home
Psychological games
Serbian literature. Serbian literature of the 18th century: themes and features

Serbian literature. Serbian literature of the 18th century: themes and features

17.03.2019

Serbian literature

A. Dobrovolsky

The first rudiments of S. l. refer to end of XII And early XIII V. (the so-called "Miroslav Gospel" and other monuments). This and almost all subsequent medieval S. l. is ecclesiastical. These are the gospels, breviaries, canons, lives of saints and apocrypha. A little more widely known among these monuments - and there are about 2,000 of them - is only the "Code of Tsar Dushan" (Dushanov zakonik) of the 14th century. as an important historical monument. There are among these monuments a number of medieval novels, completely unoriginal, for example. novel about Alexander the Great. On the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Ages, the Serbian state perishes, the Serbian ruling class ("rulers") passes into Mohammedanism and denationalizes. Literary business from the XV-XVIII centuries. cultivated only in monasteries and continues to serve exclusively the needs of the church. But on the other hand, folklore is developing tremendously, especially the epic glorifying the ancient Serbian kings (Tsar Lazar, etc.), heroes (Marko Kralevich, Milos Obilich, etc.) and "haiduks", the death of the Serbian state in the battle of Kossovo, etc. Studies have shown that most of these Serbian folk songs arose much later (after 200 years) after the death of the Serbian state, when Turkish oppression began to intensify unbearably, so that the death nation state began to be perceived as a loss of freedom in general, although serf relations existed among the Serbs even before the arrival of the Turks. The struggle of the Serbian peasants against the feudal oppression of the Turkish landowners and the Turkish authorities, glorified in the epic, has a religious and national coloring, but in it one can also find a number of moments where this struggle is clearly perceived as a class struggle (“Rebellion against the Dahyas” - “Buna on the Dahye”, songs about haiduk "Starets Vuyadin"). Artistic value of the Serbian epic is very high, although it was often exaggerated by comparison with the songs of the Iliad, etc. The collector of Serbian folklore was who lived in the first half of the 19th century. Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic (1787-1864).

S. l. actually arose only in the 18th century. among the Serbian bourgeoisie (chief arr. merchants), which developed under the conditions of emigration of Serbs who settled in southern Hungary. It grew stronger largely thanks to the patronage of the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The earlier Dubrovnik literature should be attributed, both in terms of language and its historical destinies, to one of the historical periods Croatian literature. At first, it, like the medieval Serbian proper, is more of a "writing" than literature. The language of early Serbian writing is not Serbian folk, but the so-called. "Slavic-Serbian" - a mixture of Russian, Serbian folk and Church Slavonic languages. This literature was under strong Russian influence, since Serbian priests, almost the only literate people at that time, studied in Russia or had Russian teachers. Even Peter I sent the Serbs the first teacher of literature M. T. Suvorov - these were the first literary rudiments of the pan-Slavist policy of Tsarist Russia towards the Serbs, a policy that in this case was specifically a maneuver against Austria and Turkey. From literary monuments 18th century we can mention the "Slavic-Serbian Chronicle" of Count Georgy Brankovich (1645-1711) and the works of Zakhary Stefanovich-Orfelin (1726-1785) - "The Life of Peter the Great", etc. K late XVIII V. (1791) the first Serbian gas appeared in Vienna. Serbian News. By the end of the XVIII century. in connection with the development of the class of the Serbian bourgeoisie and the desire to create a nationally independent state, a desire is awakened to organize the Serbian literary language. from elements of Serbian folk speech. Of course, this language was still very little developed and reflected the ideology of the class that was its main organizer - the class of the Serbian bourgeoisie of the era of the disintegration of feudalism and the maturation of capitalist relations in the specific historical conditions of the struggle against Turkish feudal oppression. The first writer in the vernacular Serbian language, although quite littered with "Slavo-Serbianism", was Dosifey Obradovic (1742-1811), a pioneer of enlightenment ideas that dominated at that time in the West among the Serbs. His main works are "Belly and Adventures" (1783) and "Fables" (1788). The era of Obradovic is commonly called the “era of rationalism”. She was a literary harbinger and companion of the struggle of the Serbs against Turkish feudal oppression at the beginning of the 19th century.

In the first half of the XIX century. in connection with some successes in this struggle, the partial liberation of Serbia from the Turks and further progress among the Serbian bourgeoisie within capitalized Austria, there is an allocation fiction from literature in general. A number of writers, poets and novelists appear, writing partly in the vernacular, partly in the "Slavo-Serbian" language; but their writings (for example, the poems of Lukiyan Mushitsky (1777-1837) or the novels of Milovan Vidakovich (1780-1841)) are long outdated and have only historical interest. The exception is the Montenegrin bishop and head of state Petar Petrovich Negosh, who lived at the same time (1813-1851), the author of the famous poem "Gorski Vijenac", one of the best works S. l., which describes the life and way of life of Montenegrins. At the same time, Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic, a well-known Slavic reformer of the Serbian language and letters, lived and labored. His biggest literary undertaking was the collection of Serbian folk songs. The epoch of the revolution of 1848 and the liquidation of the foundations of feudalism in Europe is the epoch when Karadzic's reformist ideas in the field of language received universal recognition (around 1840-1860). Similarly to similar phenomena at the dawn of capitalist development in Europe and in S. l. Poetry and prose are widely developed in the stylistic forms of romanticism, which met the demands of the craving for a bourgeois rebirth of Serbian writers' circles. The largest writers of this type were poets: Branko Radicevic (1824-1853) - a cheerful lyricist; Zmaj-Jovan Jovanovich (1833-1904) - the most educated writer of this time, very prolific, with a broad outlook, who managed to give both beautiful songs for children, and political satire, and sing the ideals in the taste of the national democratic worldview, and, most interestingly, the Paris Commune; Gyura Jaksic (1832-1878) - a romantic, a poet of great power (but very weak in prose); partly Laza Kostic (1841-1910) - poet and playwright; Jovan Ilic, etc. Of the prose writers, not one has achieved such universal recognition like the first three of the poets. Stefan Mitrov Lyubisha (1824-1878) and M. G. Milichevich (1831-1898), who provided interesting folklore and linguistic material in their works, as well as M. P. Shapchanin, stand out somewhat. K. Trifković (1848-1875) is known as a playwright, and even more so his predecessor Jovan Sterija Popović, whose satire “Godoliubtsi”, exposing petty-bourgeois patriotism, is still relevant to this day. In the era of romanticism, folklore themes and artistic devices were still strong in literary poetry, in particular in poetry, but Western influences also penetrated. However, the influence of Western literature is extremely weak compared to the folk element. In the revolution of 1848, the Serbs, together with their writers, played a counter-revolutionary role, which also led to the strengthening of national isolation in literature. In the second half of the 19th century, on the contrary, in connection with the growth of the capitalist bourgeoisie, the development of broader ties with the foreign market, the general ideological attitudes in the Serbian literary process. In the 70-80s. 19th century Bourgeois-realist literature is developing widely, which no longer fences itself off from the "rotten West", but joins it and learns from it. Serbia, which by that time had become a politically independent country, attracted the cultural forces of those parts of the Serbian people who lived in Austria-Hungary. If earlier, in the XVIII and early XIX centuries. center S. l. was in a foreign land, in Vienna and Budapest, and in the middle of the XIX century. - in the mountains. New Garden, in southern Hungary (“Serbian Athens”), now Serbia proper and in particular Belgrade are becoming such a center more and more. Nevertheless, the general cultural development and, in particular, the development of S. l. in Austria-Hungary is not weakening, but strengthening. Here there is a closer rapprochement between the Serbs and Croats, but still the merging of S. l. does not happen with Croatian.

The era of bourgeois realism was marked by the restructuring of "romantics", like Zmai-Jovan Jovanovic, in a "realistic way" and the emergence of a number of writers who introduced realistic techniques and social and political trends into literature. In general, until this time, S. l. Enlightenment didactics, Slavophilism, and most of all nationalism are characteristic, but only a few writers were able to artistically express these tendencies. "The era of realism" means a turning point in this respect, but in S. l. elements of romanticism still live on for a long time, because they are more in line with the dominant nationalist trend, sometimes turning into chauvinism.

The most typical writers of this era are the excellent stylist, short story writer "Serbian Turgenev" Laza Lazarevich (1851-1890), Milovan Glisic (1847-1908), the first realistic writer of everyday life of the Serbian village, a good translator from Russian ("War and Peace"), Sima Matavul (1852-1908), writer of everyday life of all bourgeois social classes in the territory of modern Yugoslavia, humorist-realist Stevan Sremac (1855-1906), poet Vojislav Ilyich (1862-1894), from whom modern Serbian poetry begins. This period also marks the beginning of literary activity. popular humorist and the playwright Branislav Nusic (b. 1864) and later the great poet Aleksi Šantić (1868-1924), who had a great influence on the Serbian nationalist youth until 1914. Along with the strengthening of the influence of Western literature (French, etc.), this era also saw a considerable influence and Russian literature, since a significant part of the Serbian intelligentsia also studied in Russia. At this time, many translations of Russian classics were made: Gogol, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, etc. towards socialism in Serbia and the Balkans. Actually, he did little in literature, writing only two articles on the topic of poetry and realism, but they had a great influence and contributed to the assertion in S. l. realism.

On the threshold of the XX and in the XX century. bourgeois S. l. ascends to the highest level. Despite the fact that S. l. and during this period did not produce works that were included in world literature, nevertheless, a number of Serbian writers did not lag behind the same writers of other countries who had a "local" significance, which was greatly facilitated by the establishment in Serbia in 1903 of a constitutional-democratic regime, which gave even more wide scope for the development of capitalism in Serbia. In 1901, the literary journal Srpski Kvizhevni Glasnik and a number of others appeared. literary criticism(Bogdan Popovich, (b. 1863) - Jovan Skerlich (1877-1914)). The leading genre of literature at this time, as in the 19th century, is poetry. prominent representatives Serbian poetry at that time were Jovan Ducic (b. 1871), who was brought up under the strong influence of French bourgeois literature, Milon Rakic, one of the best craftsmen Serbian poetry, Aleksa Shantich, the bard of Serbian nationalism, Stevan Lukovic, "decadents" S. Pandurovich and Vl. Petkovic-Dis (1880–1917), M. Koralia (b. 1886), and others. Bourgeois S. L., reflecting the corresponding processes in the social and political development of Serbian bourgeois society, singles out a number of ideologists of the petty bourgeoisie, the poorest peasantry, raising their voice against individual aspects of the bourgeois system. So, for example. among the prose writers, we should mention Petr Kochich (1877-1916) - the ideologist of the nationally and socially enslaved Serbian Bosnian peasantry (his satire "The Trial of the Badger" is remarkable), I. Chiniko - the whistleblower of the kulaks (the novel "Spiders"), Rad. Domanovich (1873-1908) - the author of the satire "Kralevich Marko for the second time among the Serbs", Bor. Stankovic, the writer of everyday life of collapsing patriarchal social relations in the Serbian southern province, Milutin Uskokovich, the first writer of urban life in Serbia. At the same time, there are also recognized poets and writers, such as Donica Markovic (b. 1879), Isidora Sekulich (b. 1877). In dramaturgy, the comedian Br. Nusic (b. 1864). It should be noted that the proletariat, which had just begun to develop in Serbia, managed at that time to put forward the talented, but died early poet Kosta Abrashevich (1879-1898).

The era of wars for Serbia that began in 1912 (two Balkan and world wars), the realization as a result of these wars of the "age-old dreams" of the Serbian people and its complete unification in the newly created State of Yugoslavia, did not give corresponding results in the literature. This is explained by the fact that the moment of national liberation in these wars played a completely minor role, as was noted in his time by Lenin. The freedom-loving national dreams that inspired Serbian poets and writers were shattered by the imperialist pretensions of the Great Serbian bourgeoisie. The unsightly reality of the war, which took almost a quarter of the entire Serbian people to the grave, and the state and social order established as a result of it, led to great disappointment among petty-bourgeois writers and ideologists of that part of the bourgeoisie that was, to one degree or another, bypassed in the process of developing imperialist policy. Yugoslavia. However, these social strata turned out to be too weak and were unable to single out bold critics of the established system from their midst. But on the other hand, not a single work that does not contain elements of the denial of military and post-war reality enjoys mass success. It is perceived as a lie, bureaucratic or, at best, as an empty flower (for example, See Krakow's novel "Kroz Buru"). And since there are few works that are in any way free from similar shortcomings- and even those usually contain only attempts at light "self-criticism", then in the advanced strata of bourgeois society and in the working class, translated literature is more successful than the original, and on the other hand, some Croatian revolutionary writers who are close in spirit to the proletarian movement (M. Krlezh (b. 1893), A. Tsesarets (b. 1896), etc.). In S. l. we still see glimpses of revolutionary self-awareness in the works of some writers (D. Vasić, M. Bogdanovich, J. Popović, B. Čosić). It should be noted the tradition of the Serbian bourgeoisie to award famous writers sinecure and tie them to their own interests, which also to a large extent explains the official tone of many contemporary Serbian writers. Of the more or less well-known modern bourgeois Serbian writers, we should mention: M. Nastasievich, Zhivadinovich, G. Bozovic, B. Efsic, the Nikolayevich brothers, V. Jankovic, etc., and the best contemporary playwright Josif Kulundzhic. M. Bogdanovich and V. Gligoric are the leading petty-bourgeois critics. Works enjoy great success Soviet writers. But since their publication is almost impossible under censorship conditions, they are read either in the Russian original or in German and other translations. Quite a lot is translated from Western European languages. Leading publishing houses are "Nolit" (" New Literature”), Cosmos (a good edition of Marx’s Capital), and Serene Highness.

Serbian writers who came out after the war sometimes surpass the old writers in terms of formal perfection of their works, but not one has acquired great fame and influence.

In the first years after the war, during the years of the cult of formalism, the main trend in bourgeois style l. there was expressionism (M. Crnyansky, S. Milicic, T. Manajovic, G. Petrovich, Aleksic, Topin, Vinaver, Dedinats). The empty and meaningless poetry of both this and other directions (“Zenitism” of Mitsich, etc.) often sought to declare its sympathy October revolution and the revolutionary proletariat, but already the era of partial stabilization of capitalism and especially the crisis and the establishment of the military-fascist dictatorship in Yugoslavia led a significant part of the writers of these trends to the ranks of fascism. However, a number of representatives from other groups, also formalist, in particular from the last years groups of surrealists (M. Ristic, K. Popovich, G. Jovanovich, etc.) strive to join the labor movement.

The characteristic phenomenon for post-war S. of l. (and related Croatian) there was the appearance, starting in 1919, of a number of magazines with a more or less clearly expressed Marxist ideology, which had great distribution and influence, but all of them were sooner or later banned (“Struggle”, “New Literature”, “ Knizhevna Republic”, “Stozher”, “Danas”, etc.).

List literature

Šafárik P. J., Geschichte des serbischen Schrifttums, Prag, 1865

Murko M., Geschichte d. alt. Sudslavischen Literatur, Lpz., 1908

Skerlich I., Srpska kњizhevnost in the 18th century, Beograd, 1909 (late ed. 1923)

His own, History of the New Serbian Society, Beograd, 1914 (late ed., 1921)

Prohaska D., Pregled in the Time of the Croatian-Srpske Society, Zagreb, 1921

Stanoyevich M. S., Early Jugoslav literature, 1000-1800, N. Y., 1922

Seifert J. L., Literaturgeschichte der Čechoslowaken Südslaven u. Bulgaren, Kempden-München, 1923

Gesemann G., Die serbo-kroatische Literatur, Wildpark-Postdam, 1930.

Plan:

1 ancient literature
2 XVII-XVIII centuries
3 19th century
4 XX century

Introduction

Serbian literature(Serb. Srpska kњizhevnost) - literature in the Serbian language, or written by Serbian authors.

The history of Serbian literature is usually divided into three periods: the ancient one - until the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, the middle one - until the end of the 18th century, and the new (modern).

1. Ancient Literature

Like Russian writing, Serbian also developed on the soil, although related, but still non-Slavic, precisely thanks to books Holy Scripture and liturgical, translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic by Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples and transferred to Serbia from Bulgaria. These books, as a result of their correspondence by Serbian scribes, soon began to dazzle various features Serbian living speech, and thus Serbian varieties (extractions) of Old Church Slavonic manuscripts occurred, just as Russian ones were formed in Russia. The main feature of the Serbian spelling of these monuments is the use b instead of b, at- instead of a big yus (as in Russian spelling), e- instead of a small yus, sometimes A instead of b. The oldest examples of manuscripts of the Serbian edition include: the Miroslav Gospel - an excellently preserved aprakos of the 12th century, the Vlkanov Gospel - the beginning of the 13th century, the St. Nicholas Gospel - the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century. In addition to books of ecclesiastical and spiritual and moral content, the Serbs adopted for themselves almost the rest of the composition of the old Bulgarian literature, through which the Slavs of the Eastern Rite of that time became acquainted with Byzantine literature in general.

Soon the Serbs also became independent contributors to the common Slavic literature of the East. Serbian scribes circulated the same edifying collections of spiritual and secular, sometimes purely historical content (Palea, Zlatostruy, Prologue, etc.) or pseudoscientific (Physiologist, etc.) that were circulating in Bulgaria and Russia; the same can be said about works of a narrative nature, such as, for example, the stories about Alexander the Great, about Trojan War, about Devgeny, about Varlaam and Joasaph, as well as about various apocrypha and books rejected by the church (the works of the Bulgarian priest Jeremiah, books of Bogomils or Patareni, etc.).

Much more than in all these books, we find traces of living Serbian speech in the wills of everyday writing and legal monuments. Of the first, the lives of Stefan Nemanja, compiled by his sons Stefan the First-crowned and St. Savva and the Hilandarian monk Domentian, a disciple of St. Savva, who also wrote his life. Life of St. Savva also found a second compiler in the person of the monk Theodosius. The Bulgarian native Grigory Tsamblak, also known for his literary activity in Russia, owns the life of Stefan Dechansky, another biography of which is found in the life collection of the XIV century "Tsarostavnik", or "Genealogy".

In general, Serbian "everyday" writing not only did not differ in particular height, but was even justly condemned by the latest researchers (especially A.F. Gilferding) for immoderate exaggerations in praise, hypocrisy, flattery and inconsistency of the eloquent language with the sometimes terrible deeds of glorified persons. . The work of the Bulgarian native, “philosopher” Konstantin Kostenchsky, remarkable for its time, stands somewhat apart - the life of the Serbian despot Stefan, the son of Tsar Lazar, defeated by the Turks on the Kosovo field, in terms of methods more reminiscent of the work of modern historians than ancient “everyday” writers, and distinguished by fidelity historical messages; this is the most valuable work of all ancient Serbian everyday and historical literature. Monuments of law - contractual letters, etc. - are curious not only in their language, which is an example of the then living Serbian speech, but also in the details of everyday life; such, for example, is the agreement between Kulin, Ban of Bosnia, with Prince Korvash, the Dubrovnik envoy (1189), the “Vinodolsky Law” and especially the lawyer of Tsar Dushan, as well as various deeds of gift and other letters of both this king and other rulers, and the Photius nomocanon, that is, a collection of church ordinances.

2. XVII-XVIII centuries

In the middle period of Serbian literature, researchers distinguish, on the one hand, its flourishing in Dubrovnik and, as a reflection of this phenomenon, the literary activity of writers in Slavonia and Bosna, and on the other hand, the emergence in the 17th-18th centuries of a frozen field of literature after Kosovo in its own Serbia and then among the Austrian Serbs: this is the so-called Slavic-Serbian school of writers, who tried to maintain the old literary tradition and defend book unity with Russia. Dubrovnik literature, which developed under the influence of the early Italian Renaissance, presented a number of brilliant writers who brought the development of the Serbian language and verse to a significant degree of strength and beauty (see Dubrovnik). Andrei Kacic-Miocic (1690-1760), as if ending Dubrovnik literature with his fruitful activity, served, perhaps, as a link connecting it with the new period of Serbian literature. Of the Bosnian writers, the most remarkable is Matija Divkovic (1563-1631), the author of the books "Sciences of the Peasant", "Beside Svrhu (-o) Evandela Nedil", "One Hundred Miracles", a poetic legend about St. Katerina and others. Among the writers active in Slavonia, Matija Antun Relkovich (1732-1778) is more noticeable than others with his poetic work "Satire or ti divichovik" (1761), which at one time made a deep impression on the Serbian reading world; its significance in the history of Serbian literature is almost equal to the significance of Kačić-Miočić's "Conversation", since the spiritual image and material well-being of the Slavonian society contemporary to the author were vividly reflected here in images that are extremely natural and truthful, alien to the stiffness and stiffness of most of the then works of Serbian literature.

Dubrovnik literature should be attributed, both in terms of language and its historical destinies, to one of the historical periods of Croatian literature. At first, it, like the medieval Serbian proper, is more of a "writing" than literature. The language of early Serbian writing is not Serbian folk, but "Slavic-Serbian" - a mixture of Russian, Serbian folk and Church Slavonic languages. This literature was under strong Russian influence, since Serbian priests, almost the only literate people at that time, studied in Russia or had Russian teachers.

The Slavic-Serbian school of writers, associated with ancient Serbian writing by the activity of Patriarch Paisios (XVII century), exhibited several serious figures, such as Christopher Zhefarovich, Zaharie Orfelin, Joakim Vuich, Rakic, Terlaich and especially Rajic John (1726-1801), whose work " The history of various Slavic peoples, especially the Bulgarians, Croats and Serbs ”, representing a coherent and systematic, although without skillful critical processing, story about the events of South Slavic history, for a long time was the only more or less valuable source of information about the past of the Balkan Slavs. The remarkable literary and educational activity of Dosifey Obradovic (1731-1811) on the one hand completes the Slavic-Serbian school, on the other hand, is the herald of those new beginnings that formed the basis of all the transformative work of the famous pioneer of new Serbian literature Vuk Karadzic, whose literary forerunner can be Obradovic be named par excellence. This is the type of the eternal wanderer-teacher, for whom the interests of enlightenment and book learning are the most precious things in the world. His book "Belly and Adventures", containing a description of his entire troubled life, is full of deep interest (see Radchenko, "Dosifei Obradovic"). His other outstanding works: published in Leipzig in 1784 "Councils of common sense" - as it were, a course of practical morality "for the Serbian people" - and published in Vienna in 1793 "Collection of various moralizing things for the benefit and amusement." His language contains, in comparison with previous writers, much more folk elements, although it is still far from being free from Slavicisms; his worldview is largely rationalistic in nature (for example, in the question of monasteries). Politically, he was a supporter of monarchism; Peter the Great was for him an example of a sovereign who cares about the people's welfare and enlightenment.

3. XIX century

Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic (1787-1864) is perhaps the most remarkable personality of the new Serbian not only literature, but even the history of his time, in terms of strength of spirit and originality. Top content of all his long-term scientific and literary activity can be reduced to the following main points: a) the decisive use in the book of pure vernacular, instead of the hitherto dominant Serbo-Slavic-Russian; b) the establishment in the book of a new spelling (vukovitsa), based almost exclusively on the sound principle and distinguishing the new Serbian book from both the old Serbian book and from Russian and Bulgarian, where the historical and etymological principle still dominates; c) requirement from the literature of knowledge folk life and songs and greater correspondence of her images with reality; d) the communication of Serbian artificial poetry of a tonic poetic meter suitable for it, close to the folk or even identical with it, instead of the metric and syllabic meter that prevailed before.

All these elements of the Vukov transformations had to endure half a century of struggle before they received full recognition and then unlimited approval in literature and life. The most important of Karadzic’s works: a huge collection of folk songs (“Srpske narodne pjesme”), Serbian grammar (“Pismenitsa srbskog jezika”), the famous Serbian dictionary (“river” with German and Latin translation words - a whole treasury not only of the language, but also of folk life, its customs, legends, beliefs, etc.), several issues of the scientific and literary almanac "Danica" (dennitsa), S. translation of the New Testament, "Narodne srbsk proverb" , "Kovchezhich for history, jezik and obichaje Srba" - a treasury of Serbian folk description, "Primjvri srbskoslavensky jezik". The activities of Karadzic were appreciated not only by the Serbs, but also by other Slavs; in Russia, for example, he was elected an honorary member of various scientific societies and institutions. All-European science also highly appreciated the remarkable activity of the scientist nugget; thus, for example, Jacob Grimm repeatedly recognized the outstanding significance of his works. Thanks to the activities of Vuk, the very direction of literature among the Serbs changed: instead of sentimental novels and the stories of Milovan Vidaković (1780-1841) and the pseudo-classical works of the ode writer Lushan Mushitsky (1777-1837) and the epic Simeon Milutinović (1790-1847), whose "Serbian" is a curious, far from mediocre mixture of fresh folk-poetic beginnings with tasteless additions - a lively and vigorous romanticism appeared with Aleksey Brank Radicevic (1824-1853) at the head. The main works of this little Serbian Pushkin belong to the lyrical genre; his poems are much weaker, he did not write dramas at all. The best in the collection of his works (“Pesme”) are “Deacons rastanak” (student separation) and “The Way”. The first work is full of deep lyricism and rich in luxurious descriptions of nature; his language is remarkable: it is “pure as a tear”, in the words of Brankov’s friend, the famous Serbian philologist Yuri Danichich (1825-1882), who penetratingly assessed the social and literary significance of Radicevic’s poetry.

The glory of the first Serbian poet is shared with Brank Radicevic by his contemporary Petr II Petrovich Negosh (1814-1851), the last Montenegrin "lord", whose early death was almost the same loss for his native literature, as was the even more untimely death of Brank. The largest work Negosh is usually recognized as "Gorski vjenats", a poem that in a dramatic form depicts the historical event of the end of the 17th century - the beating of the Turkmen by Montenegrins, that is, their brethren who converted to Mohammedanism. This poem is full of wonderful artistic and folk scenes depicting the thoughts and feelings of the people's soul (Russian poetic translation made by Mr. Lukyanovsky. The poetic successor of Brank Radicevic, Zmaj-Iovan Iovanovitch (1833-1904), was one of the most prominent Seri poets of his time. This is also mainly a lyricist, in epic works he is only a good translator of the Magyar poets Aranya and Petofi, as well as Pushkin, Lermontov, and others. Of the lyric collections, he deserves special attention“Roses” (Dyulichi), “Withered Roses” (Dyulichi uveoczi), “Source (Eastern) Beads” (see “Dawn”, Kiev, 1893, “Slavic Muse”, St. Petersburg). His children's songs and humorous poems are also good. Yury Yakshich and Lazar Kostic shared glory with Zmay Iovanovich. The Ilyich brothers are also known: the lyric poet Voislav and the playwright Dragutin, as well as Kachyansky. The works of the Montenegrin prince Nikolai (the drama "The Balkan Queen", "Nova Koda", etc.) are also widely known, who penned the Montenegrin hymn "Onamo, onamo" ("There, there!", Russian translation), so widespread throughout the face of Serbia. V. Benediktov). Of the playwrights, Trifkovich is also known. Among fiction works, novels and stories by G. Atanatskovich, S. Lyubisha, P. Adamov, M. Shabchanin, M. Milicevic, I. Veselinovich, S. Matavul and especially Lazar Lazarevich, almost all of whose stories (for example, “The School Icon ”, “At the well”, “Werther”, etc.) are also translated into Russian.

4. XX century

On the threshold of the XIX-XX centuries, Serbian literature rises to the highest level. Despite the fact that Serbian literature during this period did not produce works that were included in world literature, nevertheless, a number of Serbian writers did not lag behind the same writers of other countries who had a "local" significance.

In the twentieth century, many young and talented writers appeared in Serbian literature. One of them is Ivo Andric, who for the book "The Bridge on the Drina" (Serb. On Drini supriya), published in 1945, received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961.

With Andric, Danilo Kis is regarded as one of the most famous Serbian authors, along with such writers as Milos Crnjansky, Mesha Selimovic, Borislav Pekic, Milorad Pavic, David Albahari, Miodrag Bulatovich, Dobrica Chosic, Zoran Zhivkovic, Elena Dimitrievich, Isidora Sekulich and many others. Milorad Pavić is perhaps the most famous Serbian author today, primarily for his "Khazar Dictionary" (Serb. Khazar Rechnik), translated into 24 languages.

SERBIAN LITERATURE
The origins of Serbian literature originate in works of an ecclesiastical and religious nature, which prevailed in it until the second half of the 18th century.

The oldest monuments of Serbian literature are the books of Holy Scripture and liturgical books translated from Greek by Sts. Cyril and Methodius and, therefore, written in the Old Church Slavonic language. In addition, the composition of ancient Serbian and Montenegrin literature includes Bulgarian translations of Byzantine books, as well as Bulgarian biographies of Serbian kings and archbishops, which are of an ecclesiastical panegyric nature. But, over time, traces of living original Serbian speech began to appear in Serbian translations and writings, as, for example, in the life of St. Stefan Nemanya (in the monasticism of Simeon), compiled by his sons, St. Savoy and King Stefan the First Crowned; in the life of St. Savva, written by the monk Domentian. Archbishop of Serbia, St. Daniil collected information about the history of Serbia and wrote Pedigree, where in the first part he eloquently described the affairs of the Serbian rulers from 1272 to 1325 and their biographies, and in the second - the life of the Serbian primates. By the first half of the 15th century. is remarkable for its time the story of despot Stefan Lazarevich, written by the Bulgarian Konstantin Kostenchsky. Important sources for the history of morals are Lawyer of Tsar Dushan(1349-1354) - the first attempt to codify law, named after the initiator of its development, Stefan Uros IV Dushan.
Among the narratives of a secular or pseudo-scientific nature, one should mention the stories about Alexander the Great, about the Trojan War, apocryphal and popular-religious books of the Bogomils and Patareni.

At the end of the 17th century The Treaty of Pozharevatsky (1718) subordinated Serbia to Austria, and, consequently, brought it into closer contact with European culture, and soon Serbian literature began to develop in a new direction. The main representative of this Slavo-Serbian literature is Jovan Rajic (1726–1801), whose work The history of various Slavic peoples, especially Bulgarians, Croats and Serbs brought the author considerable fame.

Significant Serbian poets of this period include Lukian Mušický (1777–1837) and Simeon Milutinović (1790–1847); novelists - Stojkovic and Milovan Vidakovic and, finally, the greatest Serbian lyric poet Branko Radicevic (1824-1853).

Peru of this Serbian Lermontov owns a poem about the youth national liberation movement Breakup of school friends (Deacons of razstanok, 1847), allegorical poem Path, aimed at opponents of Karadzic. Radicevic masterfully used the poetics of folk songs in his lyrical poems and romantic poems (Goiko, Stoyan, Haiduk's grave and others, 1851–1853).

An important role in the formation of the literature of Serbia and Montenegro and in the development of early romanticism was played by the Montenegrin Bishop, Metropolitan Prince Peter II Petrovich Negosh (1813–1851). With my works mountain crown, Rays of microcosm, false king and others. he gained fame far beyond the borders of Montenegro. The main theme of his poems was the struggle of Montenegrins and Serbs against the Ottoman Turks, and his dramatic poem mountain crown(1847) preached the idea of uniting the southern Slavs. mountain crown has now been translated into more than 52 languages of the world.

Jovan Jovanovich-Zmaj (1833–1904), who wrote collections of poetry roses, 1864, withered roses, 1886, Oriental beads and many others, was also a brilliant translator of poems into Serbian. Until now, his translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov, Dobrolyubov, Heine, Petofi and many other European poets have no equal in Serbian literature.

No less important literary heritage Djura Jaskich (1832–1878) and Laz Kostić (1841–1910) in the enrichment of poetic language and refraction folk epic and national motives in poetry.

Serbian literature flourished in the 19th century. and was associated with the influence of romanticism.
The center of literary life in Vojvodina was the city of Novi Sad, and the leading literary magazines were Danica, Javor and Matica. Romantic poetry occupied an important place in Montenegrin literature; outstanding poets were S. Petrovich-Tsutsa (1830–1857), Nikola I Petrovich (1841–1921, prince, then king) and M. Shobaich (1836–1917).

The period 1870–1895 was characterized by the development of the novel and essay writing, the influence of Russian and French literature, and the struggle for the predominance of socio-critical realism and psychologism in literature. Comedies by the Serbian writer and playwright Branislav Nusic (1864–1938) were shown in theaters. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. along with the development of realism, modernism was born.

Scientific literature began to develop in Serbia at the end of the 18th century. - the beginning of the 19th century. Of the historians, Illarion (Jovan) Ruvarac (1832-1905), the founder of the scientific-critical school in Serbian historiography, the famous Serbian historian and writer of the 19th century, Archimandrite Nikifor (Ducic), Panta Srechkovic (1834-1903), who wrote History of the Serbian people until the end of the 14th century. (1884).

Philologists - Djura Danicic (1825-1882), student and successor of Karadzic's work on the transformation of Serbian literary language and its rapprochement with the people, who translated the Gospel into the Serbian language; representative of the critical trend in Serbian historiography Stojan Novaković (1842–1915), – Serbian political figure and scientist, author of works on the medieval and modern history of Serbia, on the history of the Serbian language and literature, on historical geography, literary criticism, bibliography, publisher historical sources; collector of literary monuments and songs Bogolyub Petranovich and many others.

In the first years after the First World War, such a trend as "new modernism", or literary expressionism. His prominent representative was the Serbian poet and writer Milos Crnjansky (1893-1977).
In the second half of the 20th century realism and modernism continued to exist in literature. The group of realist writers included the Serbian writer Dobrica Čosić (who later became an academician, and in 1992 the first president of the FRY) and the Montenegrin poet, critic and publicist Radovan Zogovic (1907–1986); to the second - Radomir Konstantinovich.

Serbian writer Branko Čopić touched on the theme of the struggle of the people against the fascist occupiers in the novel Breakthrough(1952); Serbian writer Oscar Davicho devoted his works to the same subject ( Song, 1952) and Montenegrin writer Mihailo Lalich ( Lelei mountain, 1957). The works of the Serbian writer Erich Kosh were very popular.

The most famous Serbian writer of the 20th century. – Ivo Andrić (1892–1975), author of a number of historical novels and short stories in which he described the life of Bosnian society ( Bridge on the Drina, 1945; Travnica chronicle, 1945; Cursed Yard, 1954; and etc.). In 1961 Andric won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Of contemporary Serbian writers, the most famous is Milorad Pavić, the author of parody historical novels. Khazar dictionary. Novel lexicon for 100,000 words(1984), The Inner Side of the Wind, or the Romance of Hero and Leander(1991) and others.

Serbian folk poetry deservedly considered one of the richest folklore heritage of the Slavic peoples. Serbian folk songs can be divided into lyric and epic. The first (youth songs) include, firstly, songs from the period before the invasion of the Tatars, and secondly, songs about the glorious time of the Nemanich kings; thirdly, songs glorifying the struggle of Christians with Muslims - songs about the death of the Serbian kingdom, about the Kosovo field, about Mark Kralevich and, finally, songs about Serbian uprisings, about Black George (Karageorgi). The songs are lyrical or, as Vuk calls them, "feminine", depicting the family life of the Serbs. Songs in Serbia were sung at any work and reflected the whole inner world, the whole worldview of a Serb. Many Serbian songs were in the 20th century. translated into European languages. Translations into Russian made by the linguist, philologist and poet A. Kh. Vostokov (1781–1864) appeared in A. A. Delvig’s almanac “Northern Flowers”.

Serbian literature

A. Dobrovolsky

The first rudiments of S. l. belong to the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. (the so-called "Miroslav Gospel" and other monuments). This and almost all subsequent medieval S. l. is ecclesiastical. These are gospels, breviaries, canons, lives of saints and apocrypha. A little more widely known among these monuments - and there are about 2,000 of them - is only the "Code of Tsar Dushan" (Dushanov zakonik) of the 14th century. as an important historical monument. There are among these monuments a number of medieval novels, completely unoriginal, for example. novel about Alexander the Great. On the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Ages, the Serbian state perishes, the Serbian ruling class ("rulers") passes into Mohammedanism and denationalizes. Literary business from the XV-XVIII centuries. cultivated only in monasteries and continues to serve exclusively the needs of the church. But on the other hand, folklore is developing tremendously, especially the epic glorifying the ancient Serbian kings (Tsar Lazar, etc.), heroes (Marko Kralevich, Milos Obilich, etc.) and "haiduks", the death of the Serbian state in the battle of Kossovo, etc. Studies have shown that most of these Serbian folk songs arose much later (200 years later) after the death of the Serbian state, when Turkish oppression began to grow unbearably, so that the death of the national state began to be perceived as a loss of freedom in general, although serf relations existed among the Serbs even before the arrival of the Turks. The struggle of the Serbian peasants against the feudal oppression of the Turkish landlords and the Turkish authorities, glorified in the epic, has a religious and national coloring, but in it you can also find a number of moments where this struggle is clearly perceived as a class struggle (“Rebellion against the dahii” - “Buna on the dahija”, songs about haiduk "Starets Vuyadin"). The artistic value of the Serbian epic is very high, although it was often exaggerated by comparison with the songs of the Iliad, etc. The collector of Serbian folklore was who lived in the first half of the 19th century. Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic (1787-1864).

S. l. actually arose only in the 18th century. among the Serbian bourgeoisie (chief arr. merchants), which developed under the conditions of emigration of Serbs who settled in southern Hungary. It grew stronger largely thanks to the patronage of the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The earlier Dubrovnik literature should be attributed, both in terms of language and its historical destinies, to one of the historical periods of Croatian literature. At first, it, like the medieval Serbian proper, is more of a "writing" than literature. The language of early Serbian writing is not Serbian folk, but the so-called. "Slavic-Serbian" - a mixture of Russian, Serbian folk and Church Slavonic languages. This literature was under strong Russian influence, since Serbian priests, almost the only literate people at that time, studied in Russia or had Russian teachers. Even Peter I sent the Serbs the first teacher of literature, M. T. Suvorov - these were the first literary rudiments of the pan-Slavic policy of Tsarist Russia towards the Serbs, a policy that in this case was specifically a maneuver against Austria and Turkey. From the literary monuments of the XVIII century. we can mention the "Slavic-Serbian Chronicle" of Count Georgy Brankovich (1645-1711) and the works of Zakhary Stefanovich-Orfelin (1726-1785) - "The Life of Peter the Great", etc. By the end of the 18th century. (1791) the first Serbian gas appeared in Vienna. Serbian News. By the end of the XVIII century. in connection with the development of the class of the Serbian bourgeoisie and the desire to create a nationally independent state, a desire is awakened to organize the Serbian literary language. from the elements of Serbian folk speech. Of course, this language was still very little developed and reflected the ideology of the class that was its main organizer - the class of the Serbian bourgeoisie of the era of the decay of feudalism and the maturation of capitalist relations in the specific historical conditions of the struggle against Turkish feudal oppression. The first writer in the Serbian vernacular, although quite littered with "Slavic-Serbianism", was Dosifey Obradovic (1742-1811) - a pioneer of enlightenment ideas that dominated at that time in the West among the Serbs. His main works are "Belly and Adventures" (1783) and "Fables" (1788). The era of Obradovic is commonly called the “era of rationalism”. She was a literary harbinger and companion of the struggle of the Serbs against Turkish feudal oppression at the beginning of the 19th century.

In the first half of the XIX century. in connection with some successes in this struggle, the partial liberation of Serbia from the Turks and further progress among the Serbian bourgeoisie within capitalized Austria, fiction is separated from literature in general. A number of writers, poets and novelists appear, writing partly in the vernacular, partly in the "Slavo-Serbian" language; but their writings (for example, the poems of Lukiyan Mushitsky (1777-1837) or the novels of Milovan Vidakovich (1780-1841)) are long outdated and have only historical interest. The exception is the Montenegrin bishop and head of state Petr Petrovich Negosh, who lived at the same time (1813-1851), author of the famous poem “Gorsky Vijenac”, one of the best works of S. l., which describes the life and life of Montenegrins. At the same time, Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic, a well-known Slavic reformer of the Serbian language and letters, lived and labored. His biggest literary undertaking was the collection of Serbian folk songs. The era of the revolution of 1848 and the elimination of the foundations of feudalism in Europe is the era when the reformist ideas of Karadzic in the field of language received general recognition (about 1840-1860). Similarly to similar phenomena at the dawn of capitalist development in Europe and in S. l. Poetry and prose are widely developed in the stylistic forms of romanticism, which met the demands of the craving for a bourgeois rebirth of Serbian writers' circles. The largest writers of this type were poets: Branko Radicevic (1824-1853) - a cheerful lyricist; Zmaj-Jovan Jovanovich (1833-1904) - the most educated writer of this time, very prolific, with a broad outlook, who managed to give both beautiful songs for children, and political satire, and sing of ideals in the taste of the national democratic worldview, and, most interestingly, the Paris Commune; Gyura Yakshich (1832-1878) - a romantic, a poet of great power (but very weak in prose); partly Laza Kostic (1841-1910) - poet and playwright; Jovan Ilic, etc. None of the prose writers has achieved such universal recognition as the first three of the poets. Stefan Mitrov Lyubisha (1824-1878) and M. G. Milichevich (1831-1898) stand out somewhat, who provided interesting folklore and linguistic material in their works, as well as M. P. Shapchanin. K. Trifković (1848-1875) is known as a playwright, and even more so his predecessor Jovan Sterija Popović, whose satire “Godolyubtsi”, exposing petty-bourgeois patriotism, is still relevant to this day. In the era of romanticism, folklore themes and artistic devices were still strong in literary poetry, in particular in poetry, but Western influences also penetrated. However, the influence of Western literature is extremely weak compared to the folk element. In the revolution of 1848, the Serbs, together with their writers, played a counter-revolutionary role, which also led to the strengthening of national isolation in literature. In the second half of the 19th century, on the contrary, in connection with the growth of the capitalist bourgeoisie, the development of broader ties with the foreign market, the general ideological attitudes in the Serbian literary process also changed. In the 70-80s. 19th century Bourgeois-realist literature is developing widely, which no longer fences itself off from the "rotten West", but joins it and learns from it. Serbia, which by that time had become a politically independent country, attracted the cultural forces of those parts of the Serbian people who lived in Austria-Hungary. If earlier, in the XVIII and early XIX centuries. center S. l. was in a foreign land, in Vienna and Budapest, and in the middle of the XIX century. - in the mountains. Novy Sad, in southern Hungary (“Serbian Athens”), now Serbia proper and Belgrade in particular are increasingly becoming such a center. Nevertheless, the general cultural development and, in particular, the development of S. l. in Austria-Hungary is not weakening, but strengthening. Here there is a closer rapprochement between the Serbs and Croats, but still the merging of S. l. does not happen with Croatian.

The most typical writers of this era are the excellent stylist, short story writer "Serbian Turgenev" Laza Lazarevich (1851-1890), Milovan Glisic (1847-1908), the first realistic writer of everyday life of the Serbian village, a good translator from Russian ("War and Peace"), Sima Matavul (1852-1908), everyday writer of all bourgeois social classes in the territory of modern Yugoslavia, humorist-realist Stevan Sremac (1855-1906), poet Vojislav Ilyich (1862-1894), from which modern Serbian poetry begins. This period also marks the beginning of the literary activity of the popular humorist and playwright Branislav Nusic (b. 1864) and later the great poet Aleksi Šantić (1868-1924), who had a great influence on the Serbian nationalist youth until 1914. Along with the strengthening of the influence of Western literature (French and etc.) in this era, the considerable influence of Russian literature was also noticeable, since a significant part of the Serbian intelligentsia also studied in Russia. At this time, many translations of Russian classics were made: Gogol, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, etc. towards socialism in Serbia and the Balkans. Actually, he did little in literature, writing only two articles on the topic of poetry and realism, but they had a great influence and contributed to the assertion in S. l. realism.

On the threshold of the XX and in the XX century. bourgeois S. l. ascends to the highest level. Despite the fact that S. l. and during this period did not produce works that were included in world literature, nevertheless, a number of Serbian writers did not lag behind the same writers of other countries who had a "local" significance, which was greatly facilitated by the establishment in Serbia in 1903 of a constitutional-democratic regime, which gave even more wide scope for the development of capitalism in Serbia. In 1901, the literary journal Srpski Kvizhevni Glasnik and a number of others appeared. Literary criticism developed (Bogdan Popovich, (b. 1863) - Jovan Skerlich (1877-1914)). The leading genre of literature at this time, as in the 19th century, is poetry. The most prominent representatives of Serbian poetry at that time were Jovan Ducic (b. 1871), who was brought up under the strong influence of French bourgeois literature, Milon Rakic, one of the best masters of Serbian poetry, Aleksa Šantić, the bard of Serbian nationalism, Stevan Lukovic, the “decadents” S. Pandurovich and Vl. Petkovic-Dis (1880-1917), M. Koralia (b. 1886) and others. Bourgeois S. L., reflecting the corresponding processes in the social and political development of Serbian bourgeois society, singles out a number of ideologists of the petty bourgeoisie, the poorest peasantry, raising their voice against individual aspects of the bourgeois system. So, for example. among the prose writers, one should mention Petr Kochich (1877-1916) - the ideologist of the nationally and socially enslaved Serbian Bosnian peasantry (his satire "The Trial of the Badger" is remarkable), I. Chiniko - the whistleblower of the kulaks (the novel "Spiders"), Rad. Domanovich (1873-1908) - the author of the satire "Kralevich Marko for the second time among the Serbs", Bor. Stankovic - the writer of everyday life of collapsing patriarchal social relations in the Serbian southern province, Milutin Uskokovich - the first writer of urban life in Serbia. At the same time, there are also recognized poets and writers, such as Donica Markovic (b. 1879), Isidora Sekulich (b. 1877). In dramaturgy, the comedian Br. Nusic (b. 1864). It should be noted that the proletariat, which had just begun to develop in Serbia, managed at that time to nominate a talented, but died early poet, Kosta Abrashevich (1879-1898).

The era of wars for Serbia that began in 1912 (two Balkan and world wars), the realization as a result of these wars of the "age-old dreams" of the Serbian people and its complete unification in the newly created State of Yugoslavia, did not give corresponding results in the literature. This is explained by the fact that the moment of national liberation in these wars played a completely secondary role, as was noted in his time by Lenin. The freedom-loving national dreams that inspired Serbian poets and writers were shattered by the imperialist pretensions of the Great Serbian bourgeoisie. The unsightly reality of the war, which took almost a quarter of the entire Serbian people to the grave, and the state and social order established as a result of it, led to great disappointment among petty-bourgeois writers and ideologists of that part of the bourgeoisie that was, to one degree or another, bypassed in the process of developing imperialist policy. Yugoslavia. However, these social strata turned out to be too weak and were unable to single out bold critics of the established system from their midst. But on the other hand, not a single work that does not contain elements of the denial of military and post-war reality enjoys mass success. It is perceived as a lie, bureaucratic or, at best, as an empty flower (for example, See Krakow's novel "Kroz Buru"). And since there are few works that are in any way free from such shortcomings - and even those usually contain only attempts at light "self-criticism" - then in the advanced strata of bourgeois society and in the working class, translated literature is more successful than the original, on the other hand, some Croatian revolutionary writers who are close in spirit to the proletarian movement are successful (M. Krlezh (b. 1893), A. Cesarec (b. 1896), etc.). In S. l. we still see glimpses of revolutionary self-awareness in the works of some writers (D. Vasić, M. Bogdanovich, J. Popović, B. Čosić). It should be noted the tradition of the Serbian bourgeoisie to reward well-known writers with a sinecure and tie them to their interests, which also largely explains the official tone of many modern Serbian writers. Of the more or less well-known modern bourgeois Serbian writers, we should mention: M. Nastasievich, Zhivadinovich, G. Bozovic, B. Efsic, the Nikolayevich brothers, V. Jankovic, etc., and the best contemporary playwright Josif Kulundzhic. The foremost petty-bourgeois criticism is represented by M. Bogdanovich and V. Gligorich. The works of Soviet writers enjoy great success. But since their publication is almost impossible under censorship conditions, they are read either in the Russian original or in German and other translations. Quite a lot is translated from Western European languages. The leading publishing houses are Nolit (New Literature), Kosmos (a good edition of Marx's Capital), and Serene Highness.

The Serbian writers who came forward after the war sometimes surpass the older writers in formal perfection, but none has gained much fame and influence.

In the first years after the war, during the years of the cult of formalism, the main trend in bourgeois style l. there was expressionism (M. Crnyansky, S. Milicic, T. Manajovic, G. Petrovich, Aleksic, Topin, Vinaver, Dedinats). The empty and meaningless poetry of both this and other trends (“Zenitism” of Mitsich, etc.) often sought to declare its sympathy for the October Revolution and the revolutionary proletariat, but already the era of partial stabilization of capitalism and especially the crisis and the establishment of the military-fascist dictatorship in Yugoslavia led a significant part of the writers of these trends in the ranks of fascism. However, a number of representatives from other groups, also formalist, in particular from the Surrealist group that has taken shape in recent years (M. Ristic, K. Popovich, G. Jovanovich, etc.), are striving to join the labor movement.

Listliterature