In 1910, the psychologist Max Wertheimer, who observed the flashes of signal lights on railway crossing, experienced a sudden insight, which subsequently served as the basis for the development of the concept of gestalt (from the German Gestalt - an integral structure, image, form) and the formulation of principles visual perception objects.
The chain of reasoning of the psychologist was approximately as follows: in fact, the light signal does not move left and right - it's just that 2 separate lamps turn on and off in sequence. The tendency of the human brain to "finish" the observed object to a complete, "complete" structure is even more noticeable when looking at the "running lights" created by electric lamps that surround the perimeter of signs and canopies of cinema roofs.
For the observer, everything looks as if a separate light moves along a certain trajectory, periodically changing the direction of movement, although in reality there is a sequential switching on and off of individual lamps. It is the human brain that combines individual objects into a holistic image, categorically different from the sum of its parts - like fixed light bulbs qualitatively different from the "running light" perceived by the observer of this electrical illumination.
Key Ideas Underpinning Gestalt Theory
"The whole is something other than the sum of its parts" - Kurt Koffka (German-American psychologist, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology).
The above quotation is the shortest summary of Gestalt theory. In the example of Wertheimer's sudden guess, an integral structure (gestalt, perceived image) - a "running light" - in principle cannot be obtained by simply adding its constituent elements (individual electric lamps).
In other words, people visually perceive a group of objects as a whole before recognizing the individual objects that make up the group. We see the whole as more than the sum of its parts, and even when the details overall picture are completely separate objects, we, when looking at them, will group them into a complete spatial-visual form (another definition of gestalt).
There are 4 key ideas that form the principles of gestalt:
Emergence - The whole is recognized before its parts.
Emergence is the process of forming a complex holistic image from simple visual patterns. When trying to identify an object, we first of all determine its outline, its outlines. Then, in search of a match, we compare the selected contour with perceptual patterns (familiar shapes and objects) already stored in our visual memory. Only after the contour of the observed whole coincides with the existing one in memory, we begin to identify the parts that make up the said whole.
When designing your landing page, keep in mind that visitors will first recognize the elements of the landing page in their own right. general view. A simple, eye-catching object will more quickly involve the user in a conversion action than a complex object consisting of many small parts and with a hard-to-define contour.
Embodiment / socialization (Reification, "concretization") - an aspect of perception in which an object is perceived as containing more spatial-visual information than is actually present in the sensory stimulus from the observed object.
In order for the observed object to coincide as much as possible with the stereotypes of perception stored in visual memory, the human brain generates Additional information, allowing you to fill in the "gaps", due to which there is a mismatch between the contour of the object and the existing pattern of perception. In other words, we choose an almost complete match of the perceived image and “finish” it to the existing visual stereotype.
Socialization allows the designer not to complete the outline of the object in order for the user to see the actual object. It is enough to leave so many parts of the contour so that the viewer can match it with the existing perception patterns.
Multiple stability (Multi-stability, multistability) - a property that allows you to switch between stable alternative interpretations in case of ambiguous experience of perceiving an object (ambiguous perceptual experience).
Simply put, some objects can be interpreted by consciousness in more than one way. Many spatial illusions are based on this property of visual perception. Below is an example that you are probably already familiar with: in this picture you can see either two faces in profile or a vase (see the left illustration in the Figure and Ground section).
You cannot be in two stable states of perception of an object at the same time, seeing both the vase and the faces at the same time. Instead, you will quickly move back and forth between two stable alternatives to the meaning of the image, with one of them being the dominant perception of the object, and the longer you stick to this interpretation, the more difficult it will be for you to see " alternate reality”, available in the same picture.
From the point of view of the practical application of the mentioned effect in design: if you want to change someone's perception of a certain object, then do not try to change everything at once. Find a way to provide the viewer alternative point vision, and this will automatically lead to strengthening new interpretation visual object while weakening its initial perception.
Invariance is a perceptual property that allows you to recognize objects regardless of their rotation, movement, scaling, changing lighting conditions, etc.
Since we most often look at objects in the outside world from different visual perspectives, we have developed the ability to recognize these objects regardless of the point of view of them.
Imagine a picture that you could recognize a familiar person strictly when looking at him from the front - turning in profile, he appeared before you as an absolute stranger. However, we can still recognize loved ones and friends - despite all the possible variety of trajectories of our views on people we know. :)
You can see the implementation of these ideas in the principles below. The main concept of the material presented is that the principles of gestalt describe perception mechanisms and visual language core with which designers work.
Gestalt principles
Most of these principles are relatively easy to understand, especially since they have one thing in common. common topic, a "red thread" passing through many of them:
“Other things being equal, related elements are perceptually grouped into units of a higher order,” Stephen Palmer, American psychologist.
"People will perceive and interpret ambiguous and complex images as the simplest form possible or a combination of the simplest forms."
This is the fundamental principle of Gestalt. People prefer to deal with simple, understandable and orderly things that are instinctively perceived as safer than complex and incomprehensible objects.
Simple things do not require intense mental effort from a person and do not threaten him with unpleasant surprises. This is why when we perceive complex forms, we tend to "reorganize" them into a set of simple components or into a simple whole form.
In the illustration above, you are more likely to see the image on the left as a combination of the simplest shapes - a circle, a square, and a triangle - as shown in the picture on the right, than as a complex and ambiguous whole shape to interpret.
In this case, it is easier for us to see three different objects than one complex one. Sometimes it is easier to perceive one object, supplementing it with the help of isolation.
“When looking at complexly arranged elements, we tend to see them as a simple, recognizable form.”
Like the previous law of content, the principle of closedness is based on a person's desire to simplify the perceived images. But isolation is the opposite content, which allows - as in the example above - to simplify visual perception through the representation of one object as a combination of three.
At completion we combine parts to see a simple whole. Our brain fills in the missing information to form a complete figure.
In the left image above, you will see a white triangle, although the image is actually made up of three black Pac-Man-like shapes. In the picture on the right, you will see a panda in a combination of several random shapes. This is because seeing a triangle and a panda is easier than trying to figure out what each means. separate part drawing.
Closure can be simplistically viewed as a “glue” that holds elements together, although we are talking about more global concept- about the human tendency to seek and find complete structures.
Key to use closedness principle- provide the user with enough information so that he can "finish" the missing elements in his perception. If there is little information, then the elements will be considered as separate objects, and not parts of the whole; if there is too much of it, then there is no need for the process of perception to completion.
Symmetry and Order
“People tend to perceive objects as symmetrical shapes formed around conditional centers.
Symmetry gives people a sense of security and order, which we tend to seek because of the age-old human desire to transform chaos into order. This principle leads us to the concept of balance in the composition of a painting, drawing, or web page, although the composition may not be perfectly symmetrical to be in balance.
In the illustration above, you see three pairs of opening and closing brackets. Proximity principle(The principle of proximity), which will be discussed a little later, allows us to assume that we should see something else. The obvious incompleteness of the image - it seems that one more bracket is missing from both sides - indicates that in the perception of a person symmetry takes precedence over closeness.
As our eyes quickly discover symmetry and order then these principles can be used to effectively disseminate urgent information.
Figure and Ground
"The element is perceived either as a figure/object (the element in focus) or as a background (the surface on which the figure/object is located)."
The “figure and ground” principle refers to the relationship between the “positive” (meaningful, having context) elements of any composition and the “negative” background (not having context). The perception of any image begins with the fact that the eye separates the figures (objects) from the background.
The figure-ground relationship can be stable or unstable, depending on how easy it is to determine what is figure and what is ground. A classic example of an unstable ratio is shown in the left figure above. You either see a vase or two faces, depending on whether you perceive black as the color of the object and white as the color of the background, or vice versa.
The fact that you can easily move from one perception of an image to another demonstrates the instability of the relationship between figure and ground.
The more stable the figure-ground relationship, the easier we can focus our attention. target audience on exactly what we want to show them (call to action button, main title of the landing page and other converting elements).
Two interrelated principles of perception can help us to increase stability:
- Square- of two overlapping objects, the one whose area is smaller is perceived as a figure (regardless of color).
- Convex- not concave, but convex shapes are usually perceived as figures.
Uniform Connectedness
"Elements that are visually connected are perceived as more closely related than elements that are not."
In the figure below, lines connect two pairs of elements, which creates the perception that the related elements are in some kind of relationship.
Of all the principles of designing objects as interconnected uniform connectivity- the strongest. In the image, we see 2 squares and 2 circles forming closely related circle-square pairs because they are connected visually.
Please note that the lines may not touch the connected objects in order for the latter to be perceived as interconnected.
"Elements are perceived as part of a group if they are in the same enclosed area."
Another way to show the relationship between elements is to position them in a special way. Everything that is inside a closed area is perceived as connected to each other. Everything that goes beyond its limits is considered as a set of separate objects.
The circles in the illustration below are the same, however, we see two different groups, with the objects in each group perceived as related.
Typical way to show general area— draw a rectangle around the elements connected to each other. This method will also work for elements placed on areas of the background that differ in color.
"Objects located closer friend to each other, are perceived as interconnected, as opposed to those that are located farther from each other.
Proximity principle similar the principle of common areas, but uses the space as mentioned by us earlier isolation.
If the elements are close to each other, then they are considered as part of a group, and not as separate elements. This is especially true when the elements in the group are closer together than they are to any elements outside.
Objects should not be similar in any way (for example, color, size, shape) so that they can be located in space close to each other and they are perceived as interconnected.
Continuation
"Elements located on a line or curve are perceived as more closely related than elements not located on a line or curve."
It's an instinct to stick to a certain direction. Once you look or go in the chosen direction, you will continue to do this action until you see something significant, or you determine that there is nothing interesting to look at.
Another interpretation of this principle is that we will continue our perception of forms beyond their endpoints. In the figure above, we see straight and curved lines intersecting instead of two line segments and two curve segments meeting at the same point.
Common Fate/Synchrony
"Elements moving in the same direction are perceived as more connected than elements that are stationary or moving in different directions."
No matter how far apart the elements are placed or how dissimilar they are, if they look like they are moving or changing in sync, then they will be perceived as related to each other.
To implement the principle of common destiny, the elements do not even need to move. More importantly, they look as having general purpose. Suppose 4 people stand motionless side by side, but two of them are watching something, synchronously turning heads to the right. These two will be considered as having general purpose.
In the illustration above, the arrows point to general purpose elements. Actually movement or change is not even necessary - the strongest on general purpose/synchronism indicate arrows or , only implying movement as such.
Parallelism
"Elements that are parallel to each other are considered to be more interconnected than elements that are not parallel."
This principle is similar to the general purpose described above. Lines are often used as a symbol for indicating a direction or moving somewhere.
parallel lines are perceived as an indication of the same direction or movement in the same direction, which is interpreted by visual perception as the relationship of these lines.
It should be noted that the principle of parallelism is also applicable to curves or shapes, although for the latter - with reservations: they must have several parallel lines.
Similarity
"Elements having similar General characteristics, are perceived as interconnected - in contrast to elements that do not have these characteristics.
Any number of characteristics of objects can be similar: color, shape, size, textures, etc. When the user sees these similar characteristics, he perceives the elements as related due to their common characteristics.
In the image below, the red circles are seen as related to other red circles due to the color similarity. The same statement is true for black circles. Red and black circles are perceived as different from each other, although they are all circles in shape.
An obvious application of the similarity principle in web design is link color. As a rule, links in the content of the page are designed in the same way, most often in blue and underlined. This helps the visitor, who has determined empirically that there is a link in front of him, in a similar way to use all words / phrases highlighted with similar characteristics: color and underlining.
Focus Points
“Focus points are elements that, by being different from others, capture and hold the attention of a landing / site visitor.”
This principle assumes that the visitor's attention will be focused on an element that is somehow different from others. In the figure below, the focus point is highlighted with a shape, color, and a cast "shadow" (pseudo volume).
The principle of focus points is based on our ability to quickly identify unknown objects as potential sources of danger.
Principles similarities and points focusing related in the sense that the Focal Point doesn't have to look like any other landing page element in order to grab the visitor's attention. On landing pages/websites, focus points are usually placed on elements that are critical for conversion, such as CTAs.
Past Experiences
"Items tend to be perceived according to the user's past experience."
It is perhaps the weakest Gestalt principle. When compared with any of the previously listed principles, each of them will dominate the principle of past experience.
Past experience is unique to each person, so it's hard to make plausible guesses about how a new visual will be perceived by an arbitrary user.
Nevertheless, there is a certain universal experience, with certain reservations inherent in every person: when we see a traffic light, we will expect that the red light will indicate the need to stop, and the green light will “allow” to go. This is how the principle of past experience works.
Many of our interpretations of visual stimuli are determined by the cultural attitudes that prevail in society (think of the "psychology of colors"). In some countries White color- the color of purity and innocence, and black - evil and death. In other regions of the world, interpretations of these two colors can be radically opposite.
And in general, the concept of "generally accepted experience" in itself is very conditional - not all people during their lives can experience similar events in order to acquire a similar experience. past experience.
Instead of a conclusion
It is important for both marketers and web designers to understand the principles of gestalt, because they form the basis of the graphical display of an offer, they describe how people perceive visual objects, which include the landing page on the user's monitor.
The principles outlined above are relatively easy to understand: definitions and illustrations are sufficient to understand most of them. It is much more difficult to understand how exactly the principles of Gestalt in practice affect the readiness of the visitor to convert and the most important business metrics.
In the following, we will take a closer look at the influence of gestalt on design: we will see how symmetry helps us balance the visual and text content of the landing page, and how applying the principles of similarity and focal points together allows us to create a visual hierarchy on the landing page.
This article is about design principles that can serve as both a reminder for experienced designers and a kick start for those new to the industry. We hope the material does not seem too obvious and self-evident. It's always good to have a good memo, isn't it? - Ed.
In 1910, the psychologist Max Wertheimer observed a series of light sources on railway, which dimmed and dimmed. It was like the LEDs on the poster of the cinema
To the observer, it seems as if the light is moving from one bulb to another, although in fact, a row of bulbs flashes and goes out, and at that moment the next row lights up.
This observation led to the formation of a number of principles about how we visually perceive objects. These principles sit at the core of almost everything graphic designers do.
This is the start of a series of articles on design principles. Starts with Gestalt principles because many of the design principles we follow stem from Gestalt theory. In this article, I will talk a little about the theory and explain some of the basic definitions of the principles of gestalt.
Future articles in this series will look at aspects of design such as space, balance, and visual hierarchy. I will point out which Gestalt principles influence aspects of the design being discussed and suggest more. practical applications and examples of how these principles are used in web design.
Key Ideas of Gestalt Theory
thing as a whole is different from the sum of its parts.
- kurt kofka
The quote above is the basis of Gestalt. When people see a group of objects, they perceive them as a whole before they see them as separate objects. We regard the whole as something more than just the sum of the parts, and even when the parts are completely separate entities, we will try to group them as some kind of whole.
(English) you can get acquainted with some key ideas.
Manifestation (the whole is identified faster than its component parts)
Manifestation is the process of forming complex images according to simple rules. When trying to identify an object, one first tries to identify its outline. After that, they try to match the contour with those shapes and objects that they already know in order to find a match. Only after finding a match, do they begin to identify the individual parts.
When designing, remember that people first identify the shape of an object. And a simple object will be easier to make contact than an object with a hard to recognize outline.
Reification (our mind fills in the blanks)
Reification is an aspect of perception in which the perceived object contains more spatial information than it actually has. Because people try to identify an object with familiar patterns they store in memory, this match is not always accurate. Instead, they find a similar match and then fill in the gaps with the information they are used to seeing.
Reification says that we don't have to provide a finished outline for the viewer to see. We can leave out some parts of the outline if it is enough to recognize a familiar shape in it. Examples:
Multistability (Mind Avoids Uncertainty)
Multistability - the tendency of perception when ambiguous, to switch between alternative images. Some objects can be perceived in more than one way. The example is below in the contrast section, you may have seen it before. The image can be recognized as two faces in profile or as a vase.
You cannot see both images at once. Instead, you quickly switch between them. Each image will tend to dominate your perception, and the longer you see one, the harder it will be to perceive the other.
From a design standpoint, if you want to change someone's perception, don't try to change it all at once. Find a way to force you to see an alternative. Then work on strengthening the alternative representation while weakening the original.
Immutability (We are good at recognizing similarities and differences)
Immutability is a perceptual property in which simple objects are recognized regardless of their rotation, translation, and scale. Since we often encounter objects with different points vision, we have developed the ability to recognize them despite their different appearances.
Imagine being able to recognize a friend when they are standing directly in front of you, but not being able to recognize them as soon as they turn and stand in profile. Despite the different visual perspective, we can recognize people.
These ideas can be seen in action below.
The main meaning of the Gestalt principles is about the perception and visual communication of objects. Principles speak the visual language within which designers work.
Gestalt Laws
Most of the principles are relatively easy to understand. They have a common theme that occurs in every principle.
Other things being equal, elements that are related tend to be grouped perceptually into units of a higher order.”
— Stephen Palmer
Law of simplicity (good figure, law of expressiveness)
People will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images in the simplest possible way.
This is the fundamental principle of Gestalt. We prefer simple, clear and orderly things. Instinctively these things are safer. They take less time to understand and present fewer dangerous surprises.
When we face complex shapes, we tend to reorganize them into simpler components or into one simple whole. You will most likely see that the left image is made up of simple circle, square and triangle as you see on the right, than as a complex, solid and ambiguous figure.
In this case, observing three different objects is easier than observing one composite object. Other times it's easier to see a single object that brings us to...
closure
Seeing the complex arrangement of elements, we tend to look for them, a recognizable image.
Like expressiveness, closure strives for simplicity. The closure is the opposite of what we saw in the simplicity figure above, where three objects were simpler than one. With closure, we combine parts to form a simpler whole. Our eye fills in the missing information to form a complete figure.
In the left image above, a white triangle can be seen, even though the image is actually made up of three black Pac-Man-like figures. In the right image, a panda is visible although this figure consists of several different figures. Seeing the triangle and the panda is easier than trying to take them apart.
The closure can be thought of as the glue that holds the elements together. It's about about the human tendency to seek and find patterns.
In order for the eye to fill in the missing pieces, enough information must be provided. If there is not enough information, the elements will be considered as separate parts, and not as a whole. If there is too much information, then there will be no need for a closure.
Symmetry and order
"People tend to perceive objects as symmetrical shapes that form around their center."
Symmetry gives us a sense of density and order that we tend to look for. It is our nature to bring order out of chaos. This principle leads us to desire balance in composition, although compositions do not have to be perfectly symmetrical to be balanced.
In the image above, you can see three pairs of open and closed brackets. The Proximity Principle, which we'll cover later in this article, means we have to see something else. This means that symmetry takes precedence over closeness.
Since our eyes will quickly search for symmetry and order, these principles can be used to communicate information efficiently and quickly.
Pattern / background
"Elements are perceived either as a drawing (the element in focus) or as a background (a background on which the drawing rests)."
The picture/background relationship is the same as the relationship between positive elements and negative space. The idea is that the eye will pick out entire patterns in the background to make sense of what it sees. It's one of the first things people will do when they look at any composition.
The pattern/background relationship can be stable or unstable depending on how easy it is to tell which is which. The classic example where the ratio is unstable is the left image above. You can see either a vase or two faces, depending on what you perceive as black or white as a background, and vice versa, what you perceive as a drawing. That you can easily switch between one and the other demonstrates an unstable relationship.
The more stable the relationship, the better we can focus our audience on what we want to show them. Two interrelated principles can help us:
- Region
The smaller of the two overlapping objects is recognized as a pattern. More is recognized as background. This can be seen in the right image above. The smaller shape is a pattern regardless of color. - Convex
Convex rather than concave patterns tend to be perceived as drawings.
Uniform connection
Elements that are visually connected are perceived as more connected than elements that are not connected.
In the image below, lines connect two pairs of elements. This makes us think that the connected elements are related to each other.
Of all the principles that push for the connection of objects, the shaped connection is the strongest. In the image above, even though we see two squares and two circles, we see the square-circle pairs as more closely related because they are visually connected. Note that the line should not touch elements that will be perceived as connected.
General areas
Elements are perceived as part of a group if they are within the same enclosed area.
Another way to show the connection between elements is to enclose them in some way. Everything in the fenced area is perceived as connected. Everything outside the fenced area is perceived separately. All circles in the image below are the same, but we perceive them as 2 different groups with circles inside.
The typical way to show a common area is to draw a line around related elements, as above. Placing elements on backgrounds of different colors will also work.
Proximity
"Objects that are closer together are perceived to be more connected than objects that are farther apart.
Proximity is similar to shared areas, but uses space as a way to enclose elements. When elements are close together, they are perceived as part of a group rather than as individual elements. This is especially true when the elements in the group are closer to each other than to any elements outside the group.
Objects do not need to be similar in any way (color, shape, size - translator's note) in order to be grouped near each other in space, and perceived as related.
Continuation
“Elements located on a line or curve are perceived as more connected than elements not on a line or curve.”
It's instinct to follow a river, a path, or a fence line. Once you start looking or moving in a certain direction, you keep doing so until you see something significant or conclude that there is nothing significant to consider ahead.
Another meaning of this principle is that we will continue our perception of forms even beyond where they end. In the image above, we see an intersecting line and curve, instead of four separate lines and curve segments that intersect at a single point.
Common fate (synchronicity)
“Elements that move in the same direction are perceived as more connected than elements that are stationary or move in different directions.”
No matter how far apart the elements are or how different they seem, if they are seen moving or changing together, they will be perceived as having a connection.
Elements do not need to move to comply with the principle common destiny. It will be enough to have a common destination. For example, if four people are grouped together and two are heading to the right, then they will be seen as having a common destiny. Even if they only look in one direction, they will be perceived as having a common destiny.
In the image above, the arrows are enough to indicate that the elements share a common fate. The very fact of movement is not necessary, like arrows or looking in the same direction in which movement is implied.
Parallelism
Elements that are parallel to each other are considered more connected than elements that are not parallel to each other.
This principle is similar to the principle of common destiny. Lines are often interpreted as pointing or moving in some direction. Parallel lines look like pointing or moving in the same direction and are thus linked.
It should be noted that for parallelism, lines can also be curves or shapes, although the shapes must be line-shaped.
similarity
Elements that have similar characteristics are perceived as more related than elements that do not have such characteristics.
Any number of characteristics can be similar: color, shape, size, texture, etc. When the viewer sees these similar characteristics, they perceive the elements as interconnected due to the common characteristics.
In the image below, red circles appear to be interconnected with other red circles and black circles with other black circles due to the similarity in color. The red and black circles don't look alike, even though they are all circle-shaped.
An obvious place to apply the principle of similarity on the web is the color of links. Typically, links in content will be styled the same way, often in blue and underlined. This lets the viewer know that the different parts of the text are related. After he understands this, he does the same with other links.
focal points
Elements with interesting place, accent or difference capture and hold the viewer's attention.
This principle suggests that our attention will be drawn to the contrast, to the element that is different from the others in some way. In the image below, attention should be drawn to the square. It has a different shape and color than the other elements. It also has a shadow to further grab attention.
The principle of focal points arises from our need to quickly identify the unknown and alert us to potential danger.
The principles of similarity and focal points are related, and focal points cannot be considered without the presence of similarity among other elements.
Past experience
Elements tend to be perceived according topast the experience of the observer.
Past experience is perhaps the weakest principle of Gestalt. Together with any of the other principles, the other principle will dominate the principle of past experience.
The experience of the past is unique to each person, so it is difficult to make a guess about how something will be perceived. However, there is a common experience that everyone shares. For example, the meanings of most colors stem from past experiences.
Seeing a traffic light during a lifetime, it is expected that red means stop and green means go. The image above looks like a traffic light on its side, because of the three common colors on it. This is how past experience works.
Much of our common experience depends on culture. Color will again serve as an example. In some countries, white is a symbol of purity and innocence, while black is evil and death. In other countries, these interpretations are reversed. Commonality is achieved by sharing experiences, although it is important to remember that everyone experiences different experiences in their lives.
Summary
Gestalt principles are important to understand. They are at the heart of all visual work of designers. They describe how objects are visually perceived.
The principles described above should be easy to understand. For most of them, descriptions and pictures are probably enough to understand the principle. At the same time, understanding the basic idea of these principles does not mean that you will understand how they affect design.
In the coming weeks, there will be more examples of how Gestalt principles affect design. We'll see how symmetry helps us balance a composition and how combining focal points and similarity allows us to create a visual hierarchy in a design.
About the author and translation
This article is a translation of an article by Steven Bradley. Stephen Bradley is a designer and wordpress developer based in Colorado. He blogs and owns a small business forum where he helps people learn how to run their businesses better. Comments on the quality of the translation can be left in the comments. If there are examples interesting articles, you can send links to them in the comments, and if we like them, we will definitely publish the translation.
A notable milestone in the development of the problem of the psychology of perception was R. Arnheim's study "Art and Visual Perception", subtitled "Psychology of the Creative Eye". This book mainly grew out of applied research on the perception of various pictorial forms, carried out in line with Gestalt psychology, i.e. psychology that studies holistic perception. Arnheim's basic premise is that perception is not a mechanical registration of sensory elements, but is the ability of insight and resourceful grasp of reality. Arnheim seeks to reveal how the artistic perception objective factors, how they provoke certain ways of understanding. At the same time - what are the possibilities subjective activity of our eye, which manifests its ability to comprehend significant models of the pictorial structure and create an internal effect. The ability of the human eye to immediately assess the main qualities of the artistic whole is based, according to the researcher, on certain properties. the image itself. He gives an example: a white square with a dark disk inside. If we see that the disk is offset from the center of the square, then this kind of unbalanced composition, or, as Arnheim puts it, an "eccentric" disk, causes a certain feeling of discomfort. The symmetrical position of the disk in the center of the square gives rise to a feeling of stability, followed by a kind of feeling of satisfaction. A similar observation can be found in music. What is dissonance? This is an unstable consonance that requires permission, an exit, suggesting a certain further development, the expected action. Consonance, on the contrary, always corresponds to a feeling of stability, affirmation, stability, resolution.
Thinking in this direction, Arnheim comes to the conclusion that each model with visual boundaries is a painting, a sculpture, architectural structure- has a fulcrum or center of gravity, which instantly fixes our eye. This feature of perception is consciously used by both sculptors and photographers when they strive to invent an unstable dynamic composition, i.e. through a still image to convey an action, movement, tension that requires permission. Thus, a dancer or athlete can be depicted in a pose that will be self-sufficient, or in a pose that our imagination will perceive as a continuous movement.
The history of fine and photographic art has accumulated a huge number of techniques that allow, without changing the volume of the same drawing, either to place it in the depth of the picture space, or to bring it to the fore. Analyzing many works, Arnheim shows, in particular, in what ways Cezanne in the portrait of his wife (1890) achieves an expressive effect: the figure of a woman resting in an armchair is full of energy; on the one hand, it remains in place, and at the same time, as it were, rises. A special dynamic asymmetrical position of the head in profile charges the portrait with an element of activity. main conclusion Arnheim is as follows: we may not be aware of how hard work our eye does, but it is designed in such a way that it always captures the central elements of the form, instantly differentiating them from private ones in any image. Random or particular compositional formations always crystallize around such parts of the picture that can be assessed as quite independent and independent.
Developing a theory of the artistic impact of works visual arts, Arnheim builds on a number of ideas that have been expressed previously. So, Wölfflin at one time came to the conclusion that if the picture is reflected in the mirror, then not only does it change appearance, but its meaning is completely transformed. Wölfflin believed that this is due to the usual habit of reading a picture from left to right. When an image is flipped, its perception changes significantly. Wölfflin drew attention to certain perceptual constants, in particular, the assessment of the diagonal going from the lower left corner to the right, as ascending and the diagonal going from the top left corner down as descending. The same object looks heavy if it is not in the left, but in the right parts of the picture. Analyzing" Sistine Madonna"Raphael, the researcher confirms this with an example: if the figure of a monk, having changed the position of the slide, is rearranged from the left side to the right, then it becomes so heavy that the entire composition overturns.
Lecture 2
Application of the laws of visual perception in composition. The organization of the composition.
There are 5 laws of visual perception, which are based on the psychophysiological concept of a person's visual perception of the surrounding world: completion, continuity (gaze movement), similarity, neighborhood, alignment.
Law of Completion is based on the property of the human brain to independently create or supplement the missing visual-figurative information and fill in its missing parts. With this technique, the viewer is involved in the creative process, independently completing the missing parts, visually striving to complete the form.
Law of Direction of Movement: - a person's gaze subconsciously chooses movement from left to right, from darker to lighter, the gaze moves towards the light and behind the light; - starting the review in a certain direction, the viewer will look in that direction until something else (more interesting) distracts his attention. Using the law of continuity, you can create and organize a flow in a composition visual information, causing the viewer to feel a sense of compositional movement, activity and dynamism.
Law of similarity- objects of the composition that have similar features and properties, such as shape, size, visual mass, color and light and shade, texture and texture, as well as location on the picture plane, will be perceived by the viewer as interrelated objects (similarity in shape, size, color, texture ).
Neighborhood law(proximity) – composition objects that are closer to each other are perceived as belonging to the same group (neighborhood, touch, overlay).
Law of Leveling – is based on the subconscious desire of the brain to align visual objects with respect to each other, taking into account their relative position (as well as shape, size, mass, color and texture). Any object has its own axes - 2 central, top, bottom and two on the sides. Aligning other composition objects with respect to these axes creates groups, which ultimately leads to a uniform composition shape. Alignment types: edge (horizontally, vertically), central, relative to inclined axes.
Basic principles of visual perception- follow from the laws of visual perception, their creative use can ensure the completeness and unity of the composition. These are the principles of limitation (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.
A well-known compositional technique - the division of the text, the division of the whole into a limited number of groups, the grouping of elements - is necessary, because the whole is mastered by such a method of successive approximation. This method is due to the presence of a physiological threshold of perception, our brain can simultaneously perceive no more than 5_7 elements or groups
simultaneously. With a large number of elements, the form is no longer perceived as a whole and seems fragmented. Basic principles of visual perception- derived from laws visual perception, creative use of them can ensure the completeness and unity of the composition. These are the principles: limitation (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.
The principle of limitation, selection- the objects of the composition must be selected so as to create and maintain visual interest. Visual interest arises in a person when something new, with unexpected signs, or familiar, but organized in a new way, evokes a sufficient emotional response. The visual system and the human brain can perceive only a certain number of shapes, sizes, colors, textures in the composition, the task is not to overload the viewer with an abundance of visual objects, their complexity. An artistic composition is created not only by fitting elements, but by selecting such elements that convey the emotions and mood of the author.
The principle of contrast opposite, two or more objects of the composition with fairly pronounced opposite properties: size, shape, color, light and shade difference, location, texture. With the help of contrasting oppositions, you can:
Create dynamic tension (conflict) between the objects of the composition;
Mutually reinforce the properties of objects;
Increase visual variety.
Opposites arouse human interest, as well as natural phenomena in life - youth-old age, heat-cold, fire-water.
The principle of emphasis to draw the viewer's attention to a certain part of the composition (in the center of interest) by increasing the size, distorting the shape, brightening the color, detailed elaboration, direction of movement of the eye
Laws of composition
"Law the whole determines the ratio of the parts of the whole in size to each other and to the whole;
law proportions th determines the location of the parts of the whole;
law rhythm expresses the nature of the repetition or alternation of parts of the whole;
law symmetry determines the location of the parts of the whole;
law main as a whole shows what the parts of the whole are united around. All these five laws of composition with
The quality of the subject-spatial environment seen by a person does not always correspond to reality. This is due to optical illusions, which are caused by both the physical properties of objects and the features of a person’s vision, as well as his primary orienting skills.
When looking at a complex subject formation, a person seeks to reduce this complexity to a simple, more ordered system: symmetry has a grouping effect, asymmetry separates. The perception of three-dimensional - spatial forms largely depends on the position of the viewer in relation to these forms.
These signs are a visible manifestation of those most important principles of composition that underlie compositional construction. It:
1. The principle of expediency.
2. The principle of the unity of the complex (the integrity of the work).
3. The principle of dominance (the presence of the main, leading principle).
4. The principle of subordination of parts as a whole.
5. The principle of dynamism (movement is the basis of life and art).
6. The principle of balance, balance of parts of the whole.
7. The principle of harmony (harmonic unity of the elements of form among themselves and the unity of form and content in the composition based on the dialectical unity of opposites).
Creating a work of art, that is, harmony, it is necessary to fulfill its two indispensable conditions: the first is balance, the second is unity and subordination. These are the basic laws of composition.
Balance, unity and subordination, compositional center - Let's focus on compositional balance. balance - such a state of the form, all elements are balanced among themselves, it depends on the location of the elements among themselves relative to the center. Balance is achieved by equalizing the expressiveness of groups or elements of the composition, balancing the forms and processing style - for example, the sameness of the right and left sides, based on symmetry. However, this concept should not be confused with a simple equality of quantities. Equilibrium depends on the location of the main masses of the composition, on the organization of the compositional center, on the plastic and rhythmic construction of the composition, on its proportional divisions, on the color, tonal and textural relations of individual parts between themselves and the whole, etc.
Achievement of equilibrium at asymmetries- individual elements that have their own compositional structure (axes, rhythm, center) balance each other in such a way that the general is visually stable and static.
Equilibrium manifests itself differently in symmetrical and asymmetrical positions. Symmetry in itself is not yet a guarantee of balance in the composition. Quantitative discrepancy between the symmetrical element and the plane (or disproportion
parts and the whole) becomes visually unbalanced. Man is always
gravitates towards the balance of forms, which creates a more complete psychological
comfort, harmony of living in the object-spatial environment. It is much easier to balance a symmetrical composition than an asymmetric one, and this is achieved by simpler means, since symmetry already creates the prerequisites for compositional balance. Equilibrium can also be dynamic- the internal movement of parts that creates the impression of instability, but does not go beyond the whole, must be stopped by details that calm the internal movement and prevent the details from breaking out of the compositional space.
Thus, we can conclude that none of the means and laws of composition individually will create a harmonious work, since everything is interdependent or balanced. If, in his creative search, the artist begins to more actively use one of the means to create a more expressive artistic image, then the result of this approach should be a reassessment of the entire compositional structure of the work. It may be necessary to change its proportions, increase or, conversely, reduce the number of elements of the composition, revise the tonal and color relationships etc.
Symmetry, asymmetry, static and dynamic. A correctly found symmetrical composition is perceived easily, as if immediately, regardless of the complexity of its construction. . Asymmetrical sometimes it requires a longer reflection and is revealed gradually. However, the assertion that a symmetrical composition is more expressive is incorrect. The history of art confirms that compositions built asymmetrically according to the laws of harmony are in no way inferior, in terms of artistic value, to symmetrical ones. The choice of construction or structure of the work depends on the artistic vision of the author, on his desire to find a more expressive composition to create a specific artistic image. The most commonly used types symmetry are mirror with vertical or horizontal axis, centric, angular. Actively used symmetry in architecture, arts and crafts, less often - in easel painting, graphics, sculpture. This technique is especially good for assertive themes, since it allows the viewer to focus on the depicted without internal hesitation. Therefore, symmetry was very actively used in cult painting. If we carefully consider the composition of the iconostasis of an Orthodox church, we will see its vertical axial construction. The picturesque construction is echoed by architectural details, which, like a rod, are mounted on an axis. However, upon closer examination, one can also notice obligatory deviations from symmetry (either in the curl of the hair, or in the depth of the interpretation of the wall relief), which gives a certain picturesqueness to this technique, creates a “false” symmetry.
We have already mentioned centric symmetry, actively attracting attention to the center, as well as about the corner. Unlike the centric one, movement is created in it. Movement towards the center is centripetal, movement away from the center is centrifugal. Such a compositional technique was widely used and is now used in decorative and applied arts: when painting ceramic dishes, scarves, in solving plafonds, floor planes in the interior, etc.
Properties and qualities of the composition:
Harmonious integrity and imagery of form, - are laid down already at the stage of formation of the volume-spatial structure. Therefore, work on the form should be carried out at the beginning of the design, when the structural scheme, the layout principle is revealed, i.e. placement and interconnection of the main parts of the object.
The main and secondary in the composition
principles of limitation (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.
First conversation about harmony in composition about its main and indispensable condition - balance - led us to the logical conclusion that everything is interdependent: the number of elements, and their configuration, and their relationship with the compositional plane and among themselves, and their color, tone and texture solution, etc. e. Therefore, in order to achieve the fulfillment of one law of harmony, it is necessary to fulfill the conditions of the second law - unity and subordination. And vice versa: creating the unity, integrity of the work, you thereby solve the problem of its balance. Only by fulfilling these two conditions, you can say that you have created a harmonious composition.
...Harmony there is a connection of various parts into a single whole. This connection
the most complex, the most subtle, the most diverse. It is clear that the parts can be connected with each other so that they represent some complete whole only due to the similarity of the things themselves, in other words, due to the common that is contained in each part. This should be expressed in the unity of the plastic solution, figurative and semantic disclosure of the theme, in the unity of shaping, coloristic and texture solutions. unity can be achieved through subordination. But before looking into the various subordination options, pay attention to organization composition center , since subordination occurs mainly between the center and other elements. It is the compositional center that expresses the artistic image and carries a semantic load. However, there is also such a principle of compositional construction, when the “pause” can turn out to be the center. When organizing composition center the laws of visual perception of the plane should be taken into account. As a rule, it is located in the active, central part of it. Offset from Geometric Center sometimes gives the work a great internal tension and plastic expressiveness in the disclosure of the artistic image and theme.
Let's look at a few options. In a composition consisting of simple
perception of elements, an element appears that is complex in silhouette. Of course he will get attention. stronger than a group of simpler ones. It is he who, due to his complexity, will begin to play a role dominants or composition center. However, it is necessary to fulfill the condition of unity and subordination of the entire composition. In this example, subordination can be expressed in subordination to a complex center of a coloristic solution or in the introduction of new forms similar in silhouette - lines, as well as in the use of such means of harmonization as rhythm, contrast, nuance and identity, a specific discussion of which will be discussed below.
The history of art offers us various schemes for constructing compositions. In one version of the solution, the organization of the compositional center is carried out by small in the form of an element, and in the other - the most big. The composition of which is the center pause- the first is the creation of movement towards the center, which is not expressed by any form, by using one of the means of harmonization - rhythm. The second is the arrangement of elements similar in shape, color and texture, without any emphasis. Thus, the composition is like a frame.
Perception can be interpreted as a process of changes that are carried out in the sense organs and the psyche of the individual as a result of the impact on them of individual characteristics of a physical object.
Empirical characteristics of visual perception
At its core, the process of perception has a dual nature: perception is as objective as possible at the level of primary sensory processes; at the same time, perception is deeply subjective in the implementation of the subsequent interpretation of the information received, when imagination and memory are included in the processing.
In addition, perception has a number of unique characteristics, including the properties of constancy, objectivity, integrity, and generalization.
Constancy as one of the characteristics of visual perception
Definition 2
The category of constancy is understood as relative stability, independence of the image from the conditions of its perception. Constancy is reflected in the fact that the size, shape, color, size of a physical object are perceived as constant, despite the fact that the signals coming from the analyzed objects are constantly changing.
The constancy of perception is provided by the active actions of the perceptual system.
revalue given quality perception is difficult: in the absence of this property, at the slightest movement, changes in the distance to the object, with every turn of the head, changes in lighting, all the main features of the object of the surrounding social and natural environment, the surrounding reality itself would constantly change, which would significantly complicate the process of cognition of objective reality, would make it difficult for the individual to orient himself in the world around him.
Objectivity as an essential characteristic of visual perception
Definition 3
human brain separates the information coming from the perceptual system from surrounding reality into two unequal parts: the background, which is perceived as an amorphous, unlimited, indefinite field, and the subject - a clearly defined, concrete, located in the foreground whole.
The clarity of the selection of an individual object is largely due to the contrast. In the absence of a pronounced contrast, the physical object merges with the background, which significantly complicates the processes of its cognition.
There are two types of contrast: direct, in which the object is darker than the background, and reverse, in which the object is perceived as brighter than the background.
Integrity as an empirical characteristic of visual perception
Definition 4
Under the integrity of visual perception in modern scientific literature understand the characteristic of the process, the essence of which lies in the fact that any physical object is perceived as a whole, even if the individual components of this object currently remain inaccessible to observation.
Integrity is an acquired characteristic of a perceptual image, formed as a result of objective activity and reflex processes of a personality, when an individual, on the basis of accumulated existential experience, combines the individual characteristics of an object into a single whole.
The independence of the perception of the whole from the quality of its individual components is manifested in the dominance of the integral structure over the individual components.
Thus, visual perception is one of the most important receptor-psychic processes of the personality, providing the individual with the possibility of cognition. environment, the formation of images of objects of reality in the mind of the individual.
