What is characteristic of the literature of the 19th century. Prose of the first quarter of the 19th century

A literary school is the professional affinity of a group of writers. The authors of the Dictionary literary terms" V. Lesin and A. Pulinets understand the school as "trends, ideological and artistic features", the manner of writing, "inherent in writers who are under the significant influence of the great writer, his contemporary or predecessor. So they say about the Pushkin and Nekrasov schools in Russian classical poetry, about the Shevchenko and Frankovsk schools in ... Ukrainian literature". In the "Brief literary encyclopedia" (M., 1962-1978), in the "literary dictionary-reference book" (K., 1997) there are no separate articles devoted to the concept of "literary school".

Using the expression of P. Sakulin, the concept of "literary school" can be attributed to "wandering" terms. "Insufficient attention to the semantic content of the term literary school, - notes A. Savenets, - ... leads to confusion of concepts, in particular those that denote writing communities of different degrees of organization, referring them to one paradigm."

F. Schlegel identified the literary school with style. According to him, the school is "natural uniformity of style."

A school is understood as a set of principles for recognizing and reproducing the world. By the way, this is how the method is defined.

A literary school is identified with a direction, a literary trend. In the "literary dictionary-reference book" the "lake school" is characterized as a direction, " natural school". D. Nalivaiko, highlighting the currents within romanticism, calls the "Byronic", "Hoffmann" schools. In the textbook "Theory of Literature in Connection with the Problems of Aesthetics" we read: both aesthetic and socio-political views. Such an ideological and aesthetic community is usually called a literary trend ... Literary movement, which includes the closest followers of any outstanding writer commonly referred to as the literary school. its representatives are like-minded in all significant issues artistic creativity ".

Literary school is identified with a circle, literary group, grouping. The framework of the school is wider than them, but they are narrower from the concepts of "method" and "direction".

So what is a literary school? Does she have any symptoms? What are its relations with other writing communities? M. Sulima notes: “It is believed that one can speak of a literary school when the unity of the program-creative setting, themes, genre and style is obvious to a certain group of artists. collective publication.

Most precise definition schools are given by Yu. Kuznetsov: "A specific education in literature, a group of writers united by common style preferences, genre practice, thematic interests, problems, primarily an aesthetic program, which, projected into a new creative space, relies on a certain tradition, argues with it, rethinks it "2. The literary school is formed on the basis of stylistic similarity. It may have different time frames. "Ionian school" in Greek literature 19th century operated from the 1930s to the 1990s. A school almost always exists within one literary genre (the "Kiev school" of poetry), but it can go beyond it (the "Zhytomyr prose school").

The school may not have known (notable) students.

The literary school sometimes focuses on the work of a famous writer (T. Shevchenko, I. Franko), in which case we are talking about "Shevchenko", "Frankivsk" schools. A school can develop into a stylistic trend (Byronism), a trend (French symbolism), acquire features of a method ("natural school"), groupings ("Parnassians", "neoclassics").

A noticeable trace in Ukrainian literature was left by the "Prague school" of poets. This name belongs to the literary critic V. Derzhavin. "Prague school" he called Ukrainian poets interwar twenty years, which worked mainly in Podebrady and Prague. The Prague School is represented by E. Malanyuk, Y. Daragan, L. Mosendz, A. Stefanovich, Yuri Klen, Natalia Levitskaya-Kholodnaya, Oksana Lyaturinskaya, Y. Lipa, Elena Teliga, Oleg Olzhych, Galya Mazurenko, I. Irlyavsky, and . Ear. This school had neither a program nor a charter. The creativity of the poets of the "Prague school" is characterized by vivid "historiosophism", national pathos, strong-willed intonations, and tragic optimism. All the poets of the "Prague School" were united by the idea of ​​a national liberation struggle for the freedom and independence of Ukraine.

IN last years made the first steps towards understanding the features of the "Kyiv school" of poetry. This is the opposition wing of the sixties. The debuts of the "Kyiv school" fall in the mid-60s of the XX century, when the Khrushchev thaw, arrests of creative and scientific intelligentsia began. The "Kyiv school" of poetry is represented by V. Goloborodko, M. Vorobyov, V. Kordun, V. Ruban, M. Grigoriev, I. Semenenko, M. Rachuk, Marina Lesnaya, Alla Pavlenko, P. Marusik, M. Moskalenko. The poets of the "Kiev school" - unlike the sixties, who sometimes flirted with the regime, wrote pro-communist poems - did not cooperate with the authorities, avoided socio-political vocabulary, ideological blindness, political bias, tried to revive the mythopoetic consciousness, transform the ancient mythological thinking , relied on new philosophy and psychology, activated folk poetic ideas, focused on man, nature, the universe, turned to the ancient poetic traditions, used free verse, avoided declarativeness and topicality.

Galina Karplyuk in the article "Summary of the posts of the Kiev school" notes: "The" Kiev school "of poetry can be spoken of in several aspects: as a purely poetic phenomenon, the main feature of which was the freedom of creation; as a group of young nonconformists, whose life vector was freedom freedom in all its manifestations: as an experimental attempt to live differently from other generations, to live as if everything is happening in a free independent country; as a brotherhood of creators, whose main and extraordinary task was poetry itself "".

In the 90s of the XX century, the "Galician (Lviv-Stanislav)" and "Kiev-Zhytomyr" schools were declared. "Galician school" (Yu. Andrukhovych, Y. Vinnichuk, V. Eshkilev, Y. Izdryk, T. Prokhazko), according to V. Danilenko, absolutizes formalistic searches, stylization on existing literary samples, and "Zhytomyr" - on the study of existential the depths of man, the observation of love, horror, death. "N. Belotserkovets points to the cultivation of various types of heroes by these schools." The heroes of the Galician-Stanislav school are refined intellectuals, prone to contemplation. The heroes of the Kiev-Zhytomyr school are burdened with a pathological consciousness." These schools represent the modern Ukrainian poet-modern - method, direction and style. Yu. , disappear from the space of literature." Yu. Kuznetsov's opinion deserves attention.

Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries. The study of the laws of development of literature is the concept of "historical and literary process". The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents.

The continuous change of literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, not even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change historical eras and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces etc.). It is possible to single out the main stages in the development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The development of the historical-literary process is conditioned by a number of factors, among which the historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), the influence of previous literary traditions, and the artistic experience of other peoples should be noted first of all. For example, Pushkin's work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).

literary process is a complex system literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.

Literary trends and currents:

classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism,

realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism)

IN modern literary criticism the terms "direction" and "flow" can be interpreted in different ways. Sometimes they are used as synonyms (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism and modernism are called both trends and trends), and sometimes a trend is identified with a literary school or grouping, and a trend is identified with an artistic method or style (in this case, the trend incorporates two or more streams).

Usually, literary direction called a group of writers similar in type of artistic thinking. We can talk about the existence of a literary trend if writers are aware of theoretical basis their artistic activities, promote them in manifestos, program speeches, articles. So, the first program article of the Russian futurists was the manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste", in which the main aesthetic principles new direction.

Under certain circumstances, groups of writers who are especially close to each other in their aesthetic views can be formed within the framework of one literary movement. Such groups that form within any direction are usually called a literary trend. For example, within the framework of such a literary trend as symbolism, two currents can be distinguished: "senior" symbolists and "junior" symbolists (according to another classification - three: decadents, "senior" symbolists, "junior" symbolists).

Classicism(from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic direction in European art at the turn of the XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, was formed in France at the end of the XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyaznin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique ones. In addition, the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of the mind and that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis) had a huge influence on the formation of classicism.

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creation as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even Shakespeare's best plays were classified as "wrong". This was due to the fact that Shakespeare's characters combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

Main conflict classic works is the hero's struggle between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny episodes into tragedy. In high genres, "exemplary" heroes were depicted - monarchs, generals, who could serve as an example to follow. In the low ones, characters were drawn, captured by some kind of "passion", that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Unity of place: classicist dramaturgy did not allow a change of scene, that is, during the entire play, the characters had to be in the same place. The unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not exceed several hours, in extreme cases - one day. Unity of action implies the presence of only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure my hours in the game for hours, so that, forgetting, I can believe you”. So, character traits literary classicism:

• purity of the genre(in high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low genres, tragic and sublime ones);
• purity of language(in high genres - high vocabulary, in low - vernacular);
• strict division of heroes into positive and negative, wherein goodies, choosing between feeling and reason, give preference to the latter;
• observance of the rule of "three unities";
• affirmation of positive values ​​and state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state - and not the person - was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society. Russian classicists, inspired by the reforms of Peter the Great, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which seemed to them a rationally arranged organism. Sumarokov: “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate sciences.” The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time lend themselves to education.

Sentimentalism(from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his ability to deep feelings. Hence - the interest in the inner world of the hero, the image of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. They opposed the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the "natural", "natural" man, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity is also at the basis of the creative method of sentimentalism. If the classicists created generalized characters (a hypocrite, a braggart, a miser, a fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with individual destiny. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. Positive endowed with natural sensitivity (responsive, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative- prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The carriers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, raznochintsy, rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, higher spiritual ranks (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity in the works of sentimentalists often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicides).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of a commoner (the image of Liza in Karamzin's story " Poor Lisa"). The main character of the works was ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. The new content required a new form. The leading genres were the family novel, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, message.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism— artistic direction in European and American culture end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for the emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism), the Great French revolution, German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary trend, as well as any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literatures. The decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe was exerted by the Great French Revolution of 1789-1799 and the reassessment of the educational ideology associated with it. As you know, the 18th century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a whole century, French enlighteners led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural (natural) equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: "Liberty, equality and fraternity." The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (it used to belong to the aristocracy, the highest nobility), while the rest remained “with broken trough". Thus, the long-awaited "kingdom of reason" turned out to be an illusion, as well as the promised freedom, equality and fraternity. There was a general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, a deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because the basis of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge impact on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, so the French Revolution also shook Russia. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this Patriotic War 1812, clearly showing the greatness and strength common people. It was to the people that Russia owed its victory over Napoleon, the people were the true heroes of the war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What was previously perceived by the progressive people of that time as injustice, now began to seem like a flagrant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not cancel serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. Thus, the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term "romanticism" in relation to the literary movement is accidental and inaccurate. In this regard, from the very beginning of its inception, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word "roman", others - from knightly poetry created in countries that speak English. Romance languages. For the first time, the word "romanticism" as the name of a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

Very important for understanding the essence of romanticism is the concept of romanticism. dual peace. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the world around them, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” are antithesis (opposition), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised "here" is a modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. “There” is a kind of poetic reality that the romantics opposed to reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, ousted from public life, are still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of man, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their “there”. For example, Zhukovsky was looking for "there" in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in the free life of uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", Cooper's novels about the life of Indians).

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. This is a fundamentally new hero, like him did not know the old literature. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism(from Latin realis- material, real) - a method (creative setting) or a literary trend that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for the artistic knowledge of man and the world. Often the term "realism" is used in two senses:

1. realism as a method;
2. realism as a trend that emerged in the 19th century.

Both classicism, and romanticism, and symbolism strive for the knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by the rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, and not display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, referring to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself in this way: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling to portray him the way I would like to see. Thus, we can say that the realists depict the real, and the romantics the desired.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is enlightenment realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man "from the bottom" (for example, Figaro in the plays of Beaumarchais " barber of seville and The Marriage of Figaro). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: "fantastic" (Gogol, Dostoevsky), "grotesque" (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and "critical" realism associated with the activities of the "natural school".

Basic requirements of realism: adherence to the principles

• peoples,
• historicism,
• high artistry,
• psychologism,
• depiction of life in its development.

Realist writers showed a direct dependence of the social, moral, religious ideas of heroes on social conditions, great attention devoted to the social aspect. Central problem realism- the ratio of plausibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible depiction of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of key features realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The credibility of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.
Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type " little man"(Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of "extra person" (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

Modernism(from French contemporary- the latest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

This term has various interpretations:

1. denotes a number of non-realistic trends in art and literature at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imaginism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;
2. used as a symbol for the aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic trends;
3. denotes a complex set of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist trends proper, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism- a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s in the poetic works of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and dramaturgy, but also with other forms of art. The French writer C. Baudelaire is considered the ancestor, founder, "father" of symbolism.

At the heart of the worldview of symbolist artists is the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of a person and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only "tool" for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. The symbolists argued that the purpose of art was not to depict the real world, which they considered secondary, but to convey a "higher reality." They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the supersensible intuition of the poet, to whom, in moments of insight, true essence of things. Symbolists developed a new poetic language, not directly naming the subject, but hinting at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of modernist movements originated in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature”, published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the "new art": mystical content, symbolization and "expansion of artistic impressionability."

Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or currents:

• "elder" symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub and others), who made their debut in the 1890s;
• "juniors" symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the "senior" and "junior" symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in attitudes and the direction of creativity.

Symbolists believed that art is primarily "comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways"(Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality operates only in the lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The Symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​"absolute ideas" in Plato's terms or "world soul", according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and the images-symbols with their infinite ambiguity are able to reflect the entire complexity of the world universe. The Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, higher reality is given only to the elect, who, in moments of inspired insights, are able to comprehend the “higher” truth, absolute truth.

The image-symbol was considered by the symbolists as more effective than artistic image, a tool that helps to “break through” through the cover of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. The symbol differs from the realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of the phenomenon, but the poet's own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as the Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, a certain image that requires a response from the reader. creative work. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution produced by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings. This trait of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov); "The symbol is a window to infinity"(F. Sologub).

Acmeism(from Greek. akme- the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov. The aesthetic program was formulated in Gumilyov's articles "The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism", Gorodetsky's "Some Currents in Modern Russian Poetry" and Mandelstam's "Morning of Acmeism".

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations for the “unknowable”: “Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable similarities with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word. Symbolism is based on the rejection of reality, and the acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of accurate and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

Actually, the acmeist current was small, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the "Workshop of Poets". "Workshop of poets" was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (not all of them later turned out to be involved in acmeism). This organization was much more cohesive than the disparate symbolist groups. At the meetings of the "Workshop" poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, and methods for analyzing works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself did not enter the "Workshop". In his article "About Beautiful Clarity" Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of acmeism appeared. From this moment, the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed "beautiful clarity" as the task of literature, or clarism(from lat. claris- clear). Acmeists called their current adamism, linking with the biblical Adam the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects, declare their love for objectivity. So, Gumilyov urged to look not for “unsteady words”, but for words “with a more stable content”. This principle was most consistently realized in Akhmatova's lyrics.

Futurism- one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the Futurist Manifesto. The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. As the main elements of futuristic poetry, Marinetti calls "courage, audacity, rebellion." In 1912, the Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste". They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experiments, sought to find new means of speech expressiveness (proclaiming a new free rhythm, loosening syntax, destroying punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“what is important is not what, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous direction. Within its framework, four main groups or currents can be distinguished:

1. "Gilea", which united cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh and others);
2. "Association of Egofuturists"(I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);
3. "Mezzanine of Poetry"(V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);
4. "Centrifuge"(S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was the "Gilea": in fact, it was she who determined the face of Russian futurism. Its participants released many collections: "The Garden of Judges" (1910), "Slap in the Face of Public Taste" (1912), "Dead Moon" (1913), "Took" (1915).

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which creates through the creative will of man " new world, today, iron ... "(Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living colloquial, futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

Literature lesson in grade 9 No. 1. Introduction. Literary trends, schools, movements.

to introduce students to the textbook, program and objectives of the literature course in grade 9;

generalize knowledge, expand ideas about the stages of development of domestic literature;

start repeating literary types and genres, generalize and systematize what was studied in grade 8.

Type of lesson: Lecture with elements of conversation.

Teaching methods: Frontal survey, work with a textbook, abstract notes.

Theoretical and literary concepts: literary situation, historical and literary process, literary direction.

Repetition: literary genera and genres.

During the classes:

Repetition of the past:

What is literature?

Define the concept of "literature" (the art of the word).

What is classical literature? Give examples of the classics of the 18th -19th centuries.

What literary type and genre do the works of A.S. Pushkin belong to: “ Winter morning”, “Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”, “Dubrovsky”, “ Stationmaster»?

Work with the textbook (part 1, pp. 3-5); write down the theses.

The word of the teacher about the features of the teaching materials of S.A. Zimin.

What's new in the content of the textbook?

On what basis is it located educational material? (chronology)

What writers and genres are you interested in?

Lecture. Recording of abstracts and definitions.

4.1.Historical and literary process

***Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries.

The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents.

The continuous change of literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, not even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change of historical epochs and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry of new social forces into the historical arena, etc.).

*** Can be distinguished main stages development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

*** The development of the historical and literary process is due to a number of factors, among which, first of all, it should be noted historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), the influence of previous literary traditions and the artistic experience of other peoples . For example, Pushkin's work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).

literary process - it is a complex system of literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.

*** Literary direction- stable and recurring in a given period historical development literature, the range of the main features of creativity, expressed in the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality and in the principles of choice of means that correspond to it artistic image by a number of writers.

4.2. Literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism), postmodernism

Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic trend in European art at the turn of the 17th-18th - early 19th century, was formed in France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin and others.

The main conflict of classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire).

There were special rules for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Purity of the genre (in high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low genres, tragic and sublime ones);

purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Strict division of heroes into positive and negative ones, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

· affirmation of positive values ​​and state ideal.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - the literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism - - an artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany and then spread throughout Western Europe.

All romantics reject the outside world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world.

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual, restless person, most often lonely and with a tragic fate. romantic hero- the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism (from the Latin realis - material, real) - a literary movement that embodied the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge of man and the world.

Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, religious ideas of the heroes on social conditions, and paid much attention to the social aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between plausibility and artistic truth.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of "little man" (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of "extra person" (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, " new people "Chernyshevsky).

Modernism (from the French modern - the latest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose on turn of the XIX--XX centuries.

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism - - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. The symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not to depict the real world, which they considered secondary, but to convey a "higher reality." They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, the true essence of things is revealed. The Symbolists developed a new poetic language that does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, color scheme, free verse.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings.

Acmeism (from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov.

Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of the word.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde - extreme manifestation modernism) in European art at the beginning of the 20th century, which was most developed in Italy and Russia.

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the Futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which through the creative will of man creates "a new world, today's, iron ..." (Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Based on a living colloquial language, the futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

POSTMODERNISM - a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in culture, reflecting the complexity, chaos, of the modern world; the "spirit of literature" of the late 20th century; world war literature scientific and technological revolution and information explosion.

5. The results of the lesson. What is the strength and potential of literature? Why is reading books so rare these days? Try to evaluate this situation.

6. Homework :

1.p.6-9 (to write out theses. The specifics of Old Russian literature);

Poets silver age.

Atmosphere of the Silver Age

At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, Russia experienced an intense intellectual upsurge, which was especially pronounced in philosophy and poetry. Philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev called this time the Russian cultural renaissance.

“Now it is difficult to imagine the atmosphere of that time,” Nikolai Berdyaev wrote about the Silver Age in his “philosophical autobiography” “Self-Knowledge”. - Much of the creative upsurge of that time was included in the further development of Russian culture and now is the property of all Russians cultured people. But then there was an intoxication with a creative upsurge, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge. During these years, many gifts were sent to Russia. It was the era of awakening in Russia of independent philosophical thought, the flowering of poetry and the sharpening of aesthetic sensibility, religious anxiety and quest, interest in mysticism and the occult. New souls appeared, new sources of creative life were discovered, new dawns were seen, the feeling of decline and death was combined with the hope of the transformation of life. But everything happened in a rather vicious circle ... "

But the Silver Age is not only a chronological period. The concept of "Silver Age" is appropriate to apply to the way of thinking, which, being characteristic of artists who were at enmity with each other during their lifetime, ultimately merged them in the minds of their descendants into an inseparable galaxy that formed that specific atmosphere of the Silver Age that Berdyaev wrote about.

The names of the poets who made up the spiritual core of the Silver Age are known to everyone: Valery Bryusov, Fedor Sologub, Innokenty Annensky, Alexander Blok, Maximilian Voloshin, Andrei Bely, Konstantin Balmont, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilyov, Marina Tsvetaeva, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Igor Severyanin, Boris Pasternak , Georgy Ivanov and many others.

The poets of the Silver Age also sought to overcome the attempts of the second half of the 19th century to explain human behavior by social conditions, environment, and continued the traditions of Russian poetry, for which a person was important in itself, his thoughts and feelings, his attitude to eternity, to God, to Love are important. and Death in the philosophical, metaphysical sense. The poets of the Silver Age, both in their artistic work and in theoretical articles and statements, questioned the idea of ​​progress for literature. For example, one of the brightest creators of the Silver Age, Osip Mandelstam, wrote that the idea of ​​progress is "the most disgusting kind of school ignorance." And Alexander Blok in 1910 stated: “The sun of naive realism has set; it is impossible to comprehend anything outside of symbolism.

Poets of the Silver Age believed in art, in the power of the word. Therefore, for their creativity, immersion in the element of the word, the search for new means of expression is indicative. They cared not only about the meaning, but also about the style - sound, music, words and full immersion into the element. This immersion led to the cult of life creation (the inseparability of the creator's personality and his art). And almost always in connection with this, the poets of the Silver Age were unhappy in their personal lives, and many of them ended badly.

LITERARY SCHOOLS AND TRENDS

SYMBOLISM- the first and most significant of the modernist trends in Russia. The philosophy and aesthetics of symbolism took shape under the influence of various teachings - from the views ancient philosopher Plato to modern symbolists philosophical systems V. Solovyov, F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson. The traditional idea of ​​knowing the world in art was opposed by the Symbolists to the idea of ​​constructing the world in the process of creativity. Creativity in the understanding of the Symbolists is a subconscious-intuitive contemplation of secret meanings, accessible only to the artist-creator. Moreover, it is impossible to rationally convey the contemplated "secrets". According to Vyacheslav Ivanov, the largest theorist among the Symbolists, poetry is "the secret writing of the inexpressible." The artist needs not only super-rational sensitivity, but the finest mastery of the art of allusion: the value of poetic speech lies in “understatement”, “concealment of meaning”. The main means to convey contemplated secret meanings was the symbol.

Symbolism tried to create a new philosophy of culture, sought, after a painful period of reassessment of values, to develop a new universal worldview. Having overcome the extremes of individualism and subjectivism, at the dawn of the new century, the Symbolists raised the question of the social role of the artist in a new way, began to move towards the creation of such forms of art, the experience of which could again unite people.

Symbolist poets

Alexander Blok

Bryusov Valery

Gippius Zinaida

Ivanov Vyacheslav

Acmeism(from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, flourishing, maturity, peak, tip) - one of the modernist trends in Russian poetry of the 1910s, formed as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism.

Acmeists strove for sensual plastic-material clarity of the image and accuracy, the chasing of the poetic word. Their "earthly" poetry is prone to intimacy, aestheticism and poeticization of the feelings of primitive man. Acmeism was characterized by extreme apoliticality, complete indifference to the topical problems of our time.

If in the poetry of symbolism a certain mystery, covered with a halo of mysticism, was the determining factor, then a realistic view of things was put as the cornerstone in the poetry of acmeism. The hazy unsteadiness and fuzziness of symbols were replaced by precise verbal images. The word, according to the acmeists, should have acquired its original meaning.

Acmeists often refer to mythological subjects and images. A distinctive feature of the acmeist circle of poets was their "organizational cohesion". In essence, the acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship. They gave their union the significant name of the “Workshop of Poets”.

The main ideas of acmeism were outlined in the program articles by N. Gumilyov “The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism” and S. Gorodetsky “Some Trends in Modern Russian Poetry”. S. Gorodetsky believed that “symbolism… having filled the world with ‘correspondences’, turned it into a phantom, important only insofar as it… shines through other worlds, and belittled its high inherent value. Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable similarities with mystical love or anything else.

Basic principles of acmeism:

The liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the ideal, the return of clarity to it;
- rejection of mystical nebula, acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness, sonority, colorfulness;
- the desire to give the word a certain, exact value;
- objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details;
- an appeal to a person, to the "authenticity" of his feelings;
- poetization of the world of primordial emotions, primitive biological nature;
- a call to the past literary epochs, the broadest aesthetic associations, "longing for world culture."

Acmeist poets

Akhmatova Anna

Gumilyov Nikolai

Mandelstam Osip

Sergei Gorodetsky

Mikhail Zenkevich

Vladimir Narbut

Futurism(from Latin futurum - future) - the general name of the artistic avant-garde movements of the 1910s - early 1920s. XX century., First of all, in Italy and Russia.

This trend claimed to build a new art - "the art of the future", speaking under the slogan of a nihilistic denial of all previous artistic experience.

The Futurists preached the destruction of the forms and conventions of art in order to merge it with accelerated life process XX century. They are characterized by admiration for action, movement, speed, strength and aggression; self-exaltation and contempt for the weak; the priority of force, the rapture of war and destruction were affirmed. In this regard, futurism in its ideology was very close to both right and left radicals: anarchists, fascists, communists, focused on the revolutionary overthrow of the past.

The idea of ​​the exhaustion of the cultural tradition of previous centuries was the starting point of the aesthetic platform of the Cubo-Futurists. Their manifesto, which was deliberately worn scandalous name"A slap in the face of public taste." It declared the rejection of the art of the past, calls were made to “throw off Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, and so on and so forth. from the steamer of modern times.

However, despite the rather harsh tone and polemical style of the manifesto, many ideas were expressed in the almanac about ways further development art, the convergence of poetry and painting. Behind the external bravado of its authors was serious attitude to creativity. And the famous shocking phrase about Pushkin, which, it would seem, does not allow for other interpretations, was explained by Khlebnikov, to whom, in fact, he belonged, in a completely different way: “Budetlyanin is Pushkin in his coverage of the World War, in the cloak of the new century, teaching the right of the century to laugh over Pushkin of the 19th century” and did not sound shocking at all. Russian futurism did not result in a coherent art system; this term denoted a variety of trends in the Russian avant-garde. The avant-garde itself was the system. And it was dubbed futurism in Russia by analogy with Italian. And this trend turned out to be much more heterogeneous than the symbolism and acmeism that preceded it.

One of the founders of the movement, V. Khlebnikov was actively involved in revolutionary changes in the field of the Russian language. In an effort to expand the boundaries of the language and its possibilities, he worked hard on the creation of new words. According to his theory, the word loses its semantic meaning, acquiring a subjective coloring: “We understand vowels as time and space (the nature of aspiration), consonants - paint, sound, smell.”

Very soon, the words "futurist" and "hooligan" for the modern moderate public became synonymous. The press enthusiastically followed the "exploits" of the creators of the new art. This contributed to their fame in the general population, aroused increased interest, attracted more and more attention.

The main features of futurism:

Rebelliousness, anarchism, expression of the mass mood of the crowd;
- denial cultural traditions, an attempt to create art looking to the future;
- rebellion against the usual norms of poetic speech, experimentation in the field of rhythm, rhyme, orientation to the spoken verse;
- experiments on the creation of "abstruse" language;
- the cult of technology, industrial cities;
- the pathos of shocking.

Futurist Poets:

Burliuk David

Vvedensky Alexander

Kamensky Vasily

Mayakovsky Vladimir

Severyanin Igor

Khlebnikov Velimir

Imagism(from French and English image - image) - a literary and artistic movement that arose in Russia in the first post-revolutionary years on the basis of the literary practice of futurism.

Imagism was the last sensational school in Russian poetry of the 20th century. This direction was created two years after the revolution, but in all its content orientation had nothing in common with the revolution.

The theory of Imagism proclaimed the primacy of the “image as such” as the basic principle of poetry. Not a word-symbol with an infinite number of meanings (symbolism), not a word-sound (cubo-futurism), not a word-name of a thing (acmeism), but a word-metaphor with one specific meaning is the basis of Imagism. In their Declaration, the Imagists argued that “the only law of art, the only and incomparable method is to reveal life through the image and rhythm of images ... The image, and only the image, is the tool for the production of the master of art ... Only the image, like naphthalene, pouring the work, saves this latter from pray for time. The image is the armor of the line." The theoretical substantiation of this principle was reduced by the Imagists to likening poetic creativity the process of language development through metaphor.

In essence, there was nothing particularly new in their methods, as well as in their "imagery". "Imagism" as one of the techniques of artistic creativity was widely used not only by futurism, but also by symbolism. What was new was only the stubbornness with which the Imagists brought the image to the fore and reduced everything in poetry to it - both content and form.

characteristic feature The development of Russian poetry in the first decades of the 20th century was that each literary movement was born under the sign of an irreconcilable struggle, rivalry with its predecessors. And if the beginning of the 1910s passed under the sign of “overcoming symbolism” by acmeists and futurists, then Imagism, which arose at the end of the decade, designated the ultimate goal of its struggle as “overcoming futurism”, with which it was essentially related: “The baby, the loud-mouthed guy, died ten years old (born 1909 - died 1919) - Futurism is dead. Let's strike amicably: death to futurism and futurism!

For five years of vigorous activity, the Imagists were able to win a loud, albeit notoriety. There were constant poetic disputes, where the masters of the new trend very successfully proved to others the superiority of the newly invented poetic system over all previous ones.

The actions of the Imagists sometimes went beyond the generally accepted norms of behavior. These include the painting of the walls of the Strastnoy Monastery with blasphemous inscriptions, and the “renaming” of Moscow streets (the sign “Tverskaya” was changed to “Yeseninskaya”), etc. In 1919, the Imagists demanded nothing less than “separation of the state from art” .

The relations of the Imagists with the authorities - due to the peculiarities of their creative position, non-literary connections and historical moment- require special attention. The Imagists, due to their scandalous, bohemian lifestyle, often fell into the hands of the police and Cheka workers. They were rescued only by numerous connections with the same Chekists.

The main features of Imagism:

Imagist poets

Yesenin Sergey

Ivnev Rurik

Mariengof Anatoly

Shershenevich Vadim

The pearls of the Silver Age were poets, not belonging to any of literary schools and directions.

Bunin Ivan

Pasternak Boris

Tsvetaeva Marina