The development of culture took place in difficult conditions fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite the constant strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, in ancient Russian culture During this period, there were achievements and successes. The Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, new strata of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, the customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms, and under the influence local conditions started looking for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their characteristics. Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia, they began to build smaller temples of a simplified design. The internal and external decoration of the temples has changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, semi-columns, arcade belts and the so-called curb.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.
The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podil, the Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.
The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied arts. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often served as amulets-amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used to decorate many of their products by master jewelers and artisans who created household items. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New centers of chronicle writing appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment.
New original forms historical works; family and tribal princely annals, biographies of princes, etc. Unfortunately, most of these works have not been preserved.
The masterpiece of ancient Russian fiction is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work was written in a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the Polovtsy raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.
Center cultural life Ukrainian principalities of the period of fragmentation, became the Galicia-Volyn land. So, like everywhere else at that time, important role the church played a role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular nature. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A clear evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the region. They were built mainly of wood, for a long time temples remained stone structures, in some cases chambers.
Temples were built mainly of white stone with carved
ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galicia in the XII century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only a small part of them
studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the princely palace and the Church of Panteleimon in Galicia.
Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality, in the second half of the XII century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they reached significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galicia-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land was politically weakening and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galician-Volhynian literacy, which developed on the basis of the Kievan literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively stood at a significant height. A number of copies of the gospel text have come down to us, including the Galician Four Gospels of 1144, the Dobrilovo Gospel of 1164, and others, the lives of Nifont and Fyodor Studit in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandecty of Antioch of 1307 and other manuscript books of the 12th-13th centuries centuries The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which has not been on the whole earth. In one of the monasteries, he donated the gospel, transcribed by his own hand, as well as the Great Cathedral, which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, including the Aprakos Gospel in Chernihiv, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the full life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot Book and, probably, the Conversations of Grigory Dvoeslov were written off. He had collaborators, just like him, bibliophiles who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical and other books. Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time.
In the second half of the XIII century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archival collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which included biblical books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title "Russian Chronicler" - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection of the type of Svyatoslav's Izbornik of 1073
Thus, the Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works translated and Russian historical literature of the Kievan period.
Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not so intensively, even after the loss of its political independence.
There can be no doubt that many monuments of literature perished in that restless historical situation that befell the Galicia-Volyn principality.
Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, which, undoubtedly, were included from the Galician Chronicle in the Tale of Bygone Years and the Kiev Chronicle (the description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097). The Galician-Volyn chronicle of the 13th century, preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that also entered Russian use. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that retinue poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's regiment,
Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the XII-XIII centuries. cannot be divided by the edge of the Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, the strong defensive walls of the city centers made it difficult for the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent foreign policy of Daniil of Galicia softened the hardships of the Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course public life and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct defeat of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.
The origins of the art of Galicia-Volyn Rus are connected with the common treasury of artistic culture for all from the ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which, moreover, are poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by the archaeologically unearthed ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. a foundation was laid for solving a number of new tasks - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble of the princely or generally feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersky monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestovo - Monomakh's country palace, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is essential to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volhynia and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of the temple located in the tract "Old Cathedra", apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.
Volyn in art, as well as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich followed a slightly different path and more critically perceived the artistic heritage and canonical examples. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated a direct connection with Western Europe and direct exposure to Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities for decorative processing of buildings - carving, the play of various tones of facing stone, etc. (Even in the middle of the 12th century), a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky depicts this building for us in the form of a combination of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "senei" and the palace temple, united by a system of passages; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing - the “chorus”, which was developed here even in the conditions of life of the princely retinue elites of Kievan Rus. common features with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galicia with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is reshaped in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a peculiar look of architecture.
It has received especially magnificent development since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the circumstance noted above that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life was not interrupted. Undoubtedly, all cultural forces that escaped captivity and death rushed here; Chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince “parishioners of Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs go day and day and hunes and masters of all bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and tulnitsy and forge iron and copper and silver, and be life, and fill the yards around the city, field and village ".
It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in the Hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of his contemporaries.
The church of Ivan deserved special attention and admiration of the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted from a certain trickster”, “Roman glass”, that is, colored stained-glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre illumination of its internal space; in the altar above the throne, a beautiful canopy rose on two columns of solid stone. A ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.
Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and size to other temples. For this church, a beautiful water-blessing cup was made of red marble, it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The bowl was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done at the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholmsk buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and peculiar composition of its constituent elements. The appearance of the Kholmsky temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques of Romanesque art. The same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir principality; moreover, individual details of the decoration and decoration of the buildings of the Bogolyubov castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in the Hill that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other masters who built and decorated the Kholmsky temples.
The Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion to the "Latin" world, and this feature of it also contributed to the enrichment of art by acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir of the 12th century. and for the Galician Rus XIII century, since this art more fully than Byzantine, expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the XII century. there were Vladimir "autocrats", and in the XIII century. - Galician-Volyn "king" Daniel.
On the other hand, turning to Western culture was a peculiar form of asserting one's own ways of artistic and cultural development in general and moving away from traditions.
This also explains the significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpture, which was denied by the Orthodox byzantine church in relation to religious subjects. It was expressed here not only in the decorative sculpture of the Kholmsky temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature. The chronicle tells of an interesting statue erected by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.
The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can only be judged by a few miniatures.
They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color range and in the very construction of the picturesque image.
So, the Galician-Volyn art of the XIII century. is one of the brightest and most significant pages in the history of ancient Russian art. Having started its journey along with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by the Galician masters, who created quite original and high-quality monuments of art of Galicia-Volyn Rus.
The principality became the successor of K. Rus, fought for reunification and land consolidation, promoted the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongols-Tatars; raised the prestige of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in the context of feudal fragmentation.
After the fall of Kyiv, the Galicia-Volyn principality continued the existence of a state entity in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center of the future Ukraine.
The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” by the theologian Gregory as early as the middle of the 11th century. The term "Ukraine" is mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle in 1187 as a synonym for the concept of "crash", that is, the land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. in Serbo-Croatian - Serbian Crash). Since 1335, for Galicia, the concept of “Little Rus'” borrowed from the Greeks began to be used, which later turned into the concept of “Little Russia”. However, in different periods it denoted different regions of Ukraine.
The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation
Introduction
I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at that time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' of the period of the XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she spiritually ascended. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, Rus' was spiritually spiritually rich, by this time it had already managed to produce many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the XIII century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and iconography were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, annals, sacred church books, iconography, the construction of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created, her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of the people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people and that is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.
Russian medieval culture X-XIII c.c. deserved high praise, both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed the way to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv an adornment of the East and a rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and black on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one or another type of art, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece is ahead of it, and behind Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries. Samples of Russian products were admired by the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kiev prince, who had fled from the insurgent people, showed Russian things to the emperor.
The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade at all, this is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Russia, these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings that are still relevant today with their teachings and morals, this is a religion that still adheres to most of the Russian people. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, amaze and live its own life even in our time.
I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, having created hundreds of years ago works of culture that are still relevant today. So, in this test, I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.
General conditions for the development of culture
Already in the 11th century in the life of the ancient Russian principalities, one trend more and more stands out: the intensification of princely strife and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and threatened its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities became strong enough not to submit to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; local princes, who received the support of votchinniki and townspeople, were better able to cope with this task. All this, along with the desire of the princes for independence, led to the separation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and largest city Rus'.
Fragmentation, caused by socio-political reasons, was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe passed through it.
Civil strife between the principalities share a rather big gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', in addition, many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. Those, in turn, strongly dispersed, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. The outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned, robbed, many were taken prisoner, Poland and Hungary also actively intervened in Russian affairs.
The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the fate of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land: Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.
The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, along with him, a written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir"). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad" (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly on church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy between the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). younger brother- Vsevolod Yurievich, who finally secured the status of the main princely capital for Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich, and the Muromo-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, former expression the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.
Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.
An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary had a constant impact on the processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.
Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth. Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Rus'. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes Only service functions remained in Novgorod. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Novgorod prince, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. supreme body The administration of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.
The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.
Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which it was not calm in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. It was not the most peaceful time, although it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities in each feudal state, art began to develop, which, in general, resulted in such a surge of culture in all regions of Rus'.
Monuments of literature
Russian medieval culture
The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is an annual, more or less detailed record of historical events. The chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts connected mainly with the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries, and occasionally non-Ryad affairs.
The geographic outlook of the chronicler is very wide - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic survivals among the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live on the edge of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, the chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state. The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the fact that regional literary forces appeared, each new princely center kept its own chronicles, which focused on local events, but did not cease to be interested in general Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities. It is important to note that at the time when Ancient Rus' became close to Byzantium, a lot of work began on translating and copying books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature. The unity of the national and state language was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and German countries, in which Latin dominated. official language. Such a broad literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant to know Latin. For the Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; this explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsy is regarded only as a defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of various nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on someone else's ... otherwise it will be a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all the trash - have mercy on everyone and deliver from trouble (Message of Theodosius of the Caves to Prince Izyaslav, XI century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of the South Slavic countries, which did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly, did not come down to us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed to the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything connected with it, this did not bypass literature, therefore many writings that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is the "Word of Igor's Campaign", where the church is mentioned in passing, and the whole poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century only one list of “Words ...” has come down, although it is known that it was read in various Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at an abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could perish many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is very valuable and interesting. The largest works of Russian literature created in that period, but continuing their literary life for many more centuries, are: Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", Mikhail Zatochnik's "Prayer", "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" and, of course, among them a prominent place is occupied by "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, the desire to stop the devastating wars of Russian princes among themselves. The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol period is the Tale of Igor's Campaign (~ 1187), which is in the first row of masterpieces of world poetry. "The Word..." is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works of ancient Russian literature was created. “Word…” is a perennial oak, a mighty and sprawling oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil. Russian literature from the most ancient period was distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the topics of social and state building, and an invariably developing connection with folk art. She has placed man at the center of her quest, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects in him national traits, in it looking for ideals. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry, lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, oratorical works. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature is predominantly civil forms. The author does not mourn and yearn for his own personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and mainly turns to it all the fullness of his personal feelings. This lyric is not of a personal nature, although the personality of the author is expressed in it by calls to save the motherland, to overcome the turmoil in the public life of the country, with a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes. This typical feature found one of the most striking expressions in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". “Word…” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly intervenes in the course of events that he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of anguish and grief, as if he wants to stop the disturbing course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on the contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the motherland. "The Word ..." is imbued with a great human feeling - warm, tender, strong feeling love for the motherland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks of the defeat of Igor's troops: “On the third day, by noon, the banners of Igor fell! Here the brothers parted on the banks of the swift Kayala; there was no bloody wine; here the brave Russians finished the feast: got the matchmakers drunk, and they themselves perished for the Russian land. The grass will droop with pity, and the tree bowed to the ground with anguish. And in the way he conveys the words of the lamentation of Russian wives for the dead soldiers: “The Russian wives wept, saying: "We already have our own sweet ways not in thoughts to think, don't think to think not to be seen with eyes but gold and silver, and even more than that, you can’t hold in your hands! ” and in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor's return: "The sun shines in the sky, - and Igor is a prince in the Russian land. Igor rides along Borichev to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshcha. The villages are happy, the cities are cheerful. Singing a song to the old princes, then sing to the young: "Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich, Bui tour Vsevolod, Vladimir Igorevich! The poem was inspired by the real events of the history of that time. "Word..." was created after the events of Igor's campaign and was written under the fresh impressions of these events. This work is assembled from hints, reminders, deaf indications of what else was in the memory of each person. It served as a call to end the princely strife, to unite in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in vivid and vivid images and paintings. The “Word…” with brilliant force and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a result, the weakness of its defense against the increased and more frequent pressure of the raids of nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Rus'. “The Tale of Igor's Campaign” not only tells about the events of Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign - it gives an assessment and is a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either referring to the events of modern times, or recalling the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the motherland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future. "The Word ..." remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that it happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade away, but rather increases. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country. The literature of that time does not fade away despite the past centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time, the teachings of the authors of those times are vital even now. In the example of chronicles, "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond, moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without concealing from the reader and the black sides of that time. These were really educated people who brought a particle of themselves into the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A particle of the Russian heritage, feelings, moods. Folklore
still important and vital in our time remains the folklore of Ancient Rus'. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be recorded only from the 17th century, they appeared precisely in the period of pre-Mongolian Rus. All of them are filled with meaning, teachings and ridicule. bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, his spiritual strength. From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga. Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight with Polovtsy. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. refers to the appearance of Novgorod epics about the "guest" Sadko, a rich merchant, who comes from the ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of legends about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. Sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, human weakness, they praised work, kindness, complicity, again, unity. They taught man to be strong spirit and body, to honor the elders, to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs has remained the same. Fairy tales that appeared in that period also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. pagan gods and gods, persecuted by the Orthodox Church, found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales, we see foresters, goblin, water, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is a forester in “The Frog Princess”, a water man (the sea king in folk tales and epics), he also finds his own spirit and fetishism in them (a tablecloth is a self-assembly, boots are fast walkers, a magic ball). In fairy tales, we can also observe the people's idea of afterlife, about the eternal world of the ancestors, its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, about the soul, as a transition to a different form of existence. They found a reflection of this belief mainly in fairy tales, especially those associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out an adapter to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the idea of the pagans about the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the line between the earthly and " eternal peace”, about ways to overcome it and helpers on a long and difficult journey to the “other world”. But let's not forget that the theme of honesty, courage, truth was also raised in fairy tales, she cursed evil, lies, laziness, betrayal. The main villains have always been punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, his moral qualities, reasonableness and faith in the good good feelings of that generation. Architecture and painting
A major contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, wooden pagan temples, Russian architects mastered the new Byzantine brick building technique with amazing speed and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In some cases, the architecture very sensitively reflected political history countries: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv affected the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for the boyars. Earlier, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the XII - XIII centuries. is a known unity. It cannot be said that the Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive ties with the East, West and Byzantium. Having mastered at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, which varied by region. Appearance in the XII century. tower-like, upward-looking, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of the Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of the feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a commonality of style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings. The white-stone temples of Vladimir with their generous carved ornaments are rightfully compared by researchers in terms of overall harmony and richness of plots with the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian. A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in proportion to the parts. Recent finds in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture for a long time retained the power of artistic influence. The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have come down to us in the form of frescoes, icons, book miniatures. The high level of artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly due to the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period. Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature gives rise to: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of the works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belongs to only one category - to church art. Secular art is known to us only in part. Each church building was not only the most beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex idea. Sacred images were arranged in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From the church frescoes, she looked at the images of Christian saints in the clothes of bishops, kings, combatants, monks, who were below the common people. The class essence of the feudal church was fully revealed in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to establish the ideas of the feudal church. A Kyivian or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ, as it were, hovered in the sky, above the smoke of incense, the space of the dome. The stern "fathers of the church" stood in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God resembled an ancient Slav pagan goddess land and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thus united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and overwhelmed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the Last Judgment painted over the exit. He was returning from the church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dare to disobey church laws. The development of the class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies”, led to the spread of certain plots in art, for example, “The Miracle of Michael the Archangel in Khony”, where Michael, “the voivode of the heavenly forces”, punishes the peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of "The Assurance of Thomas" is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends. Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot of things in architecture and painting appeared with the advent of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from him. In all manifestations of art, there is one's own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it has changed a little, thanks to the new currents of culture and religion in Rus', its own note of art, which originated and flourished in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all the principalities. It can even be said that the feudal split of the state had a positive effect on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in any one. This once again shows how powerful and spiritually united the state of ancient Rus' remained. Religion
It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time, the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time. The people did not want to part with a long-term way of life, even having joined the Christian faith. In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the inhabitants of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then expelled three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop, with the help of military force, was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992, Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently, the Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century. East Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. The staunch pagans fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising began in Suzdal led by pagan priests. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised trouble in the Rostov land and in Novgorod, but it was again extinguished. Nevertheless, if the princes could forcibly baptize, then it was impossible to force anyone to believe. Bottom line religious reform Prince Vladimir became a dual faith that dominated Rus' since the X-XI centuries. Christianity was slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview, in which the dogmas and values of the old and new religion coexisted peacefully. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which all folk culture was associated. Moreover, in the cities, Christianity was entrenched only externally. This is true both for ordinary citizens and for the princely-boyar environment. The church, too, had to put up with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the most important thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to get closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the church of St. Basil stood on Volosova Street, and the saint in it is depicted on an icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable for a person by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (for example, pagan idols of the gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of forces between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed on the right saint was reminiscent of a ritual when a fire was lit in front of the right idol. This also applies to burials, as early as the 13th century. jewelry and weapons were placed in the princely burials at the temples, as required by the pagan rite. But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot, it opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture. The new religion raised literature and architecture to a new level, thanks to which iconography appeared. But, as in other ramifications of culture, we see that Rus' not only adopted a new faith, having risen a step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins to the church, making it unlike other religions. Conclusions
Starting from the X century. Rus' has reached high altitudes in culture. For the most part, this was facilitated by the advent of Christianity, as new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. High hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped to maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, not, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion, a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that the same Byzantium gave them to their liking, leaving, not small, at that time, pagan culture and adapting it to the newcomer. Later in the XVIII-XIX centuries. culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influence, but now, which is very nice, people are starting to return to their roots. Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived. Now we will not be able to imagine life without the "Word ...", without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongolian Rus'. All this is present in our life from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed to the icon, in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblin, with the first acquaintance already at school with "The Word ...", "The Tale temporary years." And when you start to think how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become really joyful for your people, for your past. This shows in everything how erroneously widespread the opinion is that Rus', in the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete. I believe that she really made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular. It was a truly culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that at that moment took place in it. Bibliography
1.B.A. Rybakov "Culture of Ancient Rus'" Moscow 1956 .D.S. Likhachev "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time "Leningrad 1985. ."The Tale of Igor's Campaign" Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984 .B.A. Rybakov "Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles "Moscow 1963.
The development of culture took place in difficult conditions of fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite the constant strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, there were achievements and successes in the ancient Russian culture of this period. The Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, new strata of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, the customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and, under the influence of local conditions, began to look for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their characteristics. Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia, they began to build smaller temples of a simplified design. The internal and external decoration of the temples has changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, semi-columns, arcade belts and the so-called curb.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.
The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podil, the Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.
The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied arts. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often served as amulets-amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used to decorate many of their products by master jewelers and artisans who created household items. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New centers of chronicle writing appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment.
New original forms of historical works appeared; family and tribal princely annals, biographies of princes, etc. Unfortunately, most of these works have not been preserved.
The masterpiece of ancient Russian fiction is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work was written in a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the Polovtsy raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.
The Galicia-Volyn land became the center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities during the period of fragmentation. So, as elsewhere at that time, the church played an important role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular nature. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A clear evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the region. They were built mainly of wood, for a long time temples remained stone structures, in some cases chambers.
Temples were built mainly of white stone with carved
ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galicia in the XII century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only a small part of them
studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the princely palace and the Church of Panteleimon in Galicia.
Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality, in the second half of the XII century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they reached significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galicia-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land was politically weakening and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galician-Volhynian literacy, which developed on the basis of the Kievan literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively stood at a significant height. A number of copies of the gospel text have come down to us, including the Galician Four Gospels of 1144, the Dobrilovo Gospel of 1164, and others, the lives of Nifont and Fyodor Studit in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandecty of Antioch of 1307 and other manuscript books of the 12th-13th centuries centuries The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which has not been on the whole earth. In one of the monasteries, he donated the gospel, transcribed by his own hand, as well as the Great Cathedral, which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, including the Aprakos Gospel in Chernihiv, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the full life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot Book and, probably, the Conversations of Grigory Dvoeslov were written off. He had collaborators, just like him, bibliophiles who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical and other books. Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time.
In the second half of the XIII century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archival collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which included biblical books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title "Russian Chronicler" - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection of the type of Svyatoslav's Izbornik of 1073
Thus, the Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translated and Russian historical literature of the Kievan period.
Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not so intensively, even after the loss of its political independence.
There can be no doubt that many monuments of literature perished in that restless historical situation that befell the Galicia-Volyn principality.
Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, which, undoubtedly, were included from the Galician Chronicle in the Tale of Bygone Years and the Kiev Chronicle (the description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097). The Galician-Volyn chronicle of the 13th century, preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that also entered Russian use. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that retinue poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's regiment,
Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the XII-XIII centuries. cannot be divided by the edge of the Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, the strong defensive walls of the city centers made it difficult for the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniil of Galicia softened the hardships of the Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of public life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct defeat of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.
The origins of the art of Galicia-Volyn Rus are connected with the common treasury of artistic culture for all from the ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which, moreover, are poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by the archaeologically unearthed ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. a foundation was laid for solving a number of new tasks - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble of the princely or generally feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersky monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestovo - Monomakh's country palace, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is essential to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volhynia and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of the temple located in the tract "Old Cathedra", apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.
Volyn in art, as well as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich followed a slightly different path and more critically perceived the artistic heritage and canonical examples. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated direct connection with Western Europe and the direct impact of Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities for decorative processing of buildings - carving, the play of various tones of facing stone, etc. (Even in the middle of the 12th century), a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky depicts this building for us in the form of a combination of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "senei" and the palace temple, united by a system of passages; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing - the “choir”, which was developed here even in the conditions of life of the princely retinues of Kievan Rus. The excavated foundations of the white-stone palace Church of the Savior provide a typical example of buildings of this kind. features with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galicia with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is reshaped in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a peculiar look of architecture.
It has received especially magnificent development since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the circumstance noted above that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life was not interrupted. Undoubtedly, all cultural forces that escaped captivity and death rushed here; Chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince “parishioners of Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs go day and day and hunes and masters of all bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and tulnitsy and forge iron and copper and silver, and be life, and fill the yards around the city, field and village ".
It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in the Hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of his contemporaries.
The church of Ivan deserved special attention and admiration of the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted from a certain trickster”, “Roman glass”, that is, colored stained-glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre illumination of its internal space; in the altar above the throne, a beautiful canopy rose on two columns of solid stone. A ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.
Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and size to other temples. For this church, a beautiful water-blessing cup was made of red marble, it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The bowl was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done at the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholmsk buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and peculiar composition of its constituent elements. The appearance of the Kholmsky temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques of Romanesque art. The same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir principality; moreover, individual details of the decoration and decoration of the buildings of the Bogolyubov castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in the Hill that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other masters who built and decorated the Kholmsky temples.
The Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion to the "Latin" world, and this feature of it also contributed to the enrichment of art by acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir of the 12th century. and for Galician Rus' of the XIII century, since this art more fully than Byzantine, expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the XII century. there were Vladimir "autocrats", and in the XIII century. - Galician-Volyn "king" Daniel.
On the other hand, turning to Western culture was a peculiar form of asserting one's own ways of artistic and cultural development in general and moving away from traditions.
This also explains the significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpture was significantly developed, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church when applied to religious subjects. It was expressed here not only in the decorative sculpture of the Kholmsky temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature. The chronicle tells of an interesting statue erected by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.
The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can only be judged by a few miniatures.
They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color range and in the very construction of the picturesque image.
So, the Galician-Volyn art of the XIII century. is one of the brightest and most significant pages in the history of ancient Russian art. Having started its journey along with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by the Galician masters, who created quite original and high-quality monuments of art of Galicia-Volyn Rus.
The principality became the successor of K. Rus, fought for reunification and land consolidation, promoted the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongols-Tatars; raised the prestige of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in the context of feudal fragmentation.
After the fall of Kyiv, the Galicia-Volyn principality continued the existence of a state entity in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center of the future Ukraine.
The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” by the theologian Gregory as early as the middle of the 11th century. The term "Ukraine" is mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle in 1187 as a synonym for the concept of "crash", that is, the land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. in Serbo-Croatian - Serbian Crash). Since 1335, for Galicia, the concept of “Little Rus'” borrowed from the Greeks began to be used, which later turned into the concept of “Little Russia”. However, in different periods it denoted different regions of Ukraine.
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The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation
Introduction
I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at that time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' of the period of the XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she spiritually ascended. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, Rus' was spiritually spiritually rich, by this time it had already managed to produce many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the XIII century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and iconography were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, annals, sacred church books, iconography, the construction of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created, her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of the people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people and that is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.
Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. deserved high praise, both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed the way to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv an adornment of the East and a rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and black on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one or another type of art, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece is ahead of it, and behind Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries. Samples of Russian products were admired by the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kiev prince, who had fled from the insurgent people, showed Russian things to the emperor.
The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade at all, this is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Russia, these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings that are still relevant today with their teachings and morals, this is a religion that still adheres to most of the Russian people. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, amaze and live its own life even in our time.
I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, having created hundreds of years ago works of culture that are still relevant today. So, in this test, I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.
General conditions for the development of culture
Already in the 11th century in the life of the ancient Russian principalities, one trend more and more stands out: the intensification of princely strife and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and threatened its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities became strong enough not to submit to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; local princes, who received the support of votchinniki and townspeople, were better able to cope with this task. All this, along with the desire of the princes for independence, led to the separation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and the largest city of Rus'.
Fragmentation, caused by socio-political reasons, was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe passed through it.
Civil strife between the principalities share a rather big gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', in addition, many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. Those, in turn, strongly dispersed, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. The outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned, robbed, many were taken prisoner, Poland and Hungary also actively intervened in Russian affairs.
The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the fate of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.
Vladimir-Suzdal land: Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.
The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, along with him, a written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir"). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad" (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly on church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy between the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). Vladimir-on-Klyazma the status of the main princely capital. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich, and the Muromo-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.
Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.
An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary had a constant impact on the processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.
Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth. Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Rus'. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes Only service functions remained in Novgorod. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Novgorod prince, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The supreme governing body of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.
The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.
Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which it was not calm in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. It was not the most peaceful time, although it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities in each feudal state, art began to develop, which, in general, resulted in such a surge of culture in all regions of Rus'.
Monuments of literature
Russian medieval culture
The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is an annual, more or less detailed record of historical events. The chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts connected mainly with the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries, and occasionally non-Ryad affairs.
The geographic outlook of the chronicler is very wide - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic survivals among the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live on the edge of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, the chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state.
The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the fact that regional literary forces appeared, each new princely center kept its own chronicles, which focused on local events, but did not cease to be interested in general Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities.
It is important to note that at the time when Ancient Rus' became close to Byzantium, a lot of work began on translating and copying books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature.
The unity of the national and state language was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and German countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such a broad literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant to know Latin. For the Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; this explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsy is regarded only as a defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of various nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on someone else's ... otherwise it will be a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all the trash - have mercy on everyone and deliver from trouble (Message of Theodosius of the Caves to Prince Izyaslav, XI century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of the South Slavic countries, which did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly, did not come down to us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed to the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything connected with it, this did not bypass literature, therefore many writings that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is the "Word of Igor's Campaign", where the church is mentioned in passing, and the whole poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century only one list of “Words ...” has come down, although it is known that it was read in various Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at an abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could perish many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is very valuable and interesting.
The largest works of Russian literature created in that period, but continuing their literary life for many more centuries, are: “The Word on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Mikhail Zatochnik, "The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" and, of course, Nestor's "The Tale of Bygone Years" occupies a prominent place among them. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, the desire to stop the devastating wars of Russian princes among themselves.
The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol period is the Tale of Igor's Campaign (~ 1187), which is in the first row of masterpieces of world poetry. "The Word..." is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works of ancient Russian literature was created. “Word…” is a perennial oak, a mighty and sprawling oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil.
Russian literature from the most ancient period was distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the topics of social and state building, and an invariably developing connection with folk art. She put a person at the center of her quest, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects national traits in him, looks for ideals in him. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry, lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, oratorical works. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature is predominantly civil forms. The author does not mourn and yearn for his own personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and mainly turns to it all the fullness of his personal feelings. This lyric is not of a personal nature, although the personality of the author is expressed in it by calls to save the motherland, to overcome the turmoil in the public life of the country, with a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes.
This typical feature found one of its most striking expressions in The Lay of Igor's Campaign. “Word…” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly intervenes in the course of events that he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of anguish and grief, as if he wants to stop the disturbing course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on the contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the motherland.
“Word…” is imbued with a great human feeling - a warm, tender, strong feeling of love for the motherland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks of the defeat of Igor's troops:
“On the third day, by noon, the banners of Igor fell!
Here the brothers parted on the banks of the swift Kayala;
there was no bloody wine;
here the brave Russians finished the feast:
got the matchmakers drunk,
and they themselves perished for the Russian land.
The grass will droop with pity,
and the tree bowed to the ground with anguish.
And in the way he conveys the words of the lamentation of Russian wives for the dead soldiers:
“The Russian wives wept, saying:
"We already have our own sweet ways
not in thoughts to think,
don't think to think
not to be seen with eyes
but gold and silver, and even more than that, you can’t hold in your hands! ”
and in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor's return:
"The sun shines in the sky, -
and Igor is a prince in the Russian land.
Igor rides along Borichev
to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshcha.
The villages are happy, the cities are cheerful.
Singing a song to the old princes,
then sing to the young:
"Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich,
Bui tour Vsevolod,
Vladimir Igorevich!
The poem was inspired by the real events of the history of that time. "Word..." was created after the events of Igor's campaign and was written under the fresh impressions of these events. This work is assembled from hints, reminders, deaf indications of what else was in the memory of each person. It served as a call to end the princely strife, to unite in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in vivid and vivid images and paintings. The “Word…” with brilliant force and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a result, the weakness of its defense against the increased and more frequent pressure of the raids of nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Rus'.
“The Tale of Igor's Campaign” not only tells about the events of Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign - it gives an assessment and is a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either referring to the events of modern times, or recalling the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the motherland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future.
"The Word ..." remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that it happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade away, but rather increases. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country.
The literature of that time does not fade away despite the past centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time, the teachings of the authors of those times are vital even now. In the example of chronicles, "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond, moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without concealing from the reader and the black sides of that time. These were really educated people who brought a particle of themselves into the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A particle of the Russian heritage, feelings, moods.
Folklore
still important and vital in our time remains the folklore of Ancient Rus'. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be recorded only from the 17th century, they appeared precisely in the period of pre-Mongolian Rus. All of them are filled with meaning, teachings and ridicule of the bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, his spiritual strength.
From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga.
Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with plots dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. include the appearance of Novgorod epics about the "guest" Sadko, a wealthy merchant, descended from an ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of legends about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. Sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, human weakness, they praised work, kindness, complicity, again, unity. They taught a person to be strong in spirit and body, to honor elders, to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs has remained the same. Fairy tales that appeared in that period also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. Pagan gods and gods, persecuted by the Orthodox Church, found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales, we see foresters, goblin, water, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is a forester in “The Frog Princess”, a water man (the sea king in folk tales and epics), he also finds his own spirit and fetishism in them (a tablecloth is a self-assembly, boots are fast walkers, a magic ball).
In fairy tales, we can also observe the idea of the people about the afterlife, about the eternal world of the ancestors, its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, about the soul, as a transition to a different form of existence. They found a reflection of this belief mainly in fairy tales, especially those associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out an adapter to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the idea of the pagans about the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the boundaries between the earthly and the "eternal world", about ways to overcome it and helpers on a long and difficult journey to the "other world". But let's not forget that the theme of honesty, courage, truth was also raised in fairy tales, she cursed evil, lies, laziness, betrayal. The main villains have always been punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in the good good feelings of that generation.
Architecture and painting
A major contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, wooden pagan temples, Russian architects mastered the new Byzantine brick building technique with amazing speed and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In a number of cases, the architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv affected the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for the boyars. Earlier, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the XII - XIII centuries. is a known unity. It cannot be said that the Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive ties with the East, West and Byzantium. Having mastered at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, which varied by region.
Appearance in the XII century. tower-like, upward-looking, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of the Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of the feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a commonality of style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings.
The buildings of Andrey Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest are completely Russian in their traditions and construction techniques. But in a number of details they are close to the architecture of the Romanesque style of the 12th century.
The white-stone temples of Vladimir with their generous carved ornaments are rightfully compared by researchers in terms of overall harmony and richness of plots with the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian.
A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in proportion to the parts. Recent finds in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture for a long time retained the power of artistic influence.
The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have come down to us in the form of frescoes, icons, book miniatures. The high level of artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly due to the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period.
Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature gives rise to: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of the works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belongs to only one category - to church art. Secular art is known to us only in part.
Each church building was not only the most beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of frescoes, subordinated to a single complex design. Sacred images were arranged in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From the church frescoes, she looked at the images of Christian saints in the clothes of bishops, kings, combatants, monks, who were below the common people.
The class essence of the feudal church was fully revealed in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to establish the ideas of the feudal church. A Kyivian or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ, as it were, hovered in the sky, above the smoke of incense, the space of the dome. The stern "fathers of the church" stood in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thus united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and overwhelmed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the Last Judgment painted over the exit. He was returning from the church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dare to disobey church laws.
The development of the class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies”, led to the spread of certain plots in art, for example, “The Miracle of Michael the Archangel in Khony”, where Michael, “the voivode of the heavenly forces”, punishes the peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of "The Assurance of Thomas" is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends.
Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot of things in architecture and painting appeared with the advent of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from him. In all manifestations of art, there is one's own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it has changed a little, thanks to the new currents of culture and religion in Rus', its own note of art, which originated and flourished in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all the principalities. It can even be said that the feudal split of the state had a positive effect on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in any one. This once again shows how powerful and spiritually united the state of ancient Rus' remained.
Religion
It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time, the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time.
The people did not want to part with a long-term way of life, even having joined the Christian faith.
In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the inhabitants of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then expelled three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop, with the help of military force, was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992, Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently, the Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century.
The Eastern Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. The staunch pagans fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising began in Suzdal led by pagan priests. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised trouble in the Rostov land and in Novgorod, but it was again extinguished.
Nevertheless, if the princes could forcibly baptize, then it was impossible to force anyone to believe. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir was the dual faith that dominated Rus' from the 10th-11th centuries. Christianity slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview, in which the dogmas and values of the old and new religion coexisted peacefully. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which all folk culture was associated. Moreover, in the cities, Christianity was entrenched only externally. This is true both for ordinary citizens and for the princely-boyar environment. The church, too, had to put up with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the most important thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to get closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the church of St. Basil stood on Volosova Street, and the saint in it is depicted on an icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable for a person by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (for example, pagan idols of the gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of forces between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed on the right saint was reminiscent of a ritual when a fire was lit in front of the right idol. This also applies to burials, as early as the 13th century. jewelry and weapons were placed in the princely burials at the temples, as required by the pagan rite.
But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot, it opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture.
The new religion raised literature and architecture to a new level, thanks to which iconography appeared. But, as in other ramifications of culture, we see that Rus' not only adopted a new faith, having risen a step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins to the church, making it unlike other religions.
Conclusions
Starting from the X century. Rus' has reached great heights in culture. For the most part, this was benefited by the emergence of Christianity as a new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. High hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped to maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, not, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion, a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that the same Byzantium gave them to their liking, leaving, not small, at that time, pagan culture and adapting it to the newcomer. Later in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influence, but now, which is very pleasant, people are starting to return to their roots.
Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived.
Now we will not be able to imagine life without the "Word ...", without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongolian Rus'.
All this is present in our life from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed to the icon, in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblin, with the first acquaintance already at school with "The Word ...", "The Tale temporary years." And when you start to think how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become really joyful for your people, for your past.
This shows in everything how erroneously widespread the opinion is that Rus', in the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete.
I believe that she really made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular.
It was a truly culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that at that moment took place in it.
Bibliography
1.B.A. Rybakov "Culture of Ancient Rus'" Moscow 1956
.D.S. Likhachev "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time "Leningrad 1985.
."The Tale of Igor's Campaign" Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984
.B.A. Rybakov "Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles "Moscow 1963.
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THE CULTURE OF Rus' IN THE PERIOD OF FEUDAL Fragmentation
In the history of Russia, the period from the end XII to mid XY century is called the period of feudal fragmentation, inter-princely strife, economic and political weakening of Rus'. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the centuries of the Tatar yoke (1238-1480) slowed down the development of Russian culture almost everywhere, except for Novgorod and Pskov, which were not debtors of the Golden Horde and, moreover, successfully repelled the onslaught of Western enemies - the Livonian knights. At the same time, in 1240, the Swedish conquerors invaded the Russian lands, who were defeated on the Neva River by the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich. This was his first major victory, for which he received the title "Nevsky". In 1242, he gave battle to the sword-bearers on the ice of Lake Peipus. This battle was called Battle on the Ice, after which Alexander Nevsky solemnly entered Novgorod, leading the chained captives. This is the time when Rus' was conquered, bled dry, devastated. Moscow became the center of unification and revival. Founded in 1147, already in 1276 it became the center of a small principality under the younger son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel, and in XY-XY centuries became the center of the revival of the Russian state.
In the pre-Mongol period, the Russian people were distinguished by a high degree of literacy, which was the foundation of a common culture. Numerous monuments testify to this. XII - n. 13th century
With the ruin of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, mass extermination population, the destruction of cultural centers, the literacy of the population and the level of culture as a whole fell sharply. For a long time, the preservation and development of education, literacy, and spiritual culture moved to monasteries and religious centers. The restoration of the previous level of literacy began in the second half of XII century, especially after the victory of the Russian army under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy over the Tatar-Mongols on the Kulikovo field (1380). Speaking about the heroic struggle of the Russian people, in this battle, which heralded the approaching liberation and included in many historical and cultural monuments of Rus', in epics, poems, songs, legends, etc.
Tradition says that not far from Moscow, from where the prince led his troops against Mamai, an icon of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker appeared to him. And the prince exclaimed: “This is all comforting my heart! ...” (the Nikolo-Ugreshsky Monastery was founded on this place. Many buildings in the monastery have survived to this day: the Transfiguration Cathedral, the Patriarchal Chambers, the unique Jerusalem Wall, stylized as an icon-painting city ... )
The development of literature in XII - ser. XY centuries continues to be closely intertwined with the rise of oral folk art. most outstanding literary monument national culture to XII in is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It delights with the scale of thinking, figurative language, pronounced patriotism, subtle lyricism. Its central idea is a call for the unity of Rus' in the face of a common enemy. From other literary works XII - mid XY centuries we can note "The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik", "The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "The Tale of Mamaev massacre”, “Zadonshchina”, Kiev-Pechora Patericon. All these works, written in the form of annals, constitute our national pride and are an integral part of the global medieval culture. Along with them, new legends arose, for example, “The Legend of the city of Kitezh" - a city that went under water, to the bottom of the lake, with all the defenders and residents who did not surrender to the enemies. Many sincere, sad songs were created that reflected the longing of Russian people for freedom, sadness about the fate of their native land.
One of literary genres V XY-XY centuries were hagiography. These are stories about princes, metropolitans, founders of monasteries.
Talented church writers Pachomius Lagofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled a biography of the largest church figures in Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Of particular fame were the "Word about the Life of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich" and "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh", named after the town of Radonezh, not far from which he founded the monastery. "The Life of Dmitry Donskoy", where a vivid image of a courageous commander is drawn, it reveals deep patriotism and unity of the Russian people.
One of the most common literary genres of that time was historical stories, which described both "walking" (travel) and large historical events. Outstanding monument of Russian culture XY c appeared "Journey Beyond Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, which contains many accurate and valuable observations about India and other countries. Valuable geographical descriptions of other territories are presented in the “journeys” of the Novgorodian Stefan (1348-1349) and Smolyanin Ignatius (13489-1405) to Tsargrad, in the diary of the trip of the Russian embassy to the church cathedral in Ferrara and Florence (1439).
Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. Russian architects of that time continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period. They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders, and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power. This feature of Novgorod art was noted by Academician I.E. Grabar (1871-1960): "The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength."
The result of new searches and traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Samples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1360-1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyina Street (1374). The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, located in the commercial part of Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.
Simultaneously with the temple, large-scale civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. This is the Faceted Chamber (1433) for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Lords. The Novgorod boyars built for themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod (until XII V. was called detinets), which was subsequently rebuilt several times.
Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city resembled a fortress, the architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large Kremlin was almost nine kilometers. Pskov builders created a special system of overlapping buildings with mutually intersecting arches, which later made it possible to free the temple from pillars.
In Moscow, stone construction began in the second quarter XII V. The construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin dates back to this time.
The Moscow Kremlin is the oldest, central part of Moscow on Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of Moscow. In 1366-1367. walls and towers of white stone were erected. In 1365, a white-stone cathedral of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael was built, and an altar church of the Annunciation was erected near the southeastern wing. Subsequently, new temple and civil buildings were built on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. The tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral. At the end XY V. The Faceted Chamber was built, which was part of the royal palace, its armored hall.
Construction was also carried out in other cities - Kolomna, Serpukhov, Zvenigorod. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - a six-pillar city cathedral, raised on a high basement, with a gallery.
The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (c.1400), the Cathedral of Savvin Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422).
A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and the creation of a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.
History of Russian painting XY-XY centuries just as architecture became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period. The Old Russian icon is really the creation of a genius, a collective multifaceted genius folk tradition. Approximately at XII V. Icons begin to merge into overall composition iconostasis, placing them on the partition separating the altar. The iconostasis is clean Russian image. Byzantium did not know him. The "everyday" poetry of the icon merged with the poetry of the fairy tale. There is a lot in the icon from Russian fairy-tale folklore, this is especially noticeable in the early icons of the Novgorod school with their bright red backgrounds, simple solid silhouettes.
Wall painting in Rus' of this time belongs to the "golden age". Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water. IN XII V. fresco painting is formed compositionally, spatially, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced. These innovations were especially evident in the famous Novgorod frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1360) and the Church of the Assumption on the Volotovo Field (1352).
A special place among artists XY-XY centuries occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c.1340 - after 1405) the work of the Greek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. In Novgorod, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilnye Street (1378), where he embodied in his characters the spirituality of man, his inner strength.
In Moscow, the Greek, together with Simeon Cherny, paints the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395-1396) with the chapel of Lazarus. He also paints the Cathedral of the Archangel in the Kremlin (1399), together with Elder Prokhor from Gorodets and Andrei Rublev, the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405). The art of Theophan the Greek determined the development of Moscow painting during these years.
Another famous master of this time was the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c.1360/70 - c.1430) - a monk of the Andronikov Monastery, in which he died and was buried. His work marked the rise of Russian culture in the period of the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting reaches its peak. These works are distinguished by deep humanity and sublime spirituality of images, the idea of concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.
Andrei Rublev participated in the creation of paintings and icons in the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin (1405), the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408), the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1425-1427), the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420s).
His most famous work is the icon "Trinity" (kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery) it was painted for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in Sergievsky Posad. The image of God in three persons is presented in the image of three angels, all three figures form a circular composition around the bowl. Spiritual purity, clarity, expressiveness, golden color, a single rhythm of lines embody the idea of harmony with great force.
Among the surviving works of Andrei Rublev are frescoes on the theme of "The Last Judgment" in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408).
In the second half XIV V. in Novgorod, Pskov, and then in Moscow, the teachings of the so-called heretics began to spread, who opposed the church as an institution that cleanses everything. Heretics were not satisfied with religious teachings and explanations of the surrounding world. They studied mathematics, astronomy, knew ancient languages. By the end XV V. the clergy burned the heretics alive. But this did not and could not stop the development of free thought.
In the movement of heretics it is impossible not to see the actions of the people IX century, on the eve and for a long time after baptism, against Christianization and nationalization of faith and religion.
In XIV-XV centuries three currents of philosophical and theological thought that went beyond the church dominated: traditional Orthodoxy, hesychaism (peace, silence, detachment) and weak sprouts of rationalism (heresy).
In the 70s XIV V. among the townspeople and the lower clergy, the Novgorod-Pskov heresy of the Strigolnikov (a detachment of tonsure as clerks) arose, who criticized the church as on the problems of dogma (disputed divine origin the sacraments of the priesthood, baptism) and organizational issues (they rejected the church hierarchy and monastic land ownership, advocated a “cheap church” and the right to preach to the laity. In the end 15th century heresy XIV V. merged with the new movement "heresy of the Judaizers". The denial of monasticism of church land ownership by heretics aroused the sympathy of the state authorities, who saw in church lands a source of replenishment of the land funds of the treasury. But despite the support of Ivan III , the church council of 1490 condemned the heresy. Ideas of heretics XY V. developed "non-possessors". The teachers of non-possessiveness - the ideologist of Russian psychaism Nil Sorokin (1433-1508) and Vassian Patrikeev - spoke out in favor of the reform of monasteries, the refusal of monasteries from land ownership and strict asceticism, pointed to the inconsistency of church practice with the principles of Christianity. Their ideas found support among the boyars, the serving nobility and the Grand Duke, but on the part of many churchmen, whose position was formed by the abbot Joseph Volotsky (1439-1515), they met with a hostile attitude. The Osiflians achieved an alliance with the grand ducal authorities. Joseph developed the theory of theocratic absolutism, which strengthened the authority of secular power and strengthened the position of the church. The nonpossessors were condemned as heretics. For the development of culture XYI V. this was reflected in the tightening of canonical requirements.
In order to end the era in the history of Rus' associated with the Mongol-Tatar invasion, that power in 14652 came to Ivan III , who went down in history as a collector of the Russian land (1462-1505).
In 1478 Ivan III completely refused to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. This led to a confrontation between the troops of Khan Akhmat and the troops of Ivan III on the Ugra River in October-November 1480 and ended with the departure of the Tatars without a fight, which marked their recognition of the complete independence of Rus'.
