MUSICAL FORMS

No piece of music can exist without form. Therefore, knowledge of musical forms will give a clearer idea of ​​the works.

Motive - intonation-semantic indivisible structure of musical speech.

The unity of the sounds of the motive is determined by:

General line of melodic movement

The desire of the sound of the motive to the supporting, most significant sound

One harmony or coherent harmonic sequence

musical phrase is called a relatively closed construction, consisting of two or more motifs.

The unity of a phrase is determined by:

Commonality of melodic movement and common climax

Lado-harmonic connections

The rhythmic-syntactic structure of the phrase: a / periodicity " Volga river flows»b/ association« Solar Circle" c/ crushing "Captain Grand's Song"» g/crushing with unification "Buchenwald alarm"

Music theme - an initial statement of the main, essential features artistic image in music. The main features of the artistic image are usually given at the beginning of the work, but the fully artistic image is embodied in the process of developing the content. The end of the topic can be judged by the following signs:

PERIOD

(from Greek -circulation, a period of time covering a completed process)

Period is called a complete one-part form of presentation of the theme of a homophonic warehouse. The period is divided into two, rarely three offers. 1st offer ( A) – intonationally unstable, 2nd sentence (A or V) - stable, thanks to which they are connected for the listener into one whole ( A). Period types:

Repeated (square) - a period of two sentences that are thematically similar but differ in cadences.

single structure- the process of intonational development takes place within the framework of a single rhythmic-syntactic structure.

Modulating- ends in a different key and there is a need for further development.

Difficult - repeated period, each sentence of which is divided into two constructions ( Chaikovsky. "Nocturne in C sharp minor)

Addition and extension- is called a construction that goes beyond the period. Often the addition is a repetition of the last construction of the period.

PARTS FUNCTIONS:

Introduction and conclusion: the introduction and conclusion are closely related to vocal genres: song, romance, aria, because assume two parts: the accompaniment part, which belongs to the introduction with the conclusion, and the voice part, which enters later and ends earlier. From the field of vocal genres, the introduction and conclusion passed into instrumental music. There are various types intros:

The intro may consist of just a few chords or one chord. Often in such an introduction, the tonality, tempo, metro-rhythm and texture of the piece are set.

The introduction introduces a powerful theme. Sometimes she's on her own ("Is it a day reigns" Tchaikovsky), sometimes it is a theme that will be further outlined in a part of a voice or instrument (“ I opened the window" Tchaikovsky, "Symphony No. 6") Tchaikovsky - the theme of the introduction sounds further in the main part, Beethoven's "Symphony No. 5" - as an epigraph).

The conclusion most often repeats the introduction and “frames” the work with it. Sometimes it contrasts with the introduction (“Does the Day Reign” by Tchaikovsky)

exposition(lat. - presentation, explanation, display) : - called the initial presentation of one or more themes of the work. It usually begins in the main key, but may end in one of the secondary keys. The exposition can be repeated (sonatas and symphonies by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven).

Reprise: repetition of the theme or themes of the exposition. Reprisal is of great importance in music, because in an exact reprise, the main features of the artistic image are affirmed. However, when the theme or themes of the exposition are repeated in the recapitulation, they are perceived somewhat differently. Reprises can be changed:

The theme given in the exposition can become brighter and more dynamic in the reprise. Such a repetition is called dynamic.(Chopin. "Nocturne" No. 13, C minor)

The reprise may be abbreviated("Prelude" in D-flat major by Chopin) or extended(“Melody for Violin and Piano”, Op. 42, No. 3 by Tchaikovsky)

- mirror a reprise is called, in which the themes of the exposition are presented in such a way that the second theme comes first, then the first (Schubert's "Shelter"). A reprise of one theme, written in the form of a period, can also be mirrored. Then the second sentence appears in the reprise, then the first sentence (Schumann's Album Leaf from the Motley Leaves cycle, Op. 99).

Development: the process of intonational development permeates all works from the first to the last note, constructions in which changes in the themes of the exposition occur are called thematic development. Analyzing the thematic development, we must establish: 1/ what themes are developing, 2/ what is the tonal development plan, 3/ what is the change in the theme - what new ones does it acquire.

Episode: called a new theme that arises in the process of cross-cutting development

Code: called the final stage of the end-to-end development of the work. The coda appears if the development has not been exhausted in the previous parts of the musical form:

A coda can be of a developmental type: the theme in it can be produced partially or even completely in different keys, where the main key is strengthened by multiple cadences (Beethoven Sonata, Op. 27, No. 2, C-sharp minor, finale)

At the end, the theme of the episode can be used (Beethoven's "Sonata" op. 2, no. 3, C major, part 2). The code has a great figurative and semantic meaning. (Tchaikovsky's "Symphony" No. 5, finale, in which the themes of the introduction and the main part of the first movement appear in major and in a very emphasized march appearance).

Intermediate and connecting constructions: there are constructions, the role of which in the process of development is less significant, but such constructions have a great formative value, and often a great figurative and semantic function:

Interlude (lat. inter - between)- entry and postlude (lat.post -after)- conclusion. Their role is very important, for example, when it contains, as it were, a statement “from the author”, complementing the part of the solo voice or instrument in the accompaniment (“Reconciliation” by Tchaikovsky). Connecting constructions prepare the appearance of a reprise or a new theme. These are the connecting parts in sonata form.

SIMPLE FORM

The shape is called simple when each part of the work is period. A simple form might be one-part, two-part, three-part.

One-part is called a simple form containing a presentation within a period. Very typical for Russian folk songs (couplet form -1) a + a1 + a 2+ a3;

2) a + a1 + b + b1; a + a1; 3) a single structure). The one-part form acquired great importance in small instrumental pieces (miniatures) in the musical literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. Many preludes by Chopin, Scriabin, Lyadov, Shostakovich, Kabalevsky are presented in the form of a period. Among them, the repeated period of the square structure is extremely rare (Chopin's "Prelude" in A major). Usually the second sentence is extended, contains an intense increase, a climax. Expansion example - Tchaikovsky " morning prayer from "Children's Album"

SIMPLE TWO-HOUR FORM

Simple two-part form called a form. The first part of which represents the theme of the work, set out in the form period , and the second part contains either a new theme or a development of the theme of the first part: A + A or A + B. Exists two-part reprise form: A + B + A, where last period must be less than the initial period (8 + 8 + 4), a reprise in this form is not independent part the whole building. The simple two-part reprise form became widespread in classical music of the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in the instrumental genre. This form can also be found in small pieces ( some Schubert landlers), and as a form of part of a larger work, especially in the themes of the variation cycle ( theme of the 1st movement of the sonata in A major by Mozart) or in romances ( "The Youth and the Maiden" by Dargomyzhsky, "That the Heart is so Disturbed" by Khrennikov).

In idle two-part form the middle can be written not in the form of a period, but be developing ( Schubert "Lendler" B major). An example would be Tchaikovsky's Organ Grinder from the Children's Album. The two-part form is often found in songs in which the verse and chorus are independent parts. In a verse song with a chorus, the verse and chorus usually contain different, but not contrasting, themes. In romances, the two-part form usually has a developing second part; in this genre it is not a chorus (“ Do not tempt" Glinka, "Marmot" by Beethoven).

Two-part is typical for small dance pieces ( some waltzes by Schubert, "Ukrainian Cossack" by Dargomyzhsky - like a song with a chorus and a chorus), as well as a non-dance warehouse- "Prelude" op. 57, No. 1 Lyadova. Each part can be repeated: A B. A simple two-part form can be like the form of a part of a larger composition.

SIMPLE THREE-PART FORM

A simple three-part form a form is called, the first part of which contains a statement of the theme of the work; the second part is a construction that develops this topic, or a presentation of a new topic; the third part is a reprise: A + B + A, where the middle part is developing and is not a period. The scales of the middle part can be quite different: a/ the middle part is equal to the extreme parts (8+ 8+ 8), b/ the middle part is shorter than the extreme parts (8+ 6+ 8), c/ the middle part is longer (8+ 10+ 8). The third part - a reprise - maybe literal repetition the first part. But the repetition is sometimes not exact: the theme is changed (varied), expanded. Of particular note dynamic reprise- presentation of the original theme at a higher dynamic level, in a more complex texture or in a more harmonic lighting. Often this achieves the most significant climax of the entire work (“Does the Day Reign” by Tchaikovsky).

The independence of the first part and the connectedness of the developing middle part with the reprise is emphasized by the fact that the first part is repeated separately, and the second and third together:

A In A. following the reprise, a coda may occur. May have an introduction and a conclusion. In vocal music, this form is used in romances, arias, where the middle part is developing (“For the shores of the distant homeland” Borodin), are less common with a contrasting part (Aria of the Snow Maiden by Rimsky-Korsakov)).

The introduction and conclusion, set out in the accompaniment part, usually frame the main sections. In instrumental music, a simple three-part form is found in dance and song genres, etudes (“Waltzes” by Schubert, some Mazurkas by Chopin, “Song of the Lark” by Tchaikovsky, “Dreams” by Schumann, etudes by Chopin, Scriabin).

A simple three-part form is used as a form of a larger composition.

Complex three-part form

Complex three-part form a three-part form is called, the first part of which is written in a simple two-part or three-part form, the second part either has the same structure or a number of open constructions, and the third part is a reprise. Thematically, the first and second parts are usually sharply contrast each other.

First part spelled in main key. Second part for the most part spelled in of the same name or subdominant tone.(Sometimes it takes place in the main key " Scherzo" of Beethoven's Third Symphony).

The third part - reprise - a literal or modified repetition of the first part. The literal reprise is often not written out in the notes, but is indicated D, C., i.e.Da capo . Modification in recapitulation is often associated with the complication of texture (variation- Sonata No. 4, Part 2 by Beethoven). Sometimes meet abbreviated reprises ( Prelude No. 15; Mazurkas No. 1, 2 Chopin), which contain only one period of the first part of the play. At the conclusion of the form sometimes takes place code. This form is widespread in the instrumental music of the dance genre (comparison of two dances, where the second part is called - trio, because performed with three instruments), march (marching, solemn, mourning). Works of a non-dance genre, which are mainly based on a contrasting comparison of two images. Often they have a program name: P. Tchaikovsky "The Seasons": "On the troika", "U stove" or genre designation - nocturne, barcarolle. This form is found in the slow parts of the sonata cycle.

In vocal works, a complex three-part form is much less common than in instrumental ones ( M. Glinka "I remember a wonderful moment").

Complex two-part form

Complex two-part form such a form is called in which both parts or one of the two are stated in a simple two-part or three-part form.

Distinguishes this form from the complex three-part lack of reprise.

In instrumental music, this form is extremely rare ( F.Chopin. "Nocturne", op. 15, G minor). In vocal music, this form is found in those works where the development of content is based on a contrasting juxtaposition of two themes and a reprise is not required or even unacceptable. Romances have this form, for example. “How long have you bloomed luxuriously with a rose” M. Glinka, “On the fields yellow” by P. Tchaikovsky. A complex two-part form is sometimes found in the songs of Soviet composers - "Hymn of Democratic Youth" by A. Novikov(the first movement is in B-flat minor - one-part; the second movement is in B-flat major: a simple three-part form).

Rondo

Rondo called a multi-part form based on holding one topic at least 3 times and comparing it with different episodes:

A B A C A

Word "rondo" means circle, round dance.

At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, one of the earliest types of the rondo form developed. It was widely used in the work of French harpsichord composers.

Fr. Couperin, J. Rameau, Daken. The main features of this form:

1). Unlimited Episodes

2). The contrast of the theme and episodes is negligible

3). The topic is written in the form of a period, episodes are no more complicated than a period

4). Characterized by closed parts

5). The theme is always held in the main key, the episodes are diatonic. kinship

The rondo of French harpsichordists is commonly referred to as couplet rondo. Its theme is refrain and the episodes couplets. In this form, many program plays, portrait sketches ("The Reapers", "Sister Monica" by Couperin, "The Hen" by Rameau, "The Cuckoo" by Daken).

In the works of the Viennese classics - Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven - the form of the so-called "classical rondo" was widely developed. Its characteristic features are: 1) the number of episodes is limited to two (rarely three); 2) one of the episodes (most often the second) contrasts with the theme; 3) the theme is written in a simple 2-part or 3-part form; the variation of the theme during its secondary appearances is typical; 4) episodes are also sometimes written in 2-part or 3-part form ( finale of Sonata No. 7, D major, Haydn); 5) there is often a coda built on the intonations of the theme and on the intonations of the contrasting episode; 6) the tonal plan of the shape of the rosary: subject- in the main tone, contrast episode- in the same name or subdominant, low-contrast episode- in the dominant key, sometimes - in the key of the VI degree (with the main major key). In the form of a rondo, some finals of sonata cycles, individual pieces, often called rondos, are written. Sometimes this form can be found in an opera aria ( "Figaro's Aria" from the opera "The Marriage of Figaro" by Mozart).

In the work of composers of the 19th century (in particular, Schumann), the rondo form acquires new features:

1). The number of episodes is increasing;

2). The degree of contrast between the theme and various episodes increases;

3). The closeness of the contrasting parts creates a large multi-part shape

(1 part of Schumann's Vienna Carnival)

4). The tonal plan becomes more complicated, the tonalities of a more distant

kinship; there are themes ending in modulation. Holding

of the same episode in different keys ("Novelette",

op. 21, No. 1, Schumann)

In the work of Russian classics and Soviet composers, there are very diverse types of rondo. First of all, it is necessary to highlight the bright examples of this form in vocal music- in works based on contrasting comparisons of several themes with the dominance of one - the main one. Among them are Dargomyzhsky's famous romances "Night Marshmallow", "Song of the Fish", "Weddings"; Borodin "Sleeping Princess". Glinka has some opera arias in the form of rondos - Antonida's rondo from the opera "Ivan Susanin", Farlaf's rondo from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila", the romances "Night Zephyr", "Doubt" (there is no change in the musical text, only the verbal text changes).

Symphonic and chamber works: " Waltz Fantasy" by Glinka, finale of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4, scherzo from Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7, finale of the cello sonata, waltz from Prokofiev's Pioneer Suite "Winter Campfire"».

Variations

Variations called a form containing a presentation of the topic and a number of its modified repetitions.

Variations on basso ostinato

A variational form is called, the invariable basis of which is a phrase repeated many times in the lower voice. And the upper voices melodically and rhythmically develop freely. (Chacons, passacaglia in the work of J.S. Bach, G. Handel).

Variations on so prano ostinato

They call it a variational form. The invariable basis of which is a phrase repeated many times in the upper voice. And the lower voices melodically and rhythmically develop freely.

This type of variation was used by Russian composers in vocal works on a folk theme, which remained unchanged.

Classic Variations

The basis of the classic variations is subject, stated more often in a 2-part reprise form, and a number of variations. The theme in variations is developed with the help of melodic figuration. The rhythmic pattern changes, sometimes the meter and tempo change. Harmony and form of the theme remains unchanged. All variations are presented in one - main tone. In the middle, a variation or group of variations arises - in of the same name tonality. It is a means of creating contrast in the development of one theme song. This form is widely used in the works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. Sometimes there are large, significant works - "32 Variations" by Beethoven.

Double variations

Double variations are called variations on two themes. These themes are presented at the beginning of the work, opposing each other. Then they also vary sequentially. (Symphony No. 5, part 2 by Beethoven; Symphony No. 103 "With tremolo timpani", part 2 by Haydn; "Kamarinskaya" by Glinka).

The variational form and variational method of development occupies a significant place in Russian music. In Russian folk song the variational form arises as a result of a modified repetition of the melody in subsequent verses.

"MAIN MUSICAL FORMS IN THE PROGRAM

PIANO CLASS DMSh and DSHI "

Methodical work

Piano teacher at Yegorievsk Children's Art School

Engalycheva Irina Alekseevna

“By the concreteness of the musical form one must understand the ability of music to express and activate vital content merging with the image, idea and feeling"

S. Feinberg

From the first grade, the teacher requires the student to meaningfully fulfill the program. He in plain language explains the content of the work to the child, carefully works on technique, shades, phrases. But he brings him to the concept of musical form later.

Very often, high school students cannot determine the boundaries of exposition, development, reprise in the sonata they perform, they are not familiar with the principle of constructing a fugue. That is why they have breakdowns and failures at concerts, exams and tests.

One of the common mistakes is the performance by the student of the side part of the sonata allegro in the reprise in the key of the exposition. Or another mistake: forgetting some place in the middle or at the end of the invention, the student starts playing the piece from the very beginning instead of returning and repeating the section of the form where it happened. The teacher explains such mistakes by stage excitement. But in fact, one of the important reasons for the "disintegration" of the form on the stage is the student's ignorance of issues related to the regularities of the structure of a musical work.

The issues of studying the musical form in the senior and junior classes have their own specifics, due to the difference in age and level of training. Student lower grades must know such musical terms as "caesura", "phrase", "reprise", "sequence", "climax", etc. Then, in the middle and upper grades, knowledge is deepened and refined.

From the very beginning, the child must imagine that the primary semantic cell of music is a phrase. Explaining the structure of a particular musical phrase, the teacher involuntarily conducts an analysis: he helps the student to find a logical accent in it, traces the direction of the melodic line, analyzes the interval composition. The brightest sound is usually the climactic sound, but you can approach it in different ways. If the course of the melody is smooth, then the crescendo will be smooth, gradual. If the climax is taken abruptly, then a particularly expressive singing of this interval is required. When there are two bright points in a phrase, then you need to divide it into smaller constructions and work them out. If the child does not hear this and plays monotonously, you can ask him to sing this segment, highlighting expressively significant sounds with his voice. With false singing, you can help him by playing along on the instrument, or you can sing this segment with him, showing the culminating sounds with the movement of your hand up.

For clarity, you need to make him draw a wavy line with a colored pencil that imitates the movement of this passage. In this case, it is more bold to highlight the key points.

This must be done in order to direct the student's auditory attention to meaningfully expressive performance. In this case, not only the auditory centers will be involved, but also the motor and visual centers.

Having achieved relatively bright performance one musical phrase, the teacher leads the student further. The second, third phrase, etc. are worked out in the same way. At the next stage of work, we combine several phrases into one whole construction with a single common center - the climax. For comparison, a teacher can perform a piece smoothly, safely, but boringly (without a climax), and then perform it brightly, with enthusiasm. This will lay in the imagination of the student an idea of ​​​​the musical image of the culmination. For clarity, together with the student, you can depict the structure of the piece being performed with wavy lines, painting the climax points with brighter colors.

When working with students on a piece of music, you need to keep in mind that the ultimate goal of learning it is a complete and expressive performance. Therefore, in the process of work, the teacher should pay attention to the students' understanding of the integrity, harmony of the form of the work being performed. It is very important not to make corrections as the piece is being played. The corrected episode violates the law of form established by the author. If the teacher is demanding from the very beginning in this regard, then the student will also work on embracing the whole: at first he will make fewer mistakes, and then he will achieve error-free execution.

An important factor executive process is the relationship between the part and the whole. It is necessary to teach the child to immediately “enter the image” of the work being performed, since the first phrase determines the character and mood of the entire work. To do this, it is useful for him to sing the first bars of the piece to himself before the start of the performance.

In the process of performance, the student must also ensure that the climax points do not “fall off”. To do this, it is necessary to teach the student to calculate the sound pattern so that a common large wave is formed, leading to the main climax. Then executable work will be holistic and logically built.

However, one should not forget that the blurred end of the work destroys general impression from execution. The larger the form, the more difficult it is to cover it as a whole. Therefore, it is necessary to teach the student to calculate his strength in such a way that he can convey the image of the performed work from beginning to end. Then his performance will create a single and complete impression.

What is a musical form? “Musical form is the structure of a musical work. It is determined by the content of each specific work, is created in unity with the content and is characterized by the interaction of all specific sound elements distributed in time.

With all the richness of the forms of music, they are divided into homophonic And in lyphonic. Homophonic forms are those where one voice is dominant. And polyphonic are forms in which all voices are melodically equal and independent.

The form of each work is individual and unique. However, the laws and rules for the formation of form have common features in the structure. Each part has its own function. There are six main functions in the form: introduction, presentation of the topic / topics, connecting part, middle, reprise and conclusion.

The smallest form expressing a relatively complete thought is period.

The main major sections of the period are called proposals. The sentences of the periods are divided into smaller constructions - phrases. A phrase can be distinguished by meaning and, in addition, it is rhythmically isolated (a sign of a phrase is two strong beats). The phrase can be indivisible or subdivided into one-bar constructions - motives.

Periods.

A period that begins and ends in the same key is called monophonic. (For example, the first period of "Adagio" by D. Steibelt, the first period of "Mazurka" by A. Grechaninov).

A period that begins in one key and ends in another is called modulating. (For example, the first period of "The Lark" by M. Glinka - the beginning - e-moll, the end - G-dur. the first period of I. Bach " Minuet" d-moll - the beginning - d-moll, the end F-dur).

There are periods square And non-square buildings. The main variants of squareness are expressed in the four-bar parts: the first sentence is 4 (or 8 bars) and the second sentence is 4 (or 8 bars) (I. Bach "Minuet" d-moll in the 1st period, both sentences are 4 bars each AND . Bach "Minuet" G-dur in the first period, each sentence of 8 measures)

There are periods of 4 measures (2 + 2), where each measure can be taken as two (the first period of Philip's "Lullaby", the first period of "Rain" by S. Maykapar). An example of a period of non-square structure is the first periods of the plays "In the Land of the Dwarfs" by Rowley (4 + 5) and "Chorus" by P. Tchaikovsky (5 + 7).

There are periods repeated And non-repeated buildings. On the example of Tchaikovsky's plays "Polka", " New doll It is clear that the 2nd sentence is built on the repetition of the material of the first one. These two periods of rebuilding. And the second sentences of "Minuet" in d-moll by I. Bach and "December" by P. Tchaikovsky are built on new material. These are periods of non-repetition.

Periods ending in a sustained cadence are called closed(A. Maykapar "In the kindergarten", D. Kabalevsky "Clowns") . If at the end of the period the cadence is unstable, then such a period is called open.(B. Pechersky "Sleepy doll").

There are extended and shortened periods. At extended periods, the 2nd sentence is increased - the first periods of P. Tchaikovsky's plays "June" and "January". The abbreviation of the second sentence is used less frequently, due to the fact that it has more logical weight as a completion of the form.

A period can act as an independent form (F. Chopin "Prelude" A-dur"), and also be an integral part of a musical form (see the examples listed below).

Simple two-part form

A form consisting of two periods is called simple two-part. It is subdivided into reprise And non-reprisal. In the reprise two-part form, the second part must necessarily have a repetition of one of the sentences of the first part. (D. Shteibelt "Adagio" - the second sentence of the first part is repeated in the second part). In non-reprise two-part forms, there are no repetitions in the second part. (I. Bach "Little Prelude in g-moll").

Simple three-part form

A simple three-part form is a form that consists of three periods, where the first and third parts are built on the same material. The middle part can be contrast And non-contrasting. In three-part forms, the middle can contrast with the extreme parts in various respects - tonality, mode, register, timbre, texture, except for the theme. This - non-contrast form. (P. Tchaikovsky "March wooden soldiers”, R. Schumann “The Bold Rider”). IN contrast In the same form, the middle is based on a new theme that contrasts with the extreme parts (D. Shostakovich “March”.

There are also double three-part forms in which the second and third parts are repeated, and together. (E. Grieg "Dance of the Elves", "Melody a-moll".

Complex three-part form

In this form, each part is a simple form (two or three-part). The second part in this form is of two types:

A) trio type- for all expressive means (melody, harmony, modulations, textures), this part is simpler than the extreme parts. (P. Tchaikovsky "Waltz" from the "Children's Album", J. Haydn "Sonata G-dur" part 2).

b) episode type- there is no clear form. Freer development (many modulations, sequences, unstable harmonies) (P. Tchaikovsky "May").

Rondo

Rondo called such a form in which the same topic is held at least three times, and between its holdings are placed parts of a different content, most often - new. The recurring theme is called refrain or main party. The parts located between the main parties are called episodes.

You can consider the structure of this form on the example of "Rondo" by R. Gliere. It begins with a refrain written in the form of a period, which ends in a dominant key (8 measures). Then the first episode takes place, built on the material of the main party. It is written in a different register, more tense in character and more unstable (8 bars). The episode is again followed by a refrain (8 measures), which smoothly passes into the second episode, which is built on completely different material and is more contrasting with the first episode and the refrain. It changes rhythm, texture, tonality. The Rondo ends with a refrain in the main key.

The rondo form refers to compositions of large form. Rondo can be both an independent work and part of a cycle.

Variations

Traditional cycles occupy a prominent place among large-scale works. They combine elements of both large and small forms. The purpose of the variational cycle is achieved by thematic unity. Of great importance are the caesuras between individual variations, which separate them, thereby crushing or enlarging the form.

There are variations strict And free. Strict variations are interconnected by tonality and thematic unity. In the program of the music school, we mainly encounter the form of strict variations (D. Kabalevsky “Light Variations on a Slovak Folk Song”).

SONATA FORM

A sonata is a form based on the opposition of two themes, which, when first presented, contrast both thematically and tonally, and after development, both are repeated in the main key.

Sonata form (sonata allegro) consists of three parts: exposure, development And reprises.

IN exposure two opposing themes are presented - home And side. The main part is written in the main key. Between the main and secondary theme there is a construction called binding party. This party is based on the main material and is subject to development and transformation. It performs a connecting role, since it contains modulation into the key of a side part. In the theme of the side part, the lines of contrast to the previous music are clearly expressed. From the side of harmony, the most important thing is that the side part in the exposition takes place: in major keys - in the key of the dominant (W. Mozart "Sonata C-dur" m.p. - C-dur, p.p. - G-dur ), and in minor keys - in a parallel major. (J. Haydn "Sonata e-moll" g.p -, e-moll p.p. - G-dur). last section exposure - final the consignment. It serves as a complement to the side one and, as a rule, proceeds in its key.

The second part of the sonata allegro - development. It is characterized by holding short turns of exposition themes obtained as a result of isolation, modulating sequences and elements of polyphony. From the harmonic side, the general tonal instability and avoidance of the main tonality are important.

The last part of the sonata allegro - reprise. It is the result of development. It repeats all the exposition material in the same order, but with tonal changes. The connecting part is rearranged in such a way as to remain in the main key, and the side and final parts are transposed into it.

Using the example of J. Haydn's Sonata D-dur, let's consider the structure of a sonata allegro. The exposition begins with a presentation of the main part in the main key. It is written in the form of a period (8 bars). Her character is determined and persistent. It is followed by a connecting part (8 measures), which is written in the same key and is similar in character to the main one. In its last measures, a dominant (A-dur) tonality appears. From the 17th measure, a side part begins, which noticeably exceeds the size of the main part (18 measures) and consists of two different themes. Its first theme, refined and elegant in character, is performed on R. The second theme of the side part is decisive and more intense. In character, it resembles the previous exposition material and ends with sweeping arpeggiated chords in the key of the dominant. The final part (6 measures) establishes the dominant key. The development is small in scope (20 cycles). All the topics of the exposition are given here in abbreviated form. The reduction of development is due to the imposition of some topics on others (in a polyphonic combination). The reprise begins main party, but her second sentence is increased due to the introduction of the second element of the side part into it. The connecting part, on the contrary, is reduced in comparison with the exposition (6 measures). It ends in a dominant key. The side part of the reprise begins very interestingly: the key of the dominant continues in the upper voice, and the main key continues in the lower voice. The length of the secondary party is equal to its size in the exposition. The sonata allegro ends with the final part in the main key.

The preparatory stage for the sonatas of J. Haydn, W. Mozart, L. Beethoven is small sonatas, in which everything that is typical for sonata form.

MODIFICATION OF SONATA FORM

One of the most typical modifications of the sonata form is the absence of development (with the normal structure of exposition and reprise). Thus it becomes from a tripartite form of two private. But the presence in the exposition of two diverse themes, in the first part proceeding in different keys, and in the second part - in one, allows us to distinguish it from other forms (N. Nekrasov ". Sonatina e-moll" 2nd part) .

POLYPHONY

At the core subvocal species lies the development of the main voice. The remaining voices arise as a branch, have more or less independence. Sub-vocal polyphony typical for folk, in particular Russian, songs.

Contrasting polyphony is based on the development of independent voices. It is characterized by a variable concentration of the melodic beginning in different voices, as a result of which, then one, then another voice comes to the fore (I. Bach. “G-moll Minuet”).

Imitation polyphony is based on the successive performance in different voices of either the same melody (canon) or a melodic passage (theme).

Canon is called continuous imitation. It reproduces not only the theme, but also the counterpoint to it, then the counterpoint to this counterpoint, and so on. Canons, which, after several imitations, stop and pass into some other movement, are called final. They have the greatest practical application (I. Bach "Invention F-dur" two-part). Infinite canons are less common.

The highest form of polyphonic writing is fugue.

A fugue is a polyphonic work that begins with a gradual introduction of voices with an imitation presentation of the theme, which is then repeated in the further development of the work. A mandatory feature of a fugue is the systematic holding of a theme in different voices. The fugue consists of three sections - exposition, development and recapitulation. The boundaries of its sections are rather conditional and smoothed.

IN exposure the theme is passed in all voices. This is the only section that has a permanent structure. Tonality of the theme - tonic and dominant (alternately). In three-part fugues - TDT, in four-part fugues - TDTD. The answer (carrying out the theme on D) can be real (exactly transposed a fifth up) or tonal (with minor changes). (In the fugue by I. Bach from the 1st volume of the CTC c-moll, the answer is real, and in the fugue in gis-moll, the answer is tonal). The exposition is followed by an interlude leading to the middle section. The interlude is based on isolating the material from the exposition.

The middle is built on a series of single and group presentations of the theme. The manifestation of tonal instability is typical for the middle part. The most characteristic is the beginning of the middle part in a key parallel to the main, or dominant.

The final part of the fugue is based on general principle reprisals. It begins with the theme in the main key. Sometimes there are re-prizes that look like an exposition in the tonic-dominant tonal plan. But most often it is a single or group presentation of the theme in the main key.

Consider the form of the fugue on the example of J. Bach's three-voice fugue C-dur from the Collection "Little Preludes and Fugues". It consists of exposition, development and reprise. The exposition begins by holding the theme in the middle voice in the main key. Then comes the real answer to the fifth up in the top voice. The exposition ends with the theme in the bass in the main key. The intermedia following the exposition consists of a descending sequence, the link of which is taken from the first sounds of the theme. It brings us into the key of G major, in which development begins. In development, the theme goes through 4 times: first in the keys of G-dur and C-dur, and then, after a small connection, in the keys of a-moll and e-moll. The development is followed by the second interlude, built on a new material. At the end of it, the theme of the fugue sounds in the key of the subdominant (F-dur) in the upper voice.

The reprise begins with the introduction of the theme in the main key in the middle voice. Then it goes again in the bass, also in the key of C-dur. The fugue ends with a descending sequence built on the material of the first interlude, which establishes the main tonality.

Work on the form of a musical work should be carried out during the entire period of study. If in the lower grades the student learns the importance of the importance of the musical form, then in the upper grades he will competently and more expressively perform works, while revealing their artistic image more fully.

Working with young children is the most responsible and difficult, since the first teacher lays the foundation for the future attitude to music. The famous pianist and teacher I. Hoffman said: “The beginning, a matter of such great importance, that only the best is good here.”

The teacher introduces students to the structure of a musical work from the first grades of education. The process of work should be gradual and take place taking into account the peculiarities childhood. It is necessary to try not to scare the child away with boring incomprehensible terms, not to force him to memorize theoretical material, and also not to overload his thinking with overwhelming tasks.

It is widely known that the process of teaching a child is based on the use of those psychophysical characteristics that are inherent in each age category.

In my pedagogical activity, I use visual colorful material (in the form of multi-colored geometric shapes: triangles, squares, and circles), which helps to present the work performed in a diagram figuratively and interestingly to young children. Thus, the material is easier to perceive, absorbed faster and activates their creative abilities.

If the piece being performed or part of it is written in a major key, then the brighter colors of the figures are used, in the minor key the colors are darker.

First, these figures play the role of sentences in the period, and the sheet of paper on which they are superimposed plays the role of the period. So if

a) the sentences are the same, then the figures are taken in the same shape and the same color

b) one of the sentences in the period is given with slight changes (variation, change in rhythm, with a slight addition), then the same figures are taken, but one of them with dots

c) in one of the sentences, the register or key changes, and the musical material is the same, then the same figures of different colors are taken

d) the sentences are built on different material, but do not contrast with each other and are written in the same key, then different figures of the same color are taken

e) the sentences in the period are built on different material and contrast with each other, then different figures of different colors are taken

There may be many options. Children choose colors, geometric shapes and their correlations themselves, explaining why they chose this or that combination. (See Attachment). It awakens their imagination, increases interest in work and makes them think.

Below are a few diagrams of school repertoire pieces that are depicted by children in the diagram.

S. Maykapar "In the garden"

D. Steibelt "Adagio"

R. Schumann "The Bold Rider"

D. Shostakovich "March"

With further complication of the form, multi-colored figures play the role of sentences, and then larger sections of the work. This is how, for example, “Rondo” by R. Gliere looks like

And this is how the children present the form of “Sonatina C-dur” by M. Clementi

The color of the tonality in the exposition and reprise is very important here: in the exposition, the themes are held in different keys, and in the reprise - in one. To depict instability and tension in development, we use bright color combinations.

Primary school students, in addition to dividing their plays into sentences and periods, also draw phrasing, where they designate key points with more saturated colors, and the culmination of the whole work with the brightest color (usually red).

Such visibility allows students to perform their works more meaningfully and expressively, as well as correctly calculate the sound pattern.

In order to study a certain type of musical form in more depth, I conduct group classes with students in my class, uniting them by class. They go as follows. Having previously drawn a diagram of the form of the work, each student in the class tells in detail its structure, while explaining why he chose this particular combination of shapes and colors, and then performs this work on the instrument. The rest listen attentively and after the performance discuss his performance. Thus, children get acquainted with the varieties of the studied form, and not only with the form of the work they have learned.

Sometimes I combine age groups so that the younger students can hear the performance of the older ones as, with the same scheme, the sections of the form are expanded and enlarged. As a result, students from an early age acquire the skill of analyzing the form of a musical work.

List of literature used in the preparation

1. Alekseev N. Methods of teaching to play the piano, M., 1982

2. Artobolevskaya A. The first meeting with music, M., Russian Musical Publishing House, 1996

3. Kalinina N. clavier music Bach in the piano class, L., Muzyka, 1988

4. Kogan G. The work of a pianist, M., Music 1979

5. Neuhaus G. On the art of piano playing, M., 1982

6. Sposobin I. Musical form, M. Music 1984

7. Timakin E. Education of a pianist, M., 1989

8. Filatova L. A guide to music theory, Presto, M., 1999

9. Shatkovsky G. Development musical ear, M., Music, 1996

10. Yudovina-Galperina T. At the piano without tears, or I am a children's teacher, St. Petersburg.

Enterprise St. Petersburg. Union of Artists 1996

11. Masaru Ibuka It's too late after three (On the upbringing of children: Translated from English) M. Knowledge 1992

ANNEX 1

Schemes for the analysis of some musical forms,

performed by students of the Egorievsk Children's Art School

PIANO CLASS, TEACHER ENGALYCHEVA I.A.

Forms of musical works

From the smallest components of the form to complex forms.

The whole world we see has clear boundaries and forms. Even what we disparagingly call the word "amorphous" also has certain spatial coordinates. It is almost impossible to imagine something really completely formless.In music, As in speeches(and in any another art form) the form is essential forclear expression of certain thoughts and moods.Very often people hold the erroneous opinion that composers create only on a whim, by inspiration, “in free flight”, without focusing on any framework and rules. This is absolutely not true.Chaikovsky said: "Inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy." And Pyotr Ilyich himself was an exemplary example of following this rule: every day the composer stubbornly composed, sometimes “squeezing” music out of himself, as he was afraid to forget how to write. This fact seems incredible, given the number of works that Tchaikovsky created. And it is absolutely difficult to believe in some kind of effort, listening to the famous "Four Seasons", written by the composer without special desire, commissioned by a periodical magazine.

Another example of the subordination of beautiful music to strict rules of form is polyphonic works J.S. Bach (“The Well-Tempered Clavier”, “Musical Offering”, “The Art of Fugue” and many others) in which the boundaries of musical thoughts were calculated with mathematical precision.Mozart , who created a huge number of works with virtually no drafts, relied on the well-established classical laws of harmony and form. Examples, therefore, could be continued, but not the quantity is the point. These examples helped us verify thatany piece of music needs certain laws of form.

Traditional, understandable form, goodperceived onhearing, making the understanding of the work more accessible. On the other hand, when a work is too unusually shaped, itmakes it difficult to perceiveworks to complete rejection and rejection(e.g. songs and vocal cyclesMussorgsky , symphonies Mahler, collages D. Cage , some works of contemporary authors). However, over time, these forms also find their explanation and become more understandable. Human Hearing Luggage XXIcentury is not comparable with the perception of people XI10th century and beyond. Therefore, for a modern person, Mussorgsky's music, which at one time seemed "terrible" and "barbaric", does not seem so.

Summarizing the above arguments, let's summarize. So,

musical forms are needed for:

creating clear boundaries for musical thoughts and moods;

facilitate the perception of the work;

organization of major constructions (suite, sonata, opera, ballet).

Let us now turn to the conceptmusical form and its constituents components.

musical form - this is a certain order of parts and sections in a piece of music.

The smallest structure in musical speech ismotive (from the Latin - "I move"). This is the name of the most vivid, memorable melodic turn. The size of the motive can be different - from one or two sounds to a whole measure (see:Schubert , "The Beautiful Miller", No. 7. "Impatience" - left hand part; No. 3. "Stop!" - the size of the initial motive;Bach "H.T.K.", 1st volume. Fugue in C Minor).

A larger musical construction that includes several motifs is called −phrase (in Greek - "expression"). For a long time the length of the phrase has been related to the breath in vocal music. And only with the development of instrumental music did this concept become broader (Schubert, "The Beautiful Miller", No. 1. "Let's hit the road!"; No. 12. "Pause" - motives are combined into a phrase).

Phrases are combined intooffers . Standard offer size4 beats. Offers are endingcadences (from the Latin "I end") - the final musical turn. Cadence completes a piece of music, its part or a separate structure. There are many varieties of cadences, differing infunctional content (T, S, D, VI).

Proposals are made upperiod . Period is the smallest, complete, independent musical form. A period usually consists of 2 sentences with different cadences. Distinguish periodrepeated And not repeated buildings, square (8 bars) And non-square (from 5 cycles), small (8 tons) And large (16 tons). Sometimes a period has an additional section that sounds like a musical afterword, such a section, depending on the location of the cadence, may be calledaddition or extension .

Period is one of the main formsvocal music, organizing a verse or chorus. Protozoavocal form, in which the music remains the same, but the words change, iscouplet form. Its simplicity explains its widespread use. There is not a single composer who created vocal music who would not write a song in couplet form(see songs and romancesSchubert, Mozart, Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninoff and other composers).

One part form (A) is a simple musical form consisting of one period. This form is most often found in the miniatures of romantic composers who sought to capture an elusive moment (a vivid example is the PreludesChopin ), or in children's music to make performance more accessible.Shape scheme: A or A

a a 1 a b

Two-part form ( AB ) - a simple musical form consisting of two periods. Quite often the second period is built on the material of the first (i.e., repeated structure - see some PreludesScriabin ), but there are works in which the periods are different (Lyubava's Song from 2d. "Sadko"Rimsky-Korsakov ; Rosina's aria from 2d. " Barber of Seville» Rossini ). Shape scheme: A A1 or A V.

The most important (and simplest) principle for creating a musical form is repetition. Its extraordinary popularity is due to several reasons:

repetition allows us to return the musical thought and makes it possible to better listen to it, to appreciate previously unnoticed artistic details;

repetition helps to clearly divide the form into parts delimited from each other;

the repetition of musical material after the presentation of the new one completes the form, asserting the supremacy of the original image.

Thus, forms based on repetition have become unusually widespread in music in numerous variants. And the simplest one istripartite form ( ABA ) , consisting of three periods

A - is a presentation of a musical theme;

IN - theme developmentA or a new contrast material;A - recapitulation, exact or modified repetition of a partA .

If the reprise exactly repeats the first part, it is often not even written out with notes, but is indicated: play from the beginning to the word “End”(in Italian: dacapoalFine).

The three-part form (just like all the previous ones) happenssimple Andcomplex . Unlike the simple three-part form, in which each part is written in the form of a period, in the complex three-part form, the parts are not a period, but a simple two-part or three-part form. For example:

A B A

a b a b a

The tripartite form isone of the most popular principles constructing a piece of music. Works written in a simple three-movement form can be found in the repertoire of every musician: these are plays, dances, marches, romances, works for orchestra, parts orand sections of major essays. A huge number of examples for a simple and complex 3-part form is contained in the worksP.I. Tchaikovsky. In addition to independent instrumental pieces from"Children's Album", "Seasons" and other works, the composer's favorite 3-part form often organizes GP and PP in symphonies (see.4th And 6th symphony ).

On principle repetition a more complex form is also based, rooted infolk song and dance tradition of France. It's about form.rondo ( translated from French means "circle, round dance, circular dance song"). In the music of round dances, a constant, unchanging refrain alternated with a changing refrain. From this alternation, the rondo form arose.

Like the refrain of a folk song, there is a theme in the rondo that is repeated - it isrefrain. The refrain (in French - "chorus") shouldsound at least 3 times and can be of any simple form: period, two-part, or three-part.

Between repetitions of the refrain, various musical constructions sound, which are calledepisodes . Thus,rondo - this is a form based on the alternation of a refrain with episodes .

A B A C A

refrain episode refrain episode refrain

The rondo form is widely used in instrumental and vocal music:instrumental pieces( mozart, Turkish March from the Piano Sonata in A Major, No. 11, Figaro's Aria "The Frisky Boy" from the opera "Figaro's Marriage";Beethoven, "To Elise", "Rage over the lost penny" and many others),romances and songs( Glinka, "Associated song";Dargomyzhsky "Old Corporal"), choirs, opera arias (Glinka, Antonida's Rondo from Ivan Susanin, Farlaf's Rondo from Ruslan and Lyudmila),last parts large forms- sonatas and symphonies(e.g. symphoniesMahler ), as well as integeropera or ballet scenes(see "The Nutcracker"Tchaikovsky, "Love for Three Oranges" Prokofiev ) can be arranged in the form of a rondo. Very often the rondo form is used in plays.French harpsichordists ( Daken, "Cuckoo", Ramo, Tambourine, "Chicken", Couperin, "Small windmills”, “Sister Monica” and many other plays).

Variations (from the Latin "change, variety") is a musical form that consists of a theme and its altered repetitions.

A A 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 …

Variations

Subject it can be composed by the composer himself, borrowed from folk music or from the work of another composer. It is written in any simple form: in the form of a period, two-part, three-part. The theme is repeated with various changes in mode, tonality, rhythm, timbre, etc. In each variation, from one to several elements of musical speech can change (depending on the era and style of the composer).

The type of variation depends onhow Andhow strong theme changes.Variety of variations:

1.Variations on constant bass ( basso ostinato ) orvintage variations were already known inXVIcentury in Europe. Fashionable then dancespassacaglia Andchaconne were written in a form based on the constant repetition of the theme in the bass, with only the upper voices varying (cm: G.Purcell , Dido's lament from the opera "Dido and Aeneas"). The technique of basso ostinato did not remain the property of only ancient music - in the 20th century, due to a surge of interest in early music, this technique found a new life. We find interesting examples of the use of basso ostinato, for example, in the work Drauhgtmans ContractMichael Nyman (the bass theme is led by the organ against the background of the “trembling” of the strings, at the point of the “golden section” the harpsichord is connected to these instruments, creating a cold, eerie sound with its metallic timbre).

2.Variations on unchanging melody ( soprano ostinato ) closest to folk music. The melody is repeated without change, and the accompaniment varies. This type of variation introduced into Russian classical musicM.I. Glinka , so they are sometimes called"Glinka" (see: "Ruslan and Lyudmila": Bayan's Song, Persian Choir;Ravel, "Bolero";Shostakovich, episode of the invasion from Symphony No. 7.).

In Western European classical musicXVIIIand first halfXIXformed 3.strict (ornamental) variations , created by the Viennese classics (J. Haydn, W. Mozart, L. Beethoven).

Strict rules variations: 1. Preservation of mode, meter, general contours of the theme and functional basis;2. Change (ornamentation, complication) of accompaniment;3. One of the middle variations (usually the 3rd) is written in the minor or major of the same name (see:mozart, Sonata No. 11, 1 hour;Beethoven, Sonata No. 2, 2 hours, Sonata No. 8, 2 hours. and etc.).

The techniques that composers used in variations are associated with the popularXVII- XVIIIcenturiesthe art of improvisation. Each virtuoso performer, speaking at a concert, was obliged to fantasize on a theme proposed by the public (the melody of a popular song or an opera aria). Traditions of infinitely varied variation of the original theme exist to this day injazz music.

4.Free orromantic variations appeared in the second halfXIXcentury. Here, each variation is practically an independent piece and its connection with the theme was very weak. Vivid examples of such variations in a wide variety are presented in the works ofR. Schuman : these are the piano cycles "Carnival", "Butterflies", "Symphonic Etudes" and other works. Many variations on borrowed themes were left by a brilliant virtuoso pianistF.List (transcriptions on songs by Schubert, on themes by Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, themes from Italian operas and on their own themes).

meet in musicvariations for two , and sometimeson three topics , which vary in turn. Variations on two themes are calleddouble:

A B A 1 IN 1 A 2 IN 2 A 3 IN 3 … orA A 1 A 2 A 3 … V V 1 IN 2 IN 3 …

1st 2nd Variations 1st Variations 2nd Variations

theme theme theme theme

Examples of double variations:Glinka, "Kamarinskaya";Beethoven, Symphony No. 5, 2 hours, Sonata No. 8, "Pathetic", 2nd movement, Symphony No. 9, 4 hours.

Variations on three themes are calledtriple .

Variations can be a work in its own right (a theme with variations) or part of any other major form.

In the era early renaissance (XIV - XVI centuries) borrowing someone else's theme was not considered an infringement on copyright - there were special genres that determined the degree of borrowing. parody called an essay on someone else's topic, and paraphrase- Essay on your own topic. A composition on someone else's or one's own theme is common in composer practice to the present day and reveals the degree of mastery in processing the original musical thought.
Ornament - pattern, decoration. Ornamental variations implied complication, “carving” of the texture.
Small Mozart , touring with his father in Europe, he surprised the audience with free improvisation on any proposed topic. In the 19th century, listeners were stunned with virtuoso improvisations F.List And N. Paganini .

Construction (form) of music

Form(lat. forma - appearance, appearance, image, appearance, beauty)

musical form - this is a certain order of parts and sections in a piece of music.

The smallest structure in musical speech is motive(from the Latin - "I move"). This is the name of the most vivid, memorable melodic turn. The size of the motive can be different - from one or two sounds to a whole measure.

A larger musical construction that includes several motifs is called − phrase(in Greek - "expression"). For a long time, phrase length has been associated with breathing in vocal music. And only with the development of instrumental music, this concept became more broad.

Phrases are combined into offers. The standard sentence size is 4 bars. Offers are ending cadences (from the Latin "I end") - the final musical turn. Cadence completes a piece of music, its part or a separate structure. There are many varieties of cadences that differ in functional content (T, S, D, VI).

Proposals are made up period. The period is a complete, independent musical form. A period usually consists of 2 sentences with different cadences. There is a period of repeated and non-repeated structure, square (8 cycles) and non-square (from 5 cycles), small (8 tons) and large (16 tons). Sometimes a period has an additional section that sounds like a musical afterword, such a section, depending on the location of the cadence, may be called an addition or extension.

The period is one of the main forms in vocal music, organizing a verse or chorus. The simplest vocal form in which the music remains the same but the words change is couplet form. Its simplicity explains its widespread use. There is not a single composer who created vocal music who would not have written a song in couplet form (see songs and romances by Schubert, Mozart, Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninoff and other composers).

One part form (A) is a simple musical form consisting of one period. This form is most often found in miniatures by Romantic composers who sought to capture an elusive moment (Chopin's Preludes are a prime example), or in children's music to make performance more accessible. Form scheme: A or A1

Two-part form (AB) is a simple musical form consisting of two periods. Quite often, the second period is built on the material of the first (i.e., a repeated structure - see some of Scriabin's Preludes), but there are works in which the periods are different (Lyubava's Song from 2d. "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov; Rozina's Aria from 2d. " The Barber of Seville" by Rossini). Form scheme: A A1 or A B.

The most important (and simplest) principle for creating a musical form is repetition. Its extraordinary popularity is due to several reasons:

repetition allows us to return the musical thought and makes it possible to better listen to it, to appreciate previously unnoticed artistic details;

repetition helps to clearly divide the form into parts delimited from each other;

the repetition of musical material after the presentation of the new one completes the form, asserting the supremacy of the original image.

Thus, forms based on repetition have become unusually widespread in music in numerous variants. And the simplest of them is the tripartite form (ABA), consisting of three periods, where

A - is a presentation of a musical theme;

B - development of the theme A or new contrasting material; A - reprise, exact or modified repetition of part A.

If the reprise exactly repeats the first part, it is often not even written out with notes, but is denoted: play from the beginning to the word "End" (in Italian: dacapoalFine).

The three-part form (like all the previous ones) is simple and complex. Unlike the simple three-part form, in which each part is written in the form of a period, in the complex three-part form, the parts are not a period, but a simple two-part or three-part form. For example:

A B A

ababa

The three-part form is one of the most popular principles for constructing a piece of music. Pieces written in the simple three-part form can be found in the repertoire of every musician: these are plays, dances, marches, romances, works for orchestra, parts or sections of large compositions. A huge number of examples of simple and complex 3-part form is contained in the works of P.I. Tchaikovsky. and PP in symphonies (see the 4th and 6th symphonies).

A more complex form, which is rooted in the folk song and dance tradition of France, is also based on the principle of repetition. We are talking about the rondo form (translated from French means “circle, round dance, circular round dance”). singsong. From this alternation, the rondo form arose.

Like the chorus of a folk song, the rondo has a theme that repeats - this is a refrain. The refrain (in French - "chorus") must sound at least 3 times and can have any simple form: period, two-part or three-part.

Between repetitions of the refrain, various musical constructions are heard, which are called episodes. Thus, rondo is a form based on the alternation of refrain with episodes.

A B A C A

refrain episode refrain episode refrain

The rondo form is widely used in instrumental and vocal music: instrumental pieces (Mozart, Turkish March from the Piano Sonata in A Major, No. 11, Figaro's Aria "The Frisky Boy" from the opera "The Marriage of Figaro"; Beethoven, "For Elise", "Fury about the lost penny "and many others), romances and songs (Glinka," Passing Song "; Dargomyzhsky" Old Corporal "), choirs, opera arias (Glinka, Antonida's Rondo from Ivan Susanin, Farlaf's Rondo from Ruslan and Ludmila"), the last parts of large forms - sonatas and symphonies (for example, Mahler's symphonies), as well as entire opera or ballet scenes (see Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker, Prokofiev's "Love for Three Oranges") can be organized in the form of a rondo. Very often, the rondo form is used in the plays of French harpsichordists (Dackin, "Cuckoo", Rameau, Tambourine, "Chicken", Couperin, "Little Windmills", "Sister Monica" and many other pieces).

Variations (from the Latin "change, variety") is a musical form that consists of a theme and its altered repetitions.

And A1A2A3A4 ...

Variations

The theme can be composed by the composer himself, borrowed from folk music or from the work of another composer.1 It is written in any simple form: in the form of a period, two-part, three-part. The theme is repeated with various changes in mode, tonality, rhythm, timbre, etc. In each variation, from one to several elements of musical speech can change (depending on the era and style of the composer).

The type of variation depends on how and how much the theme is changed. Variety of variations:

1. Variations on the unchanged bass (bassoostinato) or ancient variations were known as early as the 16th century in Europe. The then fashionable passacaglia and chaconne dances were written in a form based on the constant repetition of the theme in the bass, while only the upper voices varied (see: G. Purcell, Dido's lament from the opera Dido and Aeneas). The technique of basso ostinato did not remain the property of only ancient music - in the 20th century, due to a surge of interest in early music, this technique found a new life. We find interesting examples of the use of basso ostinato, for example, in Michael Nyman's Drauhgtmans Contract (the bass theme is led by the organ against the background of the “trembling” of the strings, at the point of the “golden section” the harpsichord is connected to these instruments, creating a cold, eerie sound with its metallic timbre).

2. Variations on an unchanging melody (sopranoostinato) are the closest to folk music. The melody is repeated without change, and the accompaniment varies. This type of variation was introduced into Russian classical music by M.I. Glinka, which is why they are sometimes called "Glinka" (see: "Ruslan and Lyudmila": Bayan's Song, Persian Choir; Ravel, "Bolero"; Shostakovich, episode of the invasion from Symphony No. 7 .).

In Western European classical music of the 18th and first half of the 19th, strict (ornamental) 2 variations developed, created by the Viennese classics (J. Haydn, W. Mozart, L. Beethoven).

Rules of strict variations: 1. Preservation of mode, meter, general contours of the theme and functional basis; 2. Change (ornamentation, complication) of accompaniment; 3. One of the middle variations (usually the 3rd) is written in the minor or major of the same name (see: Mozart, Sonata No. 11, 1 hour; Beethoven, Sonata No. 2, 2 hours, Sonata No. 8, 2 hours, etc. ).

The techniques that composers used in variations are associated with the art of improvisation popular in the 17th-18th centuries. Each virtuoso performer, performing at a concert, was obliged to fantasize on a theme proposed by the public (the melody of a popular song or an opera aria). 3 Traditions of infinitely varied variation of the original theme exist and still in jazz music.

4. Free or romantic variations appeared in the second half of the 19th century. Here, each variation is practically an independent piece and its connection with the theme was very weak. Vivid examples of such variations in a wide variety are presented in the works of R. Schumann: these are the piano cycles "Carnival", "Butterflies", "Symphonic Etudes" and other works. Many variations on borrowed themes were left by the brilliant virtuoso pianist F. Liszt (transcriptions on Schubert's songs, on the themes of Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, themes from Italian operas and on his own themes).

1 In the early Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries), borrowing someone else's theme was not considered an infringement on copyright - there were special genres that determined the degree of borrowing. A parody was an essay on someone else's topic, and a paraphrase was an essay on one's own topic. A composition on someone else's or one's own theme is common in composer practice to the present day and reveals the degree of mastery in processing the original musical thought.

2 Ornament - pattern, decoration. Ornamental variations implied complication, “carving” of the texture.

3Little Mozart, touring with his father in Europe, surprised the audience with free improvisation on any proposed topic. In the 19th century F. Listi N. Paganini stunned listeners with virtuoso improvisations.

composition is determined by consideration of its design (scheme, template or structure) and development over time. The musical form (especially in ancient and cult music) is practically inseparable from the genre (sequent, madrigal, responsory, stichera, mugham, etc.). "Hip-hop, gospel, heavy metal, country and reggae are just as 'forms' as are minuets, fugues, sonatas and rondos." Nevertheless, the concept of genre is commonly used to describe contemporary music. Classical pieces of music are usually classified according to their form. The concept of musical form is inextricably linked with the embodiment of musical content - development (holistic organization of melodic motifs, mode and harmony, meter, polyphonic technique, timbres, and other elements of music).

Most forms classical music formed by the middle of the 19th century. New forms that emerged between the 1890s and 1950s include concrete music and minimalism. In musicological studies of the 20th century, a number of new compositional patterns were revealed, which were called "parametric forms". Parametric forms are associated with the technique of constructing a composition at the level of different means (components) of the musical fabric - rhythm, dynamics, harmony, strokes, texture, etc. These forms, in the absence of a melodic-thematic factor or a significant weakening of its formative role, come to the fore of modern compositional process.

The content of the article

MUSICAL FORM. By “form” in music is meant the organization of the musical whole, the ways in which the musical material develops, as well as the genre designations that the authors give to their works. The composer in the process of creativity inevitably comes to a certain formal structure, a kind of plan, scheme, which serves as the basis for his manifestations. creative fantasy and skill.

The concept of form in music has many meanings. Some prefer to use this term only in relation to the structure of the work. Others attribute it to different genre designations, which can a) indicate the general nature of the music (for example, nocturne); b) suggest a special technique of composition (for example, motet or fugue); c) be based on a rhythmic pattern or tempo (minuet); d) include non-musical meanings or terms (for example, a symphonic poem); e) indicate the manner of performance (concert) or the number of performers (quartet); e) be associated with a specific historical era and its tastes (waltz), as well as with the national flavor (polonaise). In reality, despite the abundance of such definitions, there are only a few fundamental formal structures, and if the composer stops at one or another genre designation, this does not mean that he is tied to any particular structural type.

The main compositional schemes or plans in music are based on three principles: repetition, variation and contrast, and are manifested in it through the interaction of rhythm, melody, harmony, timbre and texture.

Forms based on repetition, variation and contrast are characteristic of both vocal and instrumental genres. Vocal works are often characterized by a strophic form, within which different poetic stanzas correspond to the same melody and the element of contrast is introduced only by the poetic text: this is why the strophic form in its pure form is not found in instrumental genres. Both vocal and instrumental compositions are characterized by a form with a repeating section - a refrain. Sometimes the strophic form is modified by the introduction of one or more contrasting stanzas, in which case it approaches the so-called. composite composition.

The main strophic structures are as follows:

Couplet form A-A-A-A-A, etc.
Two-part formA-B
Three-part formA-B-A
Form with refrain (rondo) A-B-A-C-A
Variation form A-A 1 -A 2 -A 3 -A 4 -A 5, etc.

More complex forms arise as a result of changing or expanding the basic structures (for example, the rondo is often written according to the model: A-B-A-C-A-B-A). There are works based on the principle of continuous continuation: such is the "endless melody" in Wagner's musical dramas - here it is impossible to draw a clear line between sections. The German term durchkomponiert (“based on through development”) is attached to such forms. This type of organization is characteristic of works associated with a word or focused on a literary program, often on a specific literary work.

The principle of development, which originated in music much later than the principle of repetition, is especially typical of purely instrumental compositions. It differs from the strophic structures described above in that the thematic material is treated not only as a structural unit suitable for repetition and variation: elements are distinguished in it that change and interact with each other and with other themes (this principle is especially clearly demonstrated by the sonata form).

When combining musical fragments, each of which is written according to its own structural model, into a larger whole, a so-called. cyclic form (opera, oratorio, sonata, quartet, symphony, suite, concerto, etc.). In this case, each fragment is called a "part" and has its own designation of the tempo and character of the performance.

Form in music is an evolving, dynamic phenomenon. In the past, new forms have arisen as responses to liturgical needs, or to changes in the life of society, or to the invention of new instruments and new ways of playing them, and so on. It can be safely asserted that new functions of music, new conditions of social life, new composing and performing techniques, new inventions (for example, electronic instruments) will lead to the emergence of new forms (in the sense of genre designations) and new methods of composition. see also OPERA; BALLAD OPERA; OPERETTA; INVENTION; FUGA; ORATORIO; CONCERT; MARCH.

GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL FORMS

The main forms of Western European music are mentioned; forms of dance origin are discussed in more detail in the article DANCE.

Intermission

(French entracte, from entre, “between” and acte, “action”), instrumental music that sounds between acts of a dramatic play, opera, ballet, etc.

Arioso

(Italian arioso). Literally - "little aria"; the term refers to a vocal lyrical work with a freer form than an aria, including recitative elements.

Aria

(English and French air, Italian aria). In the most general sense - a melody, as well as: 1) a song for voice with accompaniment (for example, in English music of the Elizabethan era - a song with lute accompaniment); 2) an aria in French or English opera of the 17th-18th centuries. The term is also applied to an instrumental piece of a lyrical nature, written in the manner of an aria (for example, in J.S. Bach's Third Orchestral Suite). 3) In early opera (17th century) - a short strophic song with accompaniment. In the opera and oratorio of subsequent centuries (up to Wagner) there are solo vocal fragments. The main form of the early opera aria is the da capo aria, using the symmetrical A-B-A structural model. see also OPERA.

Bagatelle

(French bagatelle "trinket"). small instrumental work(usually for keyboards). The first to use this name was F. Couperin, a late baroque composer; however, the genre was quite widespread in the music of the 19th century. only after Beethoven created his bagatelle op. 33, 119, 126.

Ballad

(English ballad, German Ballade, French ballade). It is a dance song in origin. Already in the 13th century. the English ballad became a special solo song form, and in subsequent periods this genre did not undergo significant changes. Nowadays, a romantic-narrative, often sentimental song of a popular type is called a ballad.

In the French tradition, this term denotes a medieval form cultivated by trouveurs - musicians of the knightly era in the north of France. The French ballad is similar to the canzone genre in the art of the troubadours of Provence and the form of the so-called. bar at the German minnesingers. It is basically a strophic solo song without accompaniment, usually consisting of three stanzas, with each stanza corresponding to the musical structure A-A-B, and in each stanza the last two lines form a refrain - unchanged for all stanzas. Master of the French school of the 14th century. Guillaume de Machaux was one of the first to introduce this structure into polyphonic works. In the 15th century other famous masters- for example, Guillaume Dufay and Josquin de Pres composed polyphonic ballads, and this form retained its significance throughout the 16th century.

In the German tradition, the term "ballad" refers to vocal and instrumental works of the 19th century based on romantic plots, often with the intervention of otherworldly forces: for example, Schubert's famous ballad forest king according to Goethe. Piano ballads of lyrical-dramatic content - not necessarily having a literary program, but implying some kind of romantic conflict - were composed by Chopin, Brahms, Fauré.

Balletto

(ital. balletto). A kind of madrigal, a vocal composition of a dance character, more of a chordal rather than a polyphonic warehouse; the peculiarity of the genre is the introduction of additional "meaningless" syllables into the text, such as "fa-la-la": hence another name for the genre - "fa-la", first noted by the English composer and theorist Thomas Morley (1597). This use of syllables, which became widespread in England, turned some sections of the balletto into purely rhythmic passages, reminiscent of instrumental dances. The same term is applied to purely instrumental sections in orchestral suites and clavier cycles by authors of the 17th and 18th centuries. (For example, Balletti Girolamo Frescobaldi) - as if in a reminder of the vocal origin of the genre.

Ballata

(Italian ballata). The Italian ballata does not come from the French ballad, but from the French virele (virelai, chanson balladée) - a dance song performed by a soloist or several singers. In the 13th century ballata was monophonic, and in the 14th century, in the era of the Italian ars nova, it becomes polyphonic. Usually the ballata consists of three stanzas, six lines each, with a monophonic refrain repeated at the beginning and end of the stanza. Famous ballatas belong to the Italian composer Francesco Landino.

Barcarolle

(Italian barcarola). An instrumental or vocal piece based on the song of the Venetian gondoliers (from Italian barca "boat"). The barcarolle usually has a calm tempo and is composed in 6/8 or 12/8 time, with an accompaniment depicting the lapping of the waves over the side of the gondola. The barcaroles of Chopin, Mendelssohn, Fauré (piano), Schubert (for voice and piano) and Offenbach (for soloists, choir and orchestra in opera) are famous. Tales of Hoffmann).

Variations

(lat. variatio, “change”). Variation is one of the fundamental principles of musical composition ( cm. introductory section of this article); variations can also be an independent instrumental form, which can be easily represented in the form of the following scheme: A (theme) - A 1 - A 2 - A 3 - A 4 - A 5, etc.

Divertissement

(Italian divertimento, French divertissement, "entertainment"). A form of light, entertaining instrumental music especially popular in Vienna in the late 18th century. The divertissement was composed for a small ensemble of wind or strings and in form resembled an old suite consisting of different dances. On the other hand, the divertissement contained some features of the future symphony. Many divertissements can be found in the legacy of Haydn and Mozart.

Duet

(italian. duetto from lat. duo, "two"). A vocal or instrumental piece for two performers, with or without accompaniment; the parties are equal.

Invention

(lat. inventio, "invention"). This term was first used by a composer of the 16th century. Clement Janequin to denote chanson complex shape. Later, the term was applied (like the term "fantasy") to pieces of the polyphonic type. In the writings of Francesco Bonporti it refers to the works for violin and basso continuo (1712); in the work of J.S. Bach the name Inventions wears the famous clavier cycle, consisting of 15 two-part polyphonic pieces. The second part of the cycle, which includes 15 three-part pieces, bears the author's title sinfonia, but today they are more commonly referred to as "inventions".

Intermezzo

(Italian intermezzo, "between"). It is performed between sections of a work (for example, between scenes in an opera), usually to indicate a gap in time between the action of the previous and subsequent scenes, or to fill a pause necessary for a change of scenery (for example, in rural honor Mascagni). In a different meaning, the term "intermezzo" appears in Italian opera of the late 17th and early 18th centuries: this was the name of a small performance of an entertaining nature with folk-type characters, whose adventures are very different from the "high" feelings of the heroes of a "serious" opera. These intermezzos, performed between the acts of the opera, were a great success; a prime example - Mistress Maid G. Pergolesi. They were also performed separately, thus serving as the basis of the genre. comic opera. In the music of the Romantic era, the term "intermezzo" refers to small pieces of a meditative nature, such as the piano intermezzos of Schumann (op. 4) and Brahms (op. 76, 117).

Canon

(Greek kanon, “rule”, “sample”, “measurement”). A polyphonic piece based on exact imitation: the voices enter alternately with the same theme. In the early examples of the genre, the word canon denoted a remark in the notes, indicating the way the canon was performed. Canonical techniques were first developed in the forms of the 14th century. - company (Italian rota, "wheel") and caccia (Italian caccia, "hunt"). If the melodic line can return to the beginning and repeat again, the so-called. endless, circular canon (rota, rondola, round). The canons are quite typical of ars nova music in the 14th century. and for the art of the Renaissance: for example, the so-called. a shellwalker is a canon in countermovement, where the melody is combined with its imitation, performed from the end to the beginning. A well-known example of such a canon is Guillaume de Machaux's chanson. My end is my beginning and my beginning is my end. Remarkable instrumental canons are found in the cycles of J.S. Bach Goldberg variations And musical offering, in the quartet op.76 (No. 2) by Haydn, in the violin sonata in A major by S. Frank. see also FUGA.

Cantata

(Italian . cantata). The name was first encountered in the 17th century, when the rapid development of instrumentalism made it necessary to clearly distinguish between genres, on the one hand, including voices (from Italian cantare, “to sing”), and on the other, written only for instruments (for example, sonata, from Italian. sonare, "to sound"). The name "cantata" could refer to both a spiritual and a secular work; in the latter case, a form reminiscent of early opera, only smaller in size, was meant: it consisted of a series of arias and recitatives for one or more singers with accompaniment. The cantata genre reached its highest point in the work of Bach, who usually wrote cantatas based on Lutheran hymns (chorals) for soloists, choir and orchestra. see also ORATORIO.

Canzona

(Italian canzone, "song"). In the 16th century so called secular polyphonic songs of a simpler structure than the madrigal. "Canzone" could also mean an instrumental piece (canzone de sonar, "song for playing"). The instrumental canzona is similar in form to the ricercar or fantasy, differing only in a more mobile tempo. Opera in the 18th and 19th centuries a small, simple aria in form was called a canzone - in contrast to the usual, more detailed aria: such, for example, is the canzone "Voi che sapete" in Mozart's Wedding of Figaro. In the era of romanticism, an instrumental form based on song themes could be called a canzone: for example, the second part of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony.

Canzonetta

(Italian canzonetta). Little canzona.

Capriccio, capriccio, caprice

(Italian capriccio, French caprice). An instrumental piece of completely free form. In the 16th–18th centuries the capriccio was a polyphonic, fugue work similar to fantasy, richercar or canzone (“Capriccio sopra il cucu” by G. Frescobaldi or capriccio from Bach's Second Clavier Partita). In the 19th century the term began to refer to a brilliantly virtuoso work (24 caprices for solo violin by Paganini), or to a small piece of an improvisational nature (piano caprices op. 116 by Brahms), or to an orchestral composition like a medley on folk or well-known themes ( Italian capriccio Tchaikovsky).

Quartet

(Italian quartetto; from Latin quartus, "fourth"). Composition for four instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. The most common string quartet: two violins, viola, cello. The literature for this ensemble is exceptionally rich (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, a number of authors of the 20th century - for example, M. Ravel, B. Bartok, P. Hindemith, D. D. Shostakovich). The string quartet acquired great importance by the middle of the 18th century. The name "quartet" can also refer to an ensemble of four singers with or without accompaniment (for example, the quartet from Verdi's opera Rigoletto). There are also other compositions of instrumental quartets.

Quintet

(Italian quintetto; from Latin quintus, "fifth"). Composition for five instrumentalists, usually in the form of a sonata cycle. Usually, another instrument is added to a string quartet, such as a clarinet (Mozart Quintet in A Major, K. 581) or a piano (Brahms Quintet in F Minor, op. 88). Like the term "quartet", "quintet" can refer to an ensemble of singers (Wagner, Nuremberg Meistersingers). The quintet of wind instruments is quite common.

Conduct

(lat. conductus, from conduco, “I lead”, “accompany”). In the 12th-13th centuries. a choral work into a Latin text, secular or spiritual. Conducts were first monophonic, and then polyphonic - for two, three or even four voices. Unlike other forms of early polyphony, the conduct is a free composition; it did not use one or another pre-existing melody (the so-called cantus firmus). Another characteristic feature of the conduct is the use of a single text and a single rhythmic pattern in all voices.

Concert

(Italian concerto, from Latin concertare, "compete"). Usually - a composition of a cyclic form for one or more soloists and an orchestra. After 1750, the concerto and the symphony are built on approximately the same model, but, unlike the symphony, the concerto usually consists of three parts.

concerto grosso

(Italian concerto grosso, " big concert"). A genre typical of the High Baroque era (early 18th century), usually a three-part (fast-slow-fast) or four-part (slow-fast-slow-fast) cycle in which two or more concerto soloists (concertino) "compete" with the rest of the orchestra or ensemble (tutti or ripieno).

Katch

(English catch, from Italian caccia, "hunt"). Circular, endless canon (English synonym - "round") for three or more voices, common in English music of the 17th-18th centuries. About fifty caches composed by Henry Purcell are known.

Madrigal

(Italian madrigale). One of the main genres of polyphonic choral music. An early, medieval madrigal (Jacopo da Bologna, Francesco Landino) was a two- or three-voice work that used the techniques of imitation polyphony. The instrumental accompaniment served to support the voices or was an interlude-"acting out". As a rule, the madrigal was composed in strophic form, but it always contained a final "ritornello" in which new musical material appeared.

The developed form of the Renaissance madrigal was first influenced by frottola. One of the highest achievements of the music of its time, the Renaissance madrigal remained a polyphonic form (four-, five- or six-voice), but it also had a strong homophonic (vertical, chordal) beginning. The evolution of the genre on Italian soil went from the simple, austere choirs of Jacob Arcadelta or Orazio Vecchi to the complex in texture and emotionally rich compositions of such authors as Luca Marenzio, Carlo Gesualdo and Claudio Monteverdi. The heyday of the English madrigal (William Bird, Thomas Morley, Orlando Gibbons) belongs to a later period. The French analogue of the madrigal - chanson (Clement Janequin) was distinguished by the wide use of visual, onomatopoeic techniques. In German art, the polyphonic song (Lied) as a national variant of the madrigal was not as widespread as in other countries, and the brightest masters of this genre were not Germans (the Dutchman Orlando Lasso, the Flemish Jacob Reniard).

March

(French marche). Instrumental music, usually in double meter, originally intended to accompany various kinds of processions, military or civilian. The march exists in two forms - applied and stylized; the second form can be represented as independent works, and parts of cycles. The structure of the march is in principle three-part; first section - the main theme is replaced by a trio (there may be one or more), followed by a reprise of the first section. Marches were composed for military brass bands (for example, the pieces popular in America by J.F. Sousa), as well as for the symphony orchestra (Beethoven, Wagner, Verdi, Prokofiev), for piano (for example, Beethoven, op. 26 and 35) and for other compositions. see also MARCH.

Minuet.

Mass

(Latin missa, German Messe, English mass). Mass, the Eucharistic service, is the main service in the Catholic Church (similar to the Orthodox liturgy). The Mass contains unchanging sections, used in any service (ordinary), and sections dedicated to certain days of the church year (propria). The structure and texts of the mass were finally formed by the 11th century. The service consists of five main parts, named after the first words of the chants that open these parts: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei. They are followed by the end of the mass (Ite, Missa est ecclesia, “Go, the meeting is dissolved”; in the Orthodox liturgy, dismissal). The musical incarnations of the mass reflected the styles of different eras, while the most artistically striking works often turned out to be of little use for use at worship; it also happened that masses were composed by non-Catholic composers. Among the most famous examples of the genre are the masses by Guillaume de Machaux, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Josquin des Pres, Giovanni Palestrina, as well as Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Berlioz, Verdi, Fauré, Stravinsky and others. see also MASS.

Motet

(English, French motet). The name appears in the 13th century. and refers to vocal works, in which the melody of Gregorian chant (tenor) is polyphonically combined with two other melodic lines (duplum and triplum). Works of this kind began to be called motets when the verbal text (denoted by the word mot) began to be transferred to a duplum (therefore called a motet), i.e. into a voice that was previously just vocalized. In the 13th century motets were, as a rule, multi-text, i.e. different parties sounded different texts, both ecclesiastical and secular, it even happened in different languages.

Unlike the medieval one, the Renaissance motet was written only on the church text, the same for this work. However, even in this form, the non-simultaneity of pronouncing words in different voices was preserved - most often this was the result of the widespread use of imitations, and this feature became the most characteristic feature of the motet genre in general.

In the Baroque era, when instrumental genres became widespread, the role of the motet was transferred to the cantata, i.e. to the vocal-instrumental form, but the purely vocal motet continues to exist: motets were composed for various kinds of celebrations, and among their authors we find the greatest masters of the era. The history of the motet dates back about seven centuries, and in the field of Western church music this genre is second in importance only to the mass. Excellent examples of motets can be found in the works of Perotin, Guillaume de Machaux, John Dunstable, Guillaume Dufay, Jean Ockeghem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin de Pres, Orlando Lasso, Palestrina, Thomas Louis de Victoria, William Byrd, Heinrich Schutz, Bach, Mozart, Mendelssohn , Brahms and others.

Musical drama.

The term is mainly used when applied to the operas of Wagner and his imitators. Cm. OPERA; WAGNER, RICHARD.

Nocturne

(French nocturne, Italian notturno, "night"). At the end of the 18th century the Italian word notturno called chamber music intended for evening entertainment. In the era of romanticism, nocturne is a lyrical instrumental piece, often distinguished by a developed chordal texture. The first to call his piano pieces "nocturnes" was the Irish composer and pianist J. Field; his compositions served as a model for Chopin's nocturnes and other literature of this genre. In the works of Mendelssohn and Debussy one can also find orchestral nocturnes.

Opera.

Oratorio.

Organum

(Latin organum from Greek organon, "tool", "tool"). One of the earliest polyphonic forms, first described in a theoretical treatise Musica Enchiriadis(c. 900). The oldest type of organum, parallel, consisted of two voices - the main one, which contained the melody of the Gregorian chant (vox principalis) and the additional one, in which the same melody sounded a fourth or fifth higher or lower (vox organalis). Later they began to add a third voice - free counterpoint. In the early organum, all voices had the same rhythmic pattern and were recorded in free meter, without barlines; later, vox organalis acquired a melismatic character, i.e. there were already several rhythmic units per syllable of the text. Among the samples of the organum created by the French masters of the school of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris (Leonin, Perotin), there are those in which sections where there are several sounds of counterpoint for one sound of the main text alternate with sections in which voices move in one meter, but contain different melodic material. Subsequently, the application of different texts to such metrically homogeneous lines gave impetus to the emergence of a new polyphonic form - the motet.

Partita

(Italian partita from Latin pars, “part”). Literally - a multi-part composition; the name was used by J.S. Bach for a number of his instrumental suites.

Passacaglia

(Italian passacaglia; Spanish pasacalle, "street song"). The origin of the genre is a slow dance in triple meter, possibly of Spanish origin. Later, the passacaglia began to be called variations on a constantly recurring theme, which was located most often in the bass, but sometimes in other voices. Thus, this form is very close to the chaconne, and often identical to it. Both the passacaglia and the chaconne appear in 17th-century keyboard music. The most famous examples of the genre are the passacaglia in C minor for organ by J.S. Bach, and at a later time - the passacaglia in the finale of the Fourth Symphony by I. Brahms, in the Fourth String Quartet by P. Hindemith and in the First Symphony by S. Barber.

Passions

(literally “passion”; from Latin passio, “suffering”). An oratorio that tells a story last days the life of the Savior and his death on the cross; text - according to one of the four gospels.

Pastoral

(French pastorale, "shepherd's music"). A piece in 6/8 or 12/8 time with a graceful brooding melody, often supported by trailing sounds in the bass, representing a shepherd's bagpipes. The pastoral genre is often found in works related to the theme of the Nativity of Christ (for example, A. Corelli's Concerto Grosso No. 8, written for the Christmas holiday; Bach's Christmas Oratorio, Messiah Handel).

Song (romance)

In Russian, there is a fundamental difference between the terms "song" and "romance": the first refers primarily to folklore genres, as well as to different types of their processing and modifications in composer's work; the second - to works for voice with accompaniment, mostly professional and professional poetic texts, but sometimes folklore (for example, the Russian urban romance of the 19th century, which is a popular, folklorized version of the professional genre). IN German the term Lied, corresponding to the English song, is widespread; both of them can refer to different phenomena.

The term Lied appears in the chivalric songs of the Minnesingers (Walther von der Vogelweide); later they denoted: the works of the mastersingers (for example, the most famous among them - Hans Sachs); polyphonic songs of the 16th century. (Ludwig Senfl, Orlando Lasso); songs of the 17th century with an accompaniment of the basso continuo type, which was performed on any keyboard instrument (or in general on any instrument where it is possible to extract chords), sometimes along with strings or wind instruments (Adam Krieger); songs of the 18th century, in which folklore simplicity is combined with refined lyricism; the magnificent songs of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven; the art song of Germany of the romantic era is a huge corpus of wonderful vocal lyrics. The largest authors of the romantic art song were Schubert (more than 600 songs), Schumann, G. Wolf, R. Franz, R. Strauss and G. Mahler. In Russian, both the term "song" and the term "romance" are used in relation to these works. In the same way, both terms can be applied to works in this genre Russian classics, from Glinka to Prokofiev; the works of modern authors are more often called "romances", but sometimes also "songs" (for example, Sviridov's songs to the verses of Burns, Yesenin, Blok).

The expression "song form" often refers to a simple two-part (A-B) or three-part (A-B-A) instrumental form that has a song as its source, usually folklore.

Prelude

(French prelude; from Latin praeludere, "to play before"). An instrumental piece that serves as an introduction to subsequent music. In the 15th and 16th centuries preludes were sometimes called small pieces for the lute (Francesco Spinacchino) or for the clavier (William Bird, John Bull) in chord texture. Starting from the 17th century. the prelude forms a cycle with the fugue, as, for example, in Well-Tempered Clavier Bach, or opens a suite ( English suites Bach), or serves as an introduction to the singing of the chorale (choral preludes). In the 19th century an operatic overture, especially one written in free form, can also be called a prelude. At the same time, the name "prelude" as a designation of an independent genre appears in piano literature (Chopin, Rachmaninov, Scriabin), as well as in orchestral literature (Debussy's symphonic prelude Afternoon of a Faun).

Rhapsody

(Greek rhapsodia; from rhaptein, "to stitch", "compose", "compose" and ode, "song"). Rhapsody can be called an instrumental (occasionally vocal - for example, by Brahms) composition written in a free, improvisational, epic style, sometimes including genuine folk motifs ( Hungarian Rhapsodies Liszt, Blues Rhapsody Gershwin).

Recitative

(italian. recitative; from recitare, "recite", "read aloud", "tell"). Melodized speech, or musical recitation, was first used in the early operas of the 16th century, although the roots of the recitative no doubt go back to the ancient singing of the Catholic liturgy (cantus planus). As an independent expressive means, recitative was especially cultivated in the early baroque period: in recitative, composers tried to reproduce natural speech intonations in a generalized form, enhancing their meaning by means of melody and harmony. Then recitatives usually sounded accompanied by a clavier or organ, and the bass line was duplicated by strings or wind instruments. In opera and oratorio of the 17th–19th centuries. the recitative served the development of dramatic action: it reproduced the conversations or monologues of the characters, which were placed between arias, ensembles and choirs. The simplest recitative was called in Italian recitativo secco ("dry recitative"): it was performed in free rhythm and only occasionally supported by chords. Then a more melodic and expressive recitative began to prevail (well known from the operas of K.V. Gluck, written after his operatic reform): it was called recitativo accompagnato (or stromentato) - “accompanied”, or “instrumental” recitative - and was accompanied by the entire orchestra . A brilliant example of expressive instrumental recitative is contained in the finale of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.

Reachercar

(Italian ricercar; from ricercare, "to seek"). An instrumental form very common in the art of the 16th-17th centuries. It is characterized by a constant search (which is reflected in the title) of recurring themes and their place in the overall structure of the composition. Like fantasy, the ricercar in the instrumental realm corresponds to the motet in the vocal realm: the form arises from the successive fugue development of several melodies. In contrast to the motet, where the emergence of new themes is due to the appearance of new poetic (or prose) lines, in ricercara the primacy still belongs to one theme, and therefore this form can be considered the forerunner of the highly developed fugue of the Bach era. The term "richercar" can also refer to a non-imitation piece written in a free instrumental style and reminiscent of a toccata in character. Cm. FUGA.

Rondo

(French rondeau; from rond, "circle"). One of the oldest vocal and dance forms. Typical 13th century rondo was a homophonic (non-polyphonic) work: the trouveurs of Northern France surrounded each stanza of their songs with a repeating refrain (the form "virele" ) . For composers such as Guillaume de Machaux, Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, rondo-virele became polyphonic. In the Spanish cantigas of the 13th century. - hymns dedicated to the Virgin Mary - similar structures were used, and they also took place in the Italian ballata of the 14th century. and Spanish Villancico of the 16th century. In the 17th century rondo performed as part of an instrumental suite of dances (F. Couperin, J. Chambonière, J. F. Rameau): repeated refrains separated various episodes from each other.

The Italian analogue of the French form (rondo) became widely used from the beginning of the 18th century. to designate independent instrumental pieces. The structural principle of this rondo was the appearance of a repeating section as a frame for episodes exposing new themes. The main type of rondo: A-B-A-C-A. By the end of the 18th century rondo-shaped forms became more complex (А–В–А–С–А–В–А) and approached variational ones (А–В–А 1 –В–А 2 –С–А 3 ...) or even (as a result of through development main themes) to sonatas.

Sequence

(lat. sequentia, “following”, “what follows”). Musical and textual expansion of the "Alleluia" chant in the Catholic Mass. Around the 10th c. the custom spread to attach an additional Latin text (tropes) to the jubilee (the melismatic chant that ends the “Hallelujah”) and previously used different vowels (most often “a” as the last vowel of the word “Hallelujah”). As a result, an independent genre of Latin liturgical poetry arose - sequence, associated mainly with the holidays of the church year. In the Middle Ages, hundreds of different sequences were performed, but by the decision of the Council of Trent (1545) they were removed from the liturgy, with the exception of four sequences: the famous Dies irae(about Judgment Day) Lauda Sion Salvatorem(on the feast of the Body of the Lord), Veni sancte spiritus(on the feast of the Trinity), Victimae paschali laudes(Easter); later the sequence was also allowed Stabat mater(Mother of God).

Sextet

(German Sextett; from Latin sextus, "sixth"). This term usually refers to a work written in the form of a sonata cycle for six performers. The composition of a sextet may vary; most often it is a string quartet with two added instruments (for example, Mozart's sextet in F major, K. 522, for quartet and two horns, Brahms sextet in B flat major, op. 18, for two violins, two violas and two cellos). The name "sextet" can also refer to a vocal ensemble with or without accompaniment (sextets in operas Wedding of Figaro Mozart and Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti).

Serenade

(French serenade, Italian serenata, “evening music” or “evening entertainment”). By the end of the 18th century this name no longer implied evening or night performance (for example, Little night music, Eine kleine Nachtmusik by Mozart). Like the divertissement, the serenade was a common genre of composition for a small instrumental ensemble, which combined the features of the fading genre of the suite and the genre of the symphony directed towards the future. The serenade included, on the one hand, minuets, marches and the like, and on the other hand, variations and movements written in sonata or rondo-sonata forms. Very famous instrumental serenades can be found in the legacy of Mozart, Brahms, Tchaikovsky and Dvorak. As a vocal genre, the serenade is an appeal to the beloved, once performed at night under the window of a lady (examples: a serenade from Don Juan Mozart, Schubert romance Evening serenade).

symphonic poem.

A program orchestral composition is a genre that became widespread in the era of romanticism and includes features program symphony and concert overture (R. Strauss, Liszt, Smetana, Rimsky-Korsakov, etc.).

Scherzo

(Italian scherzo, "joke"). From the middle of the 18th century this word occurs in the titles of instrumental or vocal pieces playful character(Claudio Monteverdi, Scherzi Musicali, 1607; Johann Gottlieb Walther, scherzo for violin solo, 1676). After 1750, the scherzo became an exclusively instrumental genre, characterized by a fast tempo and, as a rule, a three-beat meter. At this time, the scherzo is found mainly as part of the sonata cycle (symphony, quartet). The scherzo is of particular importance in Beethoven's symphonies (beginning with the Second), where it finally displaces the minuet that was previously in this place. The scherzo usually retains the three-part form inherited from the minuet (scherzo - trio - scherzo); sometimes several trios may also appear (for example, in Brahms' Second Symphony). In the work of Chopin, Brahms and other composers of the same era, the scherzo also becomes an independent piano genre: these are small pieces of a rhapsodic impetuous nature with a trio of predominantly lyrical content. The subtitle "scherzo" gave P.Duc to his symphonic poem The Sorcerer's Apprentice.

Sonata

(Italian sonata; from sonare, "to sound"). In the exact meaning of the term - a multi-part composition for piano or string or wind instrument with piano. Sonata form is a fundamental structure that is very often used in the first (and also in other) parts of solo instrumental sonatas, works for instrumental ensembles, symphonies, concertos, etc. The meaning of sonata form is that the first appearance of themes (exposition) is replaced by their development (development) and then return (reprise). More about the history of sonata form and the possible meanings of the term "sonata" cm. SONATA. The varieties of the form are: rondo-sonata - a type that often appears in the finals of symphonic cycles and combines the features of the sonata (exposition, development, reprise) and rondo (return of the first theme in developing sections); sonatina (literally: "small sonata") - it either has fewer parts than in a regular sonata, or the parts themselves are simpler and shorter (sonatinas for piano by M. Clementi, for violin and piano by F. Schubert). In principle, the term "sonata" is applied to easy pieces for beginners, but there are also sonatinas (for example, M. Ravel's piano cycle), which require considerable technical skill from the performer.

Suite

(French suite, “sequence”). The name implies a sequence of instrumental pieces (stylized dances) or instrumental fragments from opera, ballet, music for drama, etc. Cm. SUITE.

Toccata

(Italian toccata). From the end of the 16th century this title refers to compositions for keyboard instruments written in a free improvisational manner. The word toccata means “touch”, “strike”, in this case a short blow on the keys, in contrast to sonata, i.e. lingering "sound" of stringed or wind instruments. In addition, the origin of the term "toccata" points to an even earlier era, when this word referred to the rhythm beaten by a military drum, or brass fanfare (for example, toccata from the opera Orpheus Monteverdi). Toccata for keyboards in the 16th century. (Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Luzzasco Luzzacchi) used a typically clavier technique and turned into virtuoso works, where improvisational passages alternated with solemn choral sounds. In some toccatas (especially those of Claudio Perulo and J. Frescobaldi) there are polyphonic sections. Toccata was also used as an introduction to ricercar or fugue. Toccatas of modern times (Schumann, Debussy, Ravel, Prokofiev) are piano pieces that are close in genre to the concert etude.

Trio

(Italian trio; from Latin tres, tria, “three”). Musical piece for three performers. The trio became widespread in the classical era as a type of instrumental music that used the sonata form. The most common are piano (violin, cello, pianoforte) and string (violin, viola, cello) trios. A vocal trio (with or without accompaniment) is usually called a tercet.

The term trio also refers to middle part minuet, scherzo, march or other three-part form. In this sense, the trio can generally be understood as a contrasting section between the exposition of the main thematic material and its repetition. In the old days, this section was composed for three solo instruments, and the term "trio" itself remained in use after the golden age of the concerto grosso genre, although the middle sections of the compositions were no longer instrumented for three, but for more instruments.

Trio

three, but for more instruments.

Trio sonata

(Italian trio-sonata). The main form of chamber instrumental music of the Baroque era. A trio sonata was composed for two high instruments, usually violins, and a basso continuo, usually represented by a cello and some kind of keyboard instrument or lute - thus, not three, but four players were required. The heyday of the trio sonata in all European musical centers was the period from 1625 to 1750, then, due to the death of the basso continuo as a functionally necessary element of the composition, the trio sonata was reborn into a string quartet. The trio-sonata genre combines the features of an old instrumental dance suite with elements of a new virtuoso string playing technique, old polyphonic and new homophonic styles; for the trio sonata, a direct anticipation of the methods of thematic development in sonata form is also typical. The main types of trio sonata were: sonata da chiesa (“church sonata”, intended for concert performance) and sonata da camera (“home sonata”, performed at home). The second type in many ways resembled a suite; the first, containing four parts (slow - fast - slow - fast), to some extent approached the baroque overture. By the beginning of the 18th century the differences between them have almost disappeared. Among the outstanding authors of trio sonatas we find S. Rossi, J. Legrenzi, A. Corelli, D. Buxtehude, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and J. M. Leclerc; this genre is also found later - for example, in Gluck and Haydn.

Overture

(French ouverture, "opening"). The name originally referred to an orchestral introduction performed before an opera, but soon came to mean introductions to works of other genres, such as cantatas or instrumental suites. This term acquires a completely definite meaning in the French court opera of the 17th century, namely from J.B. Lully. Such a French overture necessarily contained three sections: slowly - quickly - slowly. Slow sections, usually sustained in a punctuated rhythm, were associated with solemn court ceremonial; in the fast sections, the musical texture of the work was provided by the fugue development of the themes. The Italian opera overture, which finally took shape in the work of A. Scarlatti, was called "sinfonia" and also consisted of three sections, but in the reverse sequence of tempos: fast - slow - fast. The genre of the symphony grew out of such an overture ( cm. SYMPHONY), and even in 1793 Haydn's symphonies were still called "overtures" when they were performed in London. At the end of the 18th century opera overtures were composed mainly in sonata form and practically represented nothing more than the first part of the classical sonata-symphony cycle. Some composers (among them Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven) began to include themes from the corresponding opera in opera overtures. Classical overtures are also found in the genre of music for drama theater(The clearest example is Egmont Beethoven). Overtures in the opera of the next era, while retaining the features of the sonata form, more and more turn into a brief musical retelling of the content of the opera on its own thematic material. Concert overtures also appear as an independent genre. symphonic music program type (Mendelssohn, Brahms, Tchaikovsky).

Fantasy

(Greek phantasia). The instrumental composition is of a very free construction; in it, as the English composer and theorist T. Morley put it, “the composer is not attached to anything” (Morley meant a verbal text). In the 16th century fantasy was composed, as a rule, for the lute, clavier or instrumental ensemble in a polyphonic style, reminiscent of the ricercar or canzona style. In the 17th and 18th centuries the genre is increasingly enriched with elements of an improvisational nature - for example, in organ and clavier works by Buxtehude, Bach, Mozart. In the 19th century the name "fantasy" refers to instrumental, mainly piano pieces, to a certain extent free from established forms (for example, Sonata quasi una fantasia - Moonlight Sonata Beethoven, the fantasies of Chopin and Schumann). Fantasy could also be called improvisation on a chosen theme (for example, fantasy wanderer Schubert on the theme of the romance of the same name, Fantasy on a Theme by Thomas Tallis Vaughan Williams).

IN English language the term voluntary, similar in meaning to "fantasy", may refer to musical accompaniment Anglican church service (improvisational sections played during processions or at the end of worship) or to free-form instrumental works (masters of this genre were John Blow and Henry Purcell).

Frottola

(Italian frottola, from frotta "crowd"). The forerunner of the Renaissance madrigal, frottola was cultivated mainly in northern Italy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Frottolas were notable for liveliness of rhythm, they were composed in three- or four-voice textures, and were often performed by a singer with instrumental accompaniment.

Fugue

(lat., ital. fuga, “running”). A work based on the use of imitation polyphony. The form of the fugue, which has reached perfection in Bach's work, is the result of a long development of various counterpoint techniques and different forms, including canon, motet and ricercar. Fugues are composed for any number of voices (starting with two). The fugue opens with a statement of the theme (leader) in one voice, then other voices enter successively with the same theme. The second carrying out of the theme, often with a variation of it, is called the answer; while the answer sounds, the first voice continues to develop its melodic line - it counterpoints the answer (counterposition). In double fugues, such counterpoint takes on the meaning of a second theme (counter-theme). The introductions of all the voices form the exposition of the fugue. The exposition can be followed by either a counter-exposition (second exposition) or a polyphonic elaboration of the whole theme or its elements (episodes). In complex fugues, a variety of polyphonic techniques are used: increase (increase in the rhythmic value of all the sounds of the theme), decrease, inversion (reversal: the intervals of the theme are taken in the opposite direction - for example, instead of a quart up, a quart down), stretta (accelerated entry of voices "overlapping" each on each other), and sometimes a combination of similar techniques. The fugue genre is of great importance in both instrumental and vocal forms. Fugues can be independent pieces, combined with a prelude, toccata, etc., and finally, be part of great work or cycle. The techniques characteristic of the fugue are often used in the developing sections of the sonata form.

The double fugue, as already mentioned, is based on two themes that can enter and develop together or separately, but in the final section they are necessarily combined in counterpoint. see also FUGA.

choral

(German Choral). Initially, the Gregorian monophonic church hymn was called the chorale; later the name was assigned to Lutheran hymns. Martin Luther, who sought to ensure that all parishioners took part in worship, introduced into it hymns suitable for community singing. Thus the chorale, both as a separate hymn and as part of a larger composition, became the center of the Protestant liturgy. The musical sources of the chorale were: a) church hymns that existed before the Reformation; b) secular songs; c) newly composed melodies with texts, among which the reformist hymn is the most famous Ein" feste Burg ist unser Gott (Strong stronghold our God). Almost all German masters of the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. processed choral melodies. Chorals also form the basis of other liturgical compositions, including: 1) choral prelude - organ piece, based on the melody of the chorale and served as an introduction to community singing; 2) choral fantasy - an organ piece that develops the melody of the chorale in an improvisational manner; 3) choral partita - a large-scale instrumental work on the theme of a chorale; 4) choral motet - a detailed choral work; 5) chorale cantata - a large work for choir, soloists and orchestra using melodies of Lutheran hymns. The most perfect choral compositions that have come down to us belong to Michael Pretorius and J.S. Bach.

Chaconne

(Spanish chacona, Italian ciaconna). By origin - a slow three-part dance; later - a composition based on varying basso continuo or a melodic line (or chord progression) in bass voices (basso ostinato). The chaconne is very close to the passacaglia. Both of them appear for the first time at the beginning of the 17th century. in works for keyboard instruments. The most famous example of the genre is Bach's chaconne from the partita in D minor for solo violin. There is a current tendency to refer to the name "chaconne" as any variation on an unchanging chord progression, but such a narrowed view is not consistent with the historical meaning of the term.

Chanson

(French chanson, “song”; in Russian, the term “chanson” is feminine and does not decline). So they call not only songs, but also instrumental pieces in a vocal style. In the secular music of France, there were a number of varieties of chanson: 1) songs of medieval troubadours and trouveurs; 2) dance songs of the 14th century. (Guillaume de Macho); 3) polyphonic polyphonic choirs of the 15th and 16th centuries. (Gilles Benchois and Guillaume Dufay, Jean Okegem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin de Pres); this genre reaches its peak in the French version of the Italian Renaissance madrigal (Clement Jeannequin, Orlando Lasso, Thomas Crekiyon). Later, the name "chanson" could refer to a short strophic song of a popular type or to a French romance for voice with piano accompaniment, similar to the German Lied (Debussy, Fauré, Ravel, Poulenc). Modern pop French songs are also called chanson.

Impromptu

(lat. expromptus from the verb expromo, “I spread”, “bring down”; French impromtu). The meaning of the Latin word suggests that impromptu is a play composed under the influence of a given moment, a given situation. In piano literature of the 19th century. these are small plays. freeform, not necessarily improvisational. For example, impromptu by Schubert (op. 90) or Chopin (op. 29, 36) have a clear, mostly tripartite structure.

Etude

(French etude, "study"). A piece for mastering and improving any technical technique: playing staccato, octaves, double notes (on string instruments), the technique of “double or triple tongue” (on wind instruments), etc. In the 19th century the concert etude is widely used (especially in piano literature). In this genre, the development of any technical technique is combined with the independent artistic value of music. Brilliant concert studies were composed by Chopin, Schumann and Liszt. The toccata of the 17th and 18th centuries can be considered the forerunner of the concert form of the genre, in which a purely virtuoso element played a special role.

Literature:

Music Encyclopedia, tt. 1–5. M., 1973–1982
Kruntyaeva T., Molokova N. Dictionary of foreign musical terms. M. - St. Petersburg, 1996
Buluchevsky Yu., Fomin V. Brief Music Dictionary. SPb - M., 1998
Brief Musical Dictionary-Reference. M., 1998
Musical encyclopedic Dictionary . M., 1998