai Karate
• Notable artists:
  • Daler Nazarov - the winner of the contest

(Dari), Uyghur

caucasoid

Pamirs(self-name in Taj. "pomiri", also called badakhshans) - a set of small Iranian peoples inhabiting the highlands of the Pamir-Hindukush (the historical region of Badakhshan), divided between Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China (southwest of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region). They speak the heterogeneous Pamir languages ​​​​of the Eastern Iranian group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, which is how they differ from the actual Tajiks, whose language (see Tajik language) belongs to the Western Iranian languages. In addition, most of the Pamirs are united on a religious basis by the confession of Ismailism, also opposed to the main religion of the Tajiks - Sunnism.

resettlement

The areas of settlement of the Pamirs - the western, southern and eastern Pamirs, which merges with the Hindu Kush in the south - are high-mountainous narrow valleys with a rather harsh climate, almost never falling below 2,000 m above sea level and surrounded by steep ridges covered with eternal snows, the height of which in some places approaches 7,000 m. To the north of the Hindu Kush watershed, the valleys belong to the basin of the upper reaches of the Amu Darya (Upper Kokcha, Pyanj, Pamir, Vakhandarya. The eastern slopes of the Pamirs belong to the Yarkand river basin, south of the Hindu Kush begins the Indus basin, represented by the Kunar (Chitral) rivers and Gilgit... Administratively, this entire territory, which has long been an eclectic, but a single area, was divided between Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China as a result of the expansion in the 19th century of the Russian, British and Chinese empires and their satellites (Bukhara and Afghan emirates). As a result, the areas of many Pamir peoples were artificially divided.

Ethno-geographical units in the Pamirs are the historical regions: Shugnan, Rushan, Ishkashim, Vakhan, Munjan, Sarykol, Yazgulyam - in general, they initially coincided with the peoples formed in them. If, in terms of material and spiritual culture, the Pamirs, thanks to millennial mutual contacts, have become much closer to each other, then the study of their languages ​​shows that different Pamir peoples came out of at least four ancient Eastern Iranian communities, only remotely related to each other and brought to the Pamirs independently.

Pamir-speaking peoples

The classification of the Pamir peoples is usually based on the linguistic principle.

Northern Pamirs

• Yazgulyam people- inhabit the Yazgulyam valley (taj. Yazgulom, yazg. Yůzdom) in the Vanj district of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (hereinafter referred to as GBAO) of Tajikistan, 8 - 10 thousand people.
• Shugnano-Rushans- a group of peoples inhabiting adjacent valleys that do not have a common self-consciousness, but speak closely related dialect languages, which allows them to understand each other tolerably when communicating; often the most prestigious Pamir language, Shugnan, is used as the intervalley Shugnano-Rushan language.
  • Shugnans- Shugnan (Taj. Shughon, Shugn. Xuγ˘nůn) - part of the river valley. Pyanj in the Khorog region, the valleys of its right tributaries (Gunt, Shakhdara, Bajuv. The right bank of the Pyanj River belongs to the Shugnan and Roshtkala regions of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left bank belongs to the Shignan region of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The leading ethnic group of the Pamirs, numbering about 110 thousand people, of which in Afghanistan about 25 thousand
  • Rushantsy- Rushan (taj. Rӯshon, rush. Rix˘ůn), an area below Shugnan along the Pyanj at the confluence of the Bartang River. The right-bank part is located in the Rushan region of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left-bank part is in the Shignan region of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The total number is approx. 30 thousand people It also includes small adjacent groups with separate languages ​​and separate self-consciousness:
    • Khuftsy- Huf (taj. Huf, huf. xuf) southeast of Rushan;
    • Barthangians- the middle and upper reaches of the river. Bartang;
      • roshorvtsy- Roshorv (taj. Roshorv, rosh. Rōšōʹrv, self-named rašarviǰ) - the upper course of the Bartang.
• Sarykoltsy(Chinese 塔吉克语 Tǎjíkéyǔ"Tajiks") inhabit Sarykol (Uig. ساريكۆل , Chinese 色勒库尔 Sеlēiküěr) in the river valley. Tiznaf (Tashkurgan-Tajik Autonomous County) and the upper Yarkand in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. This is an isolated group of Shugnan-Rushans, who have lost mutual understanding and unity with them. Number approx. 25 thousand people

Southern Pamirs

The Southern Pamirs are a relic population group south of Shugnan, speaking two closely related dialect languages:

Close and neighboring peoples

Tajik-speaking Pamirs

From the west, the valleys of the Pamir peoples surround the territories occupied by Tajiks - the speakers of the Badakhshan and Darvaz dialects of the Tajik language (Dari). The Badakhshan Tajiks are largely close to the Pamirs proper. In some areas, the Tajik language has supplanted the local Pamir languages ​​in historical time:

• Darvaz (Taj. Darvoz, Dari درواز, Darvaz district of GBAO and the district of the same name in Badakhshan province) - in the XIV century. (unrecorded "Darvaz language")
• Yumgan (dari یمگان , Yamgan, district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 18th century. (Shughni language)
• Vanj (taj. Vanҷ, Vanj district of GBAO) - in the 19th century. (Old Vanjic)
• Zebak (Dari زیباک , district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 20th century. (zebak language)

In addition, in the array of Pamir-speaking peoples there are Tajik-speaking groups of villages:

• Goron region (taj. Goron) on the river. Panj between Ishkashim and Shugnan (right bank in the Ishkashim district of GBAO)
• Right-bank Wakhan (4 villages).

neighboring nations

Ethnogenesis and history

The origin of the Pamirs speaking heterogeneous Eastern Iranian languages ​​is associated with the expansion of the nomadic Saks, which, in all likelihood, took place in several waves, in different ways, and various Iranian-speaking communities participated in the settlement of the Pamirs, which emerged even outside the region. One of them, the Pravakhans, was originally close to the Saks of Khotan and Kashgar and penetrated into the Wakhan, apparently from the east - from the Alai Valley. In historical times, the Kirghiz came to the Pamirs along the same route. Praishkashims formed in the Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan and penetrated here from the southwest. The Munjan language shows the greatest affinity with the Bactrian language and more distant with Pashto. Probably, the Munjans are a remnant of the Bactrian community, who survived in the mountains like the Yaghnobis - the remnants of the Sogdians. The North Pamir community, which broke up into the Vanj, Yazgulyam and Shugnan-Rushans, judging by the dialect division, penetrated the Pamir from the west along the Pyanj and its expansion ended in Shugnan. Approximate dates for the beginning of the Iranianization of the region (according to linguistic data and archaeological excavations of the Saka burial grounds) - VII-VI centuries. BC . The earliest waves are Pravakhans and Praishkashims. It should be noted that initially the Pamirs inhabited only the Pyanj basin and its tributaries. The expansion of the Sarykol people into Xinjiang, the Yidga and the Wakhans into the Indus Valley belong to a later era.

Since ancient times, probably long before Iranianization, the mountains of Badakhshan were one of the main suppliers of lapis lazuli and ruby ​​for the ancient world. Nevertheless, the life of the ancient Badakhshans remained very closed. The isolation of the Pamirs was interrupted starting from the 2nd century BC. BC e., when, with the establishment of Central Asian-Chinese relations through the Pyanj valley, caravan trade was established, which was called the Great Silk Road (in the form of its southern segment). Numerous attempts to conquer the Pamirs by world empires (Sassanids, Turks, Chinese, Arabs, Mongols, Timurids, etc.) either failed or ended only in temporary successes and the establishment of nominal dependence on external power. In fact, until the 19th century the Pamir regions were independent or semi-independent principalities. During the Great Game and the struggle for Central Asia after the city, the Russian Empire and the Emirate of Afghanistan, which was under the influence of the British Empire, finally approved the boundaries of the zones of influence; in the east of Central Asia, the border passed along the Pyanj. At the same time, the Wakhan corridor went to Afghanistan as a buffer between the Russian and British empires. The Russian government helped its dependent Emirate of Bukhara subdue the Pamir principalities. Border along the river. The Pyanj between Afghanistan and Bukhara, and later the USSR, essentially passed "on the fly", dividing the Pamir peoples along the banks of the river and interrupting intra-valley ties.

Religion

With the establishment starting from the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. Zoroastrianism began to exert a strong influence on the polytheistic Iranian beliefs of the ancient Pamirs in connection with the lowland Iranian world. The binding of this religion to solar cults was reflected in the naming of the sun in the Ishkashim language remozd, which comes from the name of Ahura Mazda (*Ahura-Mazdā-). The positions of Zoroastrianism were especially strong in Shugnan, where open fire temples were built on the hills, some of which operated until the 14th century. Legends about the ancestors - “fire worshipers” and “kafirs-siyavushs” (distorted under the influence of the name of the Iranian hero Taj. Siyopush “dressed in black”) are still popular in the Pamirs.

Another important religion of the Pamirs was Buddhism, which penetrated here from India by caravan route. The positions of Buddhism were especially strong in Wakhan, through which Buddhist preachers from India and pilgrims from Khotan and China moved en masse.

Settlement and housing

A specific habitat with a complex relief was the most important natural and geographical factor in the construction of settlements and the formation of the architecture of this nation. In addition to the specific relief, folk architecture was influenced by a dry, contrasting climate. The long warm period of the year is characterized by an almost complete absence of precipitation and sharp diurnal temperature fluctuations. The cold period is set in November and lasts until April. The minimum temperature in winter is -30, the maximum in summer is +35. The temperature regime also varies with altitude. The abundance of water sources provides irrigated agriculture, and the meadows in the side gorges at an altitude of more than 3000 m - distant pasture cattle breeding. (Mamadnazarov 1977: 7-8) Pronounced building traditions determine the regional character of settlements, estates and residential buildings. When choosing a settlement site, the possibility of rockfalls, snow avalanches and flood waters was taken into account. The traditional form of settlement of mountain Tajiks is a kishlak. With a large amount of land suitable for farming, dwellings in the kishlak are located freely, each house has a yard of a larger or smaller size and very often vegetable gardens and small plots of fields.

There are villages in which dwellings are located in several groups at a considerable distance from each other, creating the impression of separate farmsteads connected to each other by common ditches, between which areas of fields and gardens stretch almost continuously. Closely related families usually live in such farms. If the village is located in a place inconvenient for agriculture, then the location of the dwellings is very concentrated. There are almost no courtyards in such a village, and the dwellings are located in steps along the mountainside. Such villages are usually found in narrow mountain gorges. The water supply of the villages is different. According to the sources of supply and use of water, villages can be divided into three categories: 1 - villages that use water from mountain springs; 2 - using water mainly from turbulent mountain streams and rivers; and 3 - using very long ditches coming from afar with a more or less slow flow of water. The dwelling of the mountain Tajiks, despite the seeming uniformity, however, presents very significant differences, depending on natural building resources, climate, household skills, and the social and property status of its owner. Usually the dwelling is one-story, but if it is located on a steep slope, then sometimes a barn is arranged below. An attached second floor is very rare in larger and more affluent homes. The building material is usually the earth (loess or clay), from which the walls are made. In villages located in narrow gorges on stony soil, where loess is expensive and inaccessible, most of the dwellings and all outbuildings are made of stones fastened with clay. The basis for the roof is several logs laid on the walls, on which a flooring of poles is laid, covered with earth and clay from above. From the inside of the building, the roof is supported by pillars. The dwelling is usually divided into winter and summer premises. The winter part - hona - is a square or rectangular room, most of the floor of which is raised in the form of a platform or adobe bunks, which serve for sleeping, seating, etc. covered with wooden grating. A small door leads to the khona either from the street or courtyard, or from the summer room. A window for letting in light is a hole in the wall, which usually has a wooden sash.

Until the 1930s, there were almost no glazed windows in mountain villages. To heat the premises, a fire pit was built, which is used for baking bread (flat cakes). Food is cooked in the hearth, which is a recess in the form of a cone cut off from the top and side, with smooth walls and a wider bottom. A fire is kindled at the bottom of the recess, and a flat, wide cauldron is placed on top. Why is it arranged either in a special elevation in the corner or along one of the walls, or in the aisle, thicker than the bunks. Young cattle and poultry are kept in the khona in winter, for which a special room is arranged on the side of the entrance, closed by a door. It is necessary to mention the so-called “summers”, where livestock is driven away for the summer and where most of the women of the village with small children live for several summer months, storing dairy products for future use. For housing there are small huts made of stones, often not plastered over and not insulated. Almost every village has a mosque, except for the smallest ones (Ginzburg, 1937: 17-24). The houses of the Pamir Tajiks are not like the dwellings of other peoples. Their device remains unchanged for many centuries, passing from generation to generation. Each architectural element of the Pamir house has its own esoteric meaning - pre-Islamic and Islamic. Each element of the house is important in a person's life. The house embodies the whole universe, reflecting the divine essence of man and the harmony of his relationship with nature. The support of the Pamir house are 5 pillars. They are named after 5 saints: Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Pillar Muhammad - the main one in the house. This is a symbol of faith, male power, the eternity of the world and the inviolability of the house. Beside him, a newborn boy is placed in the cradle. The Fatima pillar is a symbol of purity, the keeper of the hearth. During the wedding, near this pillar, the bride is dressed and decorated so that she is as beautiful as Fatima. Ali's pillar is a symbol of friendship, love, fidelity, agreements. When the groom brings the bride to his house, they are seated near this pillar so that their family life is full of happiness and healthy children are born to them. The Hassan pillar serves the earth and protects it, taking care of its prosperity. Therefore, it is longer than other pillars and is in direct contact with the ground. The pillar of Hussein is a symbol of light and fire. Prayers, religious texts are read near it, prayers are performed and the ceremony of lighting a candle (“charogravshan”) is performed after the death of a person. The four-step arch of the house - "chorkhona", symbolizes 4 elements: earth, water, wind, fire.

Marriage and family

The most archaic family form among the mountain Pamirs was a large patriarchal family based on the principles of agnatic kinship. The non-separation of the economy was the basis for the existence of a large family, which in turn was based on the joint ownership of land. At the head of such a family was an elder who disposed of all property, the distribution of work in the family and other matters. Within the family, patriarchal relations dominated, the younger unquestioningly obeyed the elders, and all together the elder. However, with the penetration of commodity-money relations into the areas of settlement of mountain Tajiks, the communal way of life was undermined, which led to the disintegration of large patriarchal families. The patriarchal family was replaced by a monogamous family, which still retained patriarchal relations to one degree or another.

With the establishment of Islam, the superiority of men over women was legalized. According to Sharia law, the husband had an advantage in the matter of inheritance, as a witness, the husband's right to divorce was legalized. In fact, the position of a woman in the family depended on the degree of her participation in production, rural labor, therefore, in the mountainous regions, where a woman took a greater part in productive activities, her position was relatively freer. Family marriages played a significant role among Tajiks; they were also stimulated for economic reasons. Cousin marriages were especially favored, mainly marriages to the daughter of the mother's brother and the daughter of the father's brother.

Among the mountain Tajiks, the first ceremony associated with marriage was matchmaking. The next stage of the marriage was the engagement. After the matchmaking and engagement, the bride and groom begin to hide from their new relatives. During the year, the entire dowry is collected and paid to the bride's father, and relatives help the groom's father to collect it. Kalym was mainly of a natural character. Marriage is matrilocal (Kislyakov 1951: 7-12). As traces of the matrilocality of marriage, the custom remains, according to which the bride after the wedding stays in her husband's house for only 3-4 days, and then returns to her father's house and the actual marriage begins here. (Peshchereva 1947: 48)

traditional food

In connection with the predominance of agriculture over cattle breeding, meat is rarely eaten, there are few meat dishes, and they are prepared very primitively. The main food products are wheat in the form of flour (noodles, dumplings, mash, flatbread), in crushed form (for thick or liquid porridge), fruits, walnuts, legumes and vegetables, sheep cheese and sour milk, tea with milk, with the addition of butter (tea of ​​the Tibetan llamas), in Pamir "Shircha". They often drank tea with milk, and only wealthy people could afford butter. Wheat or flour dishes are boiled with vegetables, fruits; flour dishes are never boiled with meat. Ritual dishes include pancakes, havlo, ozaq - pieces of dough fried in oil, and “kashk” - porridge made from wheat, beans, peas and lentils during the firing of dishes, and the pot in which kashk is boiled is placed next to the heap of fired dishes. and kashk must be cooked on this fire. It is eaten only by craftswomen and other women, and it is not given to men. (Peshchereva 1947: 48)

Traditional activities

• Agriculture, cattle breeding
  • The main occupation of the mountain Pamirs is high-mountain agriculture with artificial irrigation in combination with animal husbandry. In the peasant economy there were cows, sheep and goats, less often horses and donkeys. In the highlands, as an exception, one could meet a yak called "kutas". The cattle was not of good quality, had little hardiness, and was undersized. The annual cycle of cattle care was divided into two main periods: the winter stay of cattle in the village, in the barn, and the grazing of cattle on summer pastures, far from the ort of the village, far in the mountains. Between these main periods wedged two other short periods, falling in spring and autumn, when cattle freely roamed the still unsown or already compressed kishlak fields or were driven away to scarce grass areas near the kishlak.

Bulls and donkeys were not driven out for grazing in the spring, since during this period they were needed in the village for agricultural work. Most of the land is occupied by the so-called junk lands (glaciers, rocks, steep slopes, heaps of stones). The irrigation system is unique: water is discharged from the main irrigation canal by a series of waterfalls or discharges. Of these, water is diverted through canals to plowed fields and irrigation furrows. (Monogarova 1972: 52)

• Traditional crafts
  • Home crafts are mainly wool processing, dressing of fabrics, patterned knitting of long socks from colored wool, felting, woodworking, hand-made pottery for women, hunting, jewelry making, blacksmithing. Women were engaged in wool processing, they beat the wool with a bowstring of a special small bow and spun it on a hand spindle, as well as on a spinning wheel of the usual Central Asian type. Weaving was a traditional male occupation. Fabrics for clothing were woven on a horizontal loom. From the wool of goats and yaks, men usually wove striped lint-free carpets in winter, for this a vertical loom was used. Felts were made mainly by women. The processing of horns, especially of wild goats, was developed. Handles for knives and combs were made from the horn.
    • • Among the Pamir peoples, the national wrestling-gushtingiri, reminiscent of sambo, is popular. In modern sports, representatives of the Pamir peoples manifest themselves in such sports as sambo, boxing, fighting without rules and other martial arts, as well as volleyball.

Notable Pamiris

• Notable statesmen:
  • Shirinsho Shotemur - Hero of the Republic of Tajikistan - one of the founders of the Tajik SSR
  • Mastibek Toshmukhammedov - Soviet military figure, major general (1962), the first Tajik general by nationality in the USSR.
  • Goibnazar Pallaev - Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Tajikistan (1984-1990)
  • Shodi Shabdolov - Chairman of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.
  • Nazarsho Dodkhudoev - Soviet Tajik statesman, chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR (-), chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Tajik SSR (-).
  • Mamadayoz Navjuvanov - commander of the military unit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR, and later the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Tajik SSR (1989-1992). Personnel Soviet officer, major general (1989). The regiment under the leadership of M. Navzhuvanov became the winner of the All-Union socialist competition in the internal troops of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs.
  • Davlat Khudonazarov - Chairman of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR (1990).
  • Odzhiev Rizoali - chairman of the soldiers of the internationalists of the USSR
• Famous athletes:
  • Vladimir Gulyamkhaydarov - born on February 26, 1946, Master of Sports of the USSR, Honored Coach of the Republic of Tajikistan, famous football player of FC Energetik Dushanbe (1964-1968, 156 games, 11 goals), Pamir Dushanbe (1971-1977, 241 games, 30 goals) and Torpedo Moscow (1969-1970, 19 games, 3 goals), member of the USSR Olympic team (1968-1970, 8 games, 3 goals), Vakhsh Kurgan-Tyube (2 games), coach of FC Vakhsh » Kurgan-Tube, "Pamir" Dushanbe.
  • Azalsho Olimov - Master of Sports of the USSR, the first champion of the USSR and Europe in sambo from Central Asia,
  • Raimkul Malakhbekov - Honored Master of Sports of Russia, two-time world boxing champion in 1995 and 1997, bronze medalist of the 26th Olympic Games in 1996 in Atlanta (USA), silver medalist of the 27th Olympic Games in 2000 in Sydney (Australia), multiple champion of Europe and Russia .
  • Oleg Shirinbekov - Master of Sports of the USSR, famous football player of FC "Pamir" Dushanbe and "Torpedo" Moscow.
  • Khursand Jamshedov is a master of sports of international class, world champion-2006, Europe, Russia in kickboxing, champion of Europe in professional kickboxing, two-time champion of the KITEK league.
  • Artur Odilbekov is a multiple champion of Russia in fights without rules.
  • Ruslan Zarifbekov is the champion of Tajikistan and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Umed Khasanbekov - Tajik and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Sanjar Sarfarozov - Tajik and Russian medalist in sambo.
  • Khushbakht Kurbonmamadov - winner and prize-winner of international and all-Russian judo tournaments in Russia, 5 places at the European Cup in Orenburg-2010-2011 and the European Cup among juniors (under 20) in St. Petersburg-2011.
  • Madadi Nagzibekov - bronze medalist of the Asian Boxing Championship, multiple winner of the Cup of the Governor of St. Petersburg, winner of the international tournament amber gloves-2006.
  • Shomirzoev Hakim - Winner of the World Championship in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu 2009 Dubai, Multiple champion of the Moscow Sambo Championship, Prize winner of the Russian Sambo Championship, multiple champion of Europe and the Super Cup in Jiu Jitsu, Prize winner of the World Championship in Jiu Jitsu 2012.
  • Shomirzoev Amir - International Master of Sports in Kyokushinkai Karate, 5-time champion of Russia, multiple champion of Moscow and Europe, Prize-winner of the World Championship in Kyokushinkai Karate
• Notable artists:
  • Daler Nazarov - the winner of the contest

The unique nature of the Pamirs has always interested researchers and travelers. This harsh mountainous land is the birthplace ancient people about which almost nothing is known. And if until the twentieth century few people heard about the mysterious Pamiris, because they lived in remote areas, then starting from the era of the USSR, these people were most often confused with Tajiks.

Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the highlands have a special culture, interesting customs and traditions. Who are the Pamirs? Why were they separated by the borders of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China and Pakistan?

What are they?

The Pamirs do not get into world news, they do not fight for independence, they do not seek to create their own state. This peaceful people accustomed to isolated life in the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains. Badakhshan is the name of the historical region of their residence.

This ethnic group consists of many nationalities, united common origin customs and traditions, religion and history. Pamirs are divided into northern and southern. Among the former, the most numerous national group are the Shugnans, there are more than 100 thousand of them. Rushantsev is three times less. Sarykoltsy are almost 25 thousand people, and Yazgulyams are considered to be small nationalities.

The main part of the southern Pamirs are Vakhans, there are about 70 thousand of them. And there are much fewer Sanglichs, Ishkashims and Munjans.

All these people belong to the Pamir-Fergana subrace - the most eastern branch European race. There are many bright and blue-eyed people among the Pamirs. They have oblong faces with straight noses and big eyes. If there are brunettes, then with fair skin. Anthropologists believe that the inhabitants of the European Alps and the Mediterranean are closest to the representatives of the Pamir-Fergana subrace.

Residents of Badakhshan speak the languages ​​of the Eastern Iranian group Indo-European family. However, for interethnic communication they use the Tajik language, which is also taught in schools. In Pakistan, the Pamir languages ​​are gradually being replaced by the official Urdu, and in China, Uyghur.

Being representatives of the Iranian-speaking peoples, back in the 1st millennium BC, the Pamirs were adherents of Zoroastrianism. Then, along with trade caravans from China, Buddhism spread to the highlands. In the 11th century, the famous Persian poet Nasir Khosrov (1004-1088) fled to these lands to escape the persecution of Sunni Muslims. This creative person became the spiritual leader of the local population, under the influence of the poet, the Pamirs adopted Ismailism - the Shiite direction of Islam, which absorbed some of the provisions of Hinduism and Buddhism.

Religion markedly distinguishes the Pamirs from their Sunni neighbors. Ismailis perform namaz (pray) only twice a day, while Tajiks and Uzbeks do it five times a day. Since the Pamiris do not fast during the holy month of Ramadan, their women do not wear a veil, and their men allow themselves to drink moonshine, then neighboring nations do not classify these people as devout Muslims.

History of the people

There is no single answer to the question of the origin of the Pamirs. The history of this ethnic group has more than two thousand years. Given the belonging of the inhabitants of Badakhshan to caucasian race, some researchers are inclined to believe that the Pamirs are the descendants of the ancient Aryans, who remained in the mountains during the Indo-European migration and subsequently mixed with the local population. However, there is no historical evidence for this theory.

According to most experts, several East Iranian tribes moved to the Pamirs separately from each other and in different time. Interestingly, their closest relatives were the legendary Scythians - an ancient ethnic group that created a huge empire in the 7th-4th centuries BC, stretching from the Crimea to Southern Siberia.

Scientists associate the origin of the Pamiris with several waves of migrations of the nomadic tribe of Saks, who began to populate the highlands in the 7th-6th centuries BC. Then the ancestors of the Vakhans moved from the Alai Valley, which is located east of Badakhshan. And the future Ishkashim residents moved to the highlands from the southwest. Mundzhantsev after linguistic research scientists consider their language to be the remnants of the Bactrian community that survived in remote areas.

The next wave of Saka migration gave birth to the northern Pamirs, who migrated to Badakhshan from the west along the Pyanj River, subsequently breaking up into the Shugnans, Rushans, Yazgulyams and Vanjs. And even later, the ancestors of the Sarykol people moved to their current territories, which are currently part of the Chinese province of Xinjiang. All these migratory waves ended by the beginning of our era.

Thanks to the rich deposits of ruby ​​​​and lapis lazuli, the inhabitants of the highlands were regularly visited by merchants who exchanged household items for precious stones, household utensils, as well as knives and axes, and other tools. Back in the 2nd century BC, caravans from China went through the Pyanj River valley along the Great Silk Road.

Throughout the history of the Pamirs, various Turkic-speaking tribes, the Chinese, Arabs, Mongols, as well as the Sassanid and Timurid dynasties, tried to conquer this region. But none of them remained in the highlands to rule over a handful of tribes. Therefore, even the nominally conquered Pamirs for a long time continued to live quietly, as they were accustomed to.

The situation changed in the 19th century, when Russia and Britain were actively fighting for influence in Asia. In 1895, the border between Afghanistan, which was under the protectorate of the British, and the Emirate of Bukhara, which was supported by the Russians, was officially established. The two empires divided their spheres of influence along the Panj River, with the Wakhan Corridor going to Afghanistan. Subsequently, the border of the USSR was established there. Neither in Moscow nor in London did anyone care about the fate of the Pamir peoples, who were literally cut off from each other.

Now the highlands are divided between Tajikistan, China, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The languages ​​of the Pamir peoples are being consistently pushed out, and their future remains uncertain.

Customs and mores

The Pamirs have always lived quite isolated. The harsh nature of the highlands, which is located between 2 and 7 thousand meters above sea level, had a significant impact on their life and customs.

Each element of the house here has a symbolic meaning. The dwellings of the Pamirs are supported by five pillars named after Muslim saints: Mohammed, Fatima, Ali, Hussein and Hassan. They delimit the men's and women's bedrooms, as well as the kitchen, living room and prayer area. A four-step vault traditional dwelling symbolizes the natural elements: fire, earth, water and air.

Previously, the Pamirs lived in large patriarchal families, all relatives ran a joint household, unquestioningly obeying the elder. But later, such mini-communities were replaced by ordinary monogamous families. Moreover, among the Pamirs there are marriages between cousins ​​and sisters, which is often due to the reluctance to pay large kalym for a bride from another family.

Despite the fact that Islam has significantly influenced the position of women, marriages among the Pamirs are matrilocal. That is, after the wedding, the young people settle in the house of the bride's parents.

The traditional occupations of these people are agriculture and animal husbandry. Cows, sheep, goats, horses and donkeys are bred in the highlands. The Pamirs have been engaged in wool processing, weaving, pottery, and jewelry making for many centuries. There were always many skilled hunters among them.

The Pamiri diet usually consists of wheat cakes, sheep cheese, homemade noodles, vegetables and legumes, fruits and walnuts. A poor inhabitant of the highlands drinks tea with milk, and a rich one also adds a little butter to the bowl.

The population was engaged not only in animal husbandry, agriculture, but also in crafts (carpets, felt mats, rugs, etc.). According to Marco Polo, who passed through Badakhshan in 1274, gold, silver, azure, rubies and lapis were mined there. Patriarchal-tribal relations dominated. Religion since the 11th century - Ismaili Islam.

The peoples of the Pamirs include the Shugnans, Rushans, Vakhans, Ishkashims, Munzhdzhans, Yazgulyams, Vanjs and Darvazians. The languages ​​of the peoples of the Pamirs belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages.

Relations between Russia and the Pamirs began at the end of the 19th century. This period was the height of the division of the world and the Pamirs became the final theater of military-political opposition between England and Russia.

In 1892, Russian troops occupied the Eastern Pamir and founded the Murgab post. In 1895, according to the Russian-English delimitation, the region was divided: the left-bank part of the territory of the Pyanj River went to Afghanistan and remained subordinate to the British, while the right-bank part was annexed to Russia.

In 1912, at the invitation of His Majesty Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, he visited St. spiritual leader Ismailis (which include the Pamirs) - His Majesty Sultan Mohammed Shah or Aga Khan Sh. With the Tsar of Russia they were in good relations. Subsequently, the Aga Khan blessed and highly appreciated the accession of the Pamirs to Russia. Already in 1913, the first Pamir delegation arrived in St. Petersburg to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the "Romanov House". Among them were Aziz Khan, the ruler of Shahdara, a resident of Bartang Mastali, and a resident of Alay - Takur Bek and others.
Subsequently, during the period of Soviet power, with the help of Russia and other union republics, the colossal development of the Pamirs took place.
The Pamirs remember and with gratitude pronounce the names of Russian military leaders Ionov Mikhil Efremovich, Snesarev Andrey Evgenievich, military engineers Serebrennikov and Andreev, scientists Mushketov and Fedchenko, Zarubin, Vavilov, Baranov, Raikov, Stanyukovich and many others. In 1925, Pamir, as an autonomous region, was included in the Republic of Tajikistan.

During the Second World War, many sons of the Pamirs, along with representatives of other peoples of the USSR, fought on the fronts of the Great Patriotic War. Junior Lieutenant Kalon Kurbonov from Porshnev fought on the Leningrad Front, having graduated from Leningradskoye before the war. military school. For the courage shown by him during the fighting on the Narva bridgehead, he was awarded the order"Red Star". After breaking the blockade of Leningrad, he was awarded the medal "For the Defense of Leningrad". From June 1941 to January 1943, Makhmud Dodoboev was on the Leningrad front. He served in the 136th rifle division and died in one of the battles to break through Leningrad. On his grave, fellow soldiers wrote “Mahmud Dodoboev.1924-1943. Volunteer from Khorog. He died defending the city of Lenin. The medal "For the Defense of Leningrad" was awarded to Abdullaev Ch., Negmatov F., Nazarov G., Khudoboni.O, Amirbekov Sh. and many other Pamirs. There are thousands and thousands of such heroic names in the common history of St. Petersburg and the Pamirs.

After the war, the Pamirs began to come to Leningrad to study. Many of them later became prominent statesmen and famous scientists. The names of statesman Kurbonsho Gadoliyev, academician Bakhodur Iskandarov, scientists Rakhim Dodkhudoev, Karamshoev D.Kh., Dzhamshedov P.D., honorary judge of sports Odinaev N.S., today are known far beyond the borders of the republic.

Fate decreed that after the collapse of the USSR, many Pamirs found themselves outside their historical homeland, including in the city of Leningrad-St. Petersburg. And the new living conditions prompted us to organize our diaspora in order to take an active part in the life of the city. Our society is legally registered as an interregional public organization"Diaspora of representatives of the Pamir peoples" Pamir ", registered by the Main Department of the Ministry of Justice Russian Federation in St. Petersburg and Leningrad region December 19, 2000 The main goals of our organization are - to unite representatives of the Pamir peoples in order to promote the preservation of identity, language, traditions, development of education, national culture, strengthening interethnic ties by participating in the implementation of national and cultural programs.

The basis of today's community "Pamir" is made up of people who came to Leningrad in the period from the 70s to the 90s of the last century and remained for permanent work and residence. Sabzaliev Sabza, Hudobakhshev Alibakhsh, Bulbulshoev Khudonazar, Murodaliev Spindak, Mamadmusoev Olim, Kambarov Juma, Niyatkhonov Nemathon, Bakhtiev Sarkor, Andrey Meralishoev. created wonderful families, live and work for the good of this city. From the very first days of its activity, our association actively participates in cultural, scientific and sporting events of the city. We participate in scientific conferences, festivals of national culture, in sports events. The chairman of our society, Bakhtibek Berdov, as part of the St. Petersburg team, became the owner of the European Cup in karate in 1995, a repeated champion of Russia. Our representatives - Nagzibekov Madadi (boxing) and Zumratshoev Manuchehr (regball) play for the St. Petersburg team not only in Russian but also in international competitions. Many children are involved in sports sections. We hope that they will adequately represent St. Petersburg and Russia.

For active participation in the anniversary events dedicated to the "300th anniversary of St. Petersburg", as well as in many other events of the city, our organization was awarded prizes and diplomas from the city administration.

We hold meetings with scientists, border guards and other specialists whose activities are connected with the Pamirs. We will try to maintain good traditional ties between the scientific institutions of St. Petersburg and the Pamirs. In the last 2 years alone, 5 people defended their Ph.D. dissertations at the Oriental Faculty of the University and the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography

): 44 000
China China(Tashkurgan-Tajik Autonomous County and adjacent areas - 23,350 people (84% of the population of the county)): 41,028 (total in China, transl. 2000)
Russia Russia: 363 (2010)

resettlement

The areas of settlement of the Pamirs - the western, southern and eastern Pamirs, which merges with the Hindu Kush in the south - are high-mountainous narrow valleys with a rather harsh climate, almost never falling below 2,000 m above sea level and surrounded by steep ridges covered with eternal snows, the height of which in some places approaches 7,000 m. To the north of the Hindu Kush watershed, the valleys belong to the basin of the upper reaches of the Amu Darya (Upper Kokcha, Pyanj, Pamir, Vakhandarya). The eastern slopes of the Pamirs belong to the basin of the river. Yarkand, south of the Hindu Kush, the Indus basin begins, represented by the Kunar (Chitral) and Gilgit rivers. Administratively, this whole territory, which has long been an eclectic, but a single area, was divided between Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China as a result of expansion in the 19th century. Russian, British and Chinese empires and their satellites (Bukhara and Afghan emirates). As a result, the areas of many Pamir peoples were artificially divided.

Ethno-geographical units in the Pamirs are the historical regions: Shugnan, Rushan, Ishkashim, Vakhan, Munjan, Sarykol - in general, they initially coincided with the peoples formed in them. If, in terms of material and spiritual culture, the Pamirs, thanks to millennial mutual contacts, have become much closer to each other, then the study of their languages ​​shows that different Pamir peoples came out of at least four ancient Eastern Iranian communities, only remotely related to each other and brought to the Pamirs independently.

Geography and climate in places of settlement

The area of ​​Badakhshan as a whole - 108159 km², population 1.3 million people.

Tajik part of Badakhshan (Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region). - 64,100 km², 216,900 people. Most of the territory of GBAO is occupied by the highlands of the Eastern Pamirs (the highest point is Ismoil Somoni Peak, the former peak of Communism (7495 m)), because of which it is sometimes called the "Roof of the World". On the slopes of the mountain there are powerful firn fields and glaciers with a total area of ​​136 km².

To the west and northwest of the summit is the Pamir Firn Plateau, one of the longest alpine plateaus in the world. The plateau stretches from east to west for 12 km. The width of the plateau is 3 km. The lower point of the plateau is located at an altitude of 4700 m, the upper one - at an altitude of 6300 m.

Pamir-speaking peoples

The classification of the Pamir peoples is usually based on the linguistic principle.

Northern Pamirs

• Shugnano-Rushans- a group of peoples inhabiting adjacent valleys, speaking closely related dialect languages, which allows them to understand each other tolerably when communicating; often Shugnan is used as the inter-valley Shugnano-Rushan language.
  • Shugnans- Shugnan (Taj. Shughon, Shugn. Xuɣnůn) - part of the river valley. Panj in the region of Khorog, the valley of its right tributaries (Gunt, Shahdara, Bajuv). The right bank of the Pyanj River belongs to the Shugnan and Roshtkala districts of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left bank belongs to the Shignan district of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The leading ethnic group of the Pamirs, numbering approx. 110 thousand people, of which in Afghanistan, approx. 25 thousand
  • Rushantsy- Rushan (taj. Rӯshon, rush. Riẋůn), an area below Shugnan along the Pyanj at the confluence of the Bartang River. The right-bank part is located in the Rushan region of the GBAO of Tajikistan, the left-bank part is in the Shignan region of the Afghan province of Badakhshan. The total number is approx. 30 thousand people It also includes small adjacent groups with separate languages ​​and separate self-consciousness:
    • Khuftsy- Huf (taj. Huf, huf. xuf) southeast of Rushan;
    • Barthangians- the middle and upper reaches of the river. Bartang;
      • roshorvtsy- Roshorv (taj. Roshorv, rosh. Rōšōʹrv, self-named rašarviǰ) - the upper course of the Bartang.
• Sarykoltsy(Chinese 塔吉克语 Tǎjíkéyǔ"Tajiks") inhabit Sarykol (Uig. ساريكۆل , Chinese 色勒库尔 Sеlēiküěr) in the river valley. Tiznaf (Tashkurgan-Tajik Autonomous County) and the upper Yarkand in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. Number approx. 25 thousand people

Southern Pamirs

The Southern Pamirs are a relic population group south of Shugnan, speaking two closely related dialect languages:

• Ishkashim people- Ishkashim along the banks of the Panj (taj. Ishkoshim, ishk. Škošm): the village of Ryn in GBAO (Ishkashim district) and the village of Ishkashim in the eponymous region of Afghan Badakhshan. OK. 1500 people
• Sanglichians- river valley Varduj in Afghan Badakhshan, the left tributary of the Pyanj, with the main village of Sanglech. The number is critical (100-150 people). To the north of Sanglech, in the Zebak region, the Zebak language used to exist, which has now been completely replaced by Tajik (Dari).
• Wakhians- historically inhabit the Wakhan region (taj. Vakhon, vah. Wux˘), which includes the upper reaches of the Pyanj and its source Vakhandarya. The left bank of the Pyanj and the valley of the Vakhandarya (Wakhan corridor) belong to the Vakhan region of the Afghan Badakhshan, the right bank - to the Ishkashim region of the GBAO of Tajikistan. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. The Wakhans also settled widely south of the Hindu Kush - in the valleys of Hunza, Ishkoman, Shimshal (Gilgit-Baltistan) and the river. Yarkhun in Chitral (Pakistan), as well as in Chinese Xinjiang: Sarykol and on the river. Kilyan (west of Khotan). The total number of Vakhans is 65-70 thousand people.
• Munjanians(Dari منجی munǰi, munj. məndẓ̌i˘) inhabit the river valley. Munjan in the upper reaches of the river. Kokcha (region of Kuran and Munjan in Afghan Badakhshan). Number - approx. 4 thousand people
  • Yidga(Urdu یدغہ ‎ , yidga yiʹdəγa) - part of the Munjans who moved across the Hindu Kush range in the 18th century. in the Lutkuh valley of the Chitral region (Pakistan). Number - approx. 6 thousand people

Close and neighboring peoples

Tajik-speaking Pamirs

From the west, the valleys of the Pamir peoples surround the territories occupied by Tajiks - the speakers of the Badakhshan and Darvaz dialects of the Tajik language (Dari). The Badakhshan Tajiks are largely close to the Pamirs proper. In some areas, the Tajik language has supplanted the local Pamir languages ​​in historical time:

• Yumgan (dari یمگان , Yamgan, district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 18th century. (Shughni language)
• Zebak (Dari زیباک , district of the same name in the province of Badakhshan) - in the 20th century. (zebak language)

In addition, in the array of Pamir-speaking peoples there are Tajik-speaking groups of villages:

• Goron region (taj. Goron) on the river. Panj between Ishkashim and Shugnan (right bank in the Ishkashim district of GBAO)
• Right-bank Wakhan (4 villages).

neighboring nations

The Tajik language is for the Pamirs the language of religion (Ismailism), folklore, written literature, as well as a means of communication between various Pamir peoples speaking different languages.

In addition to the Tajik language, the Shughni language and, to some extent, the Wakhan language are common in communication between different nationalities.

The Shugnan language has been playing the role of the language of oral communication between the Pamirs for almost a long time.

On present stage there is an increased expansion of the Tajik language, which, for example, is actively replacing the Wakhan language from all areas of application, including the family sphere.

The Wakhan language, as a spoken language, occupies a dominant position in the entire Wakhan. Communication between the Vakhans and the Tajik-speaking population of Vakhan, as well as the Vakhans and Ishkashims, is usually conducted in the Vakhan language.

For some Pamir peoples living in China, the language of interethnic communication is Uighur and Chinese. In Afghanistan, this is Dari and, to a lesser extent, Pashto. According to the Constitution of Afghanistan, the Pamir languages ​​\u200b\u200bare the official languages ​​in places where the Pamirs are densely populated.

Ethnogenesis and history

The origin of the Pamirs speaking heterogeneous Eastern Iranian languages ​​is associated with the expansion of the nomadic Saks, which, in all likelihood, took place in several waves, in different ways, and various Iranian-speaking communities participated in the settlement of the Pamirs, which emerged even outside the region. One of them, the Pravakhans, was originally close to the Saks of Khotan and Kashgar and penetrated into the Wakhan, apparently from the east - from the Alai Valley. In historical times, the Kirghiz came to the Pamirs along the same route. Praishkashims formed in the Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan and penetrated here from the southwest. The Munjan language shows the greatest affinity with the Bactrian language and more distant with Pashto. Probably, the Munjans are a remnant of the Bactrian community, who survived in the mountains like the Yaghnobis - the remnants of the Sogdians. The North Pamir community, which broke up into the Vanj, Yazgulyam and Shugnan-Rushans, judging by the dialect division, penetrated the Pamir from the west along the Pyanj and its expansion ended in Shugnan. Approximate dates for the beginning of the Iranianization of the region (according to linguistic data and archaeological excavations of the Saka burial grounds) - VII-VI centuries. BC e. The earliest waves are Pravakhans and Praishkashims. It should be noted that initially the Pamirs inhabited only the Pyanj basin and its tributaries. The expansion of the Sarykol people into Xinjiang, the Yidga and the Wakhans into the Indus Valley belong to a later era.

Since ancient times, probably long before Iranianization, the Pamir Mountains were one of the main suppliers of lapis lazuli and ruby ​​for the ancient world. Nevertheless, the life of the ancient Pamirs remained very closed. The isolation of the Pamirs was interrupted starting from the 2nd century BC. BC e., when, with the establishment of Central Asian-Chinese relations through the Pyanj valley, caravan trade was established, which was called the Great Silk Road (in the form of its southern segment). Numerous attempts to conquer the Pamirs by world empires (Sassanids, Turks, Chinese, Arabs, Mongols, Timurids, etc.) either failed or ended only in temporary successes and the establishment of nominal dependence on external power. In fact, until the 19th century the Pamir regions were independent or semi-independent principalities.

According to studies of the Soviet and post-Soviet period, outside outside the Gorno-Badakhshan region (GBAO), representatives of the Pamir peoples from GBAO call themselves "Pamir Tajiks" .

Regarding ethnic self-identification outside GBAO, for example, among labor migrants in the Russian Federation, two types of self-identification are characteristic:

1. for contacts with government bodies(law enforcement and migration agencies) - presented by Tajiks according to passport data, based on considerations of nationality (Tajiks are citizens of Tajikistan) and partially ethnic background(85% of the Pamirs did not consider themselves Tajiks in the survey);
2. among compatriots (natives of GBAO) - exclusively "Pamirs", with a specification of the nationality (Rushans, Vakhans, Ishkashims, etc.).

According to an anonymous survey of Pamirs conducted in Tajikistan by non-identified representatives of the Memorial NGO, the Tajik authorities are implementing a policy of imposing the image of a “Tajikist”, which means the unification of all citizens of Tajikistan, regardless of nationality, under the generalized concept of Tajik in ethnic terms. According to the respondents, the Pamirs refuse to recognize themselves as Tajiks.

Researchers of ethnic self-identification and ethnicity of the peoples of the Pamirs note that there is no unequivocal answer to the question of the ethnicity of the Pamirs, which is explained by both objective and subjective circumstances. In their opinion, objectively, the ethnic self-consciousness of the Pamirs does not quite fit into the framework of the accepted criteria. Subjective circumstances arose after the fact that, for ideological reasons, the ethnic characteristics of the peoples of the Pamirs are deliberately denied. They argue that for the Pamirs, the concepts of nationality and ethnicity are not equivalent.

Settlement and housing

A specific habitat with a complex relief was the most important natural and geographical factor in the construction of settlements and the formation of the architecture of this nation. In addition to the specific relief, folk architecture was influenced by a dry, contrasting climate. The long warm period of the year is characterized by an almost complete absence of precipitation and sharp diurnal temperature fluctuations. The cold period is set in November and lasts until April. The minimum temperature in winter is -30, the maximum in summer is +35. The temperature regime also varies with altitude. The abundance of water sources provides irrigated agriculture, and the meadows in the side gorges at an altitude of more than 3000 m - distant pasture cattle breeding. (Mamadnazarov 1977: 7-8) Pronounced building traditions determine the regional character of settlements, estates and residential buildings. When choosing a settlement site, the possibility of rockfalls, snow avalanches and flood waters was taken into account. The traditional form of settlement of the Pamirs is a village. With a large amount of land suitable for agriculture, dwellings in the countryside are located freely, each house has a yard of a larger or smaller size and very often vegetable gardens and small plots of fields.

There are villages in which dwellings are located in several groups at a considerable distance from each other, creating the impression of separate farmsteads connected to each other by common ditches, between which sections of fields and gardens stretch almost continuously. Closely related families usually live in such farms. If the village is located in an inconvenient place for agriculture, then the location of the dwellings is very concentrated. There are almost no courtyards in such a village, and the dwellings are located in steps along the mountainside. Such trees are usually found in narrow mountain gorges. The water supply of the villages is different. According to the sources of supply and use of water, villages can be divided into three categories: 1 - villages using water from mountain springs; 2 - using water mainly from turbulent mountain streams and rivers; and 3 - using very long ditches coming from afar with a more or less slow flow of water. The dwelling of the Pamirs, despite the seeming uniformity, however, presents very significant differences, depending on natural building resources, climate, household skills, and the social and property status of its owner. Usually the dwelling is one-story, but if it is located on a steep slope, then sometimes a barn is arranged below. An attached second floor is very rare in larger and more affluent homes. The building material is usually the earth (loess or clay), from which the walls are made. In villages located in narrow gorges on rocky soil, where the loess is expensive and inaccessible, most of the dwellings and all the outbuildings are made of stones held together with clay. The basis for the roof is several logs laid on the walls, on which a flooring of poles is laid, covered with earth and clay from above. From the inside of the building, the roof is supported by pillars. The dwelling is usually divided into winter and summer premises. The winter part - hona - is a square or rectangular room, most of the floor of which is raised in the form of a platform or adobe bunks, which serve for sleeping, seating, etc. covered with wooden grating. A small door leads to the hona either from the street or courtyard, or from the summer room. A window for letting in light is a hole in the wall, which usually has a wooden sash.

Until the 1930s, there were almost no glazed windows in mountain villages. To heat the premises, a fire pit was built, which is used for baking bread (flat cakes). Food is cooked in the hearth, which is a recess in the form of a cone cut off from the top and side, with smooth walls and a wider bottom. A fire is kindled at the bottom of the recess, and a flat, wide cauldron is placed on top. Why is it arranged either in a special elevation in the corner or along one of the walls, or in the aisle, thicker than the bunks. Young cattle and poultry are kept in the khona in winter, for which a special room is arranged on the side of the entrance, closed by a door. It is necessary to mention the so-called “summers”, where livestock is driven away for the summer and where most of the women of the village with small children live for several summer months, storing dairy products for future use. For housing there are small huts made of stones, often not plastered over and not insulated. Almost every village has a mosque, except for the smallest ones (Ginzburg, 1937: 17-24).

The houses of the Pamirs are not like the dwellings of other peoples. Their device remains unchanged for many centuries, passing from generation to generation. Each architectural element of the Pamir house has its own esoteric meaning - pre-Islamic and Islamic. Each element of the house is important in a person's life. The house embodies the whole universe, reflecting the divine essence of man and the harmony of his relationship with nature. The support of the Pamir house are 5 pillars. They are named after 5 saints: Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Pillar Muhammad - the main one in the house. This is a symbol of faith, male power, the eternity of the world and the inviolability of the house. Beside him, a newborn boy is placed in the cradle. The Fatima pillar is a symbol of purity, the keeper of the hearth. During the wedding, near this pillar, the bride is dressed and decorated so that she is as beautiful as Fatima. Ali's pillar is a symbol of friendship, love, fidelity, agreements. When the groom brings the bride to his house, they are seated near this pillar so that their family life is full of happiness and healthy children are born to them. The Hassan pillar serves the earth and protects it, taking care of its prosperity. Therefore, it is longer than other pillars and is in direct contact with the ground. The pillar of Hussein is a symbol of light and fire. Prayers, religious texts are read near it, prayers are performed and the ceremony of lighting a candle (“charogravshan”) is performed after the death of a person. The four-step arch of the house - "chorkhona", symbolizes 4 elements: earth, water, wind, fire.

Marriage and family

The most archaic family form among the Pamirs was a large patriarchal family based on the principles of agnatic kinship. The non-separation of the economy was the basis for the existence of a large family, which in turn was based on the joint ownership of land. At the head of such a family was an elder who disposed of all property, the distribution of work in the family and other matters. Within the family, patriarchal relations dominated, the younger unquestioningly obeyed the elders, and all together the elder. However, with the penetration of commodity-money relations into the settlement areas of the Pamirs, the communal way of life was undermined, which led to the disintegration of large patriarchal families. The patriarchal family was replaced by a monogamous family, which still retained patriarchal relations to one degree or another.

With the establishment of Islam, the superiority of men over women was legalized. According to Sharia law, the husband had an advantage in the matter of inheritance, as a witness, the husband's right to divorce was legalized. In fact, the position of a woman in the family depended on the degree of her participation in production, rural labor, therefore, in the mountainous regions, where a woman took a greater part in productive activities, her position was relatively freer. Family marriages played a significant role among the Pamirs; they were also stimulated for economic reasons. Cousin marriages were especially favored, mainly marriages to the daughter of the mother's brother and the daughter of the father's brother.

Among the Pamirs, the first ceremony associated with marriage was matchmaking. The next stage of the marriage was the engagement. After the matchmaking and engagement, the bride and groom begin to hide from their new relatives. During the year, the entire dowry is collected and paid to the bride's father, and relatives help the groom's father to collect it. Kalym was mainly of a natural character. Marriage is matrilocal (Kislyakov 1951: 7-12). As traces of the matrilocality of marriage, the custom remains that the bride, after the wedding, stays in her husband's house for only 3-4 days, and then returns to her father's house and the actual marriage begins here. (Peshchereva 1947: 48)