National dwelling of Central Asia. Household identity of the peoples of Central Asia and the Caucasus

The regions of the Uzbek USSR differ in their natural and climatic conditions. In addition, in each historical and ethnographic region, since ancient times, their own cultural traditions. The impact of historical and climatic conditions caused the development of local schools of folk architecture. The Ferghana, Bukhara and Khiva, as well as the Shakhrisyabz schools, the features of which were expressed in design, construction techniques, planning, etc., must be recognized as the main, most independent and original. walls with a double-row frame; in Khiva, where the seismic magnitude is insignificant, a single-row frame has long been used. A significant amount of annual precipitation in the Ferghana Valley necessitated roofing up to 40 cm thick; in Khiva, where the amount of precipitation is negligible, the thickness of the roof usually did not exceed 10-15 cm. However, despite local differences, the architecture of the dwellings of the Uzbeks had a single type. It was a closed architectural complex, bounded by blank walls from the street and neighboring properties. All residential and outbuildings with windows and doors faced the courtyard. The house and estate of a wealthy owner was divided into two halves: the inner - female (ichkari) and the outer - male (tagitsari). In the first, the whole life of the family passed, the second, with a front room (meumonkhona), served to receive guests. The artisans had a workshop in Tashkari, and hired workers lived there. In less prosperous families, only a room with an isolated entrance was allocated for receiving male guests, while in poor urban houses, and especially in villages, there was no outer half at all. When an outsider came to the house, the women hid or went to the neighbors for the duration of his visit.

In the courtyard there were living quarters, a kitchen, storerooms for firewood and provisions. Sanitary devices were in every yard or placed in the aisle between the yards. The main living cell consisted of a room (uy), a front room (dadlis) and a terrace (ivon); the number of dwellings was determined by the composition of the family. If the owner had several wives or married sons, then separate living rooms were assigned for them.

In conditions of urban crowding, many houses had only one yard, and in this case the mehmankhana was placed on the second floor, above the gate. In Bukhara, two- and three-storey buildings were common. The overcrowding of buildings was also reflected in the composition and nature of the premises. In spacious urban areas, as well as in the suburbs, their number was small, household work was done in the fresh air, in the shade of trees. On plots with a limited area, there were many small outbuildings (Bukhara). The percentage of site development in cities was very high: in Tashkent and Bukhara there are old estates with buildings up to 80-90% (and even 100%) of the site area. Houses with a covered courtyard are common in Khorezm. Every meter of space was used very efficiently, so crowding did not affect the comfort of the house as much as one might expect.

More typical of most cities were houses with a yard that was used to grow a vineyard that created a solid green canopy. Giving coolness, he at the same time brought a bountiful harvest of fruits. If the size of the property allowed, a garden was planted at the house or a utility yard was arranged, where a barn and a stable were located.

The structures of the Uzbek dwelling were simple and made from local building materials. Such material is primarily loess clay (pakhsa), from which adobe walls were erected, raw bricks (eigit) of square or rectangular shape, and oval guval clods were made. Burnt square-shaped bricks, fired in khumdon kilns, were used almost exclusively in monumental construction (madrasas, baths). From tree species, poplar was mainly used for the construction of walls and roofs. The solution was clay; plastered with clay and adobe. Alabaster (ganch) was used for architectural decoration of premises in rich houses.

Houses were usually built without a foundation - soil preparation was reduced to leveling and tamping the construction site. Until the middle of the XIX century. the basement in the houses was either absent or made very low; a row of cobblestones or one or two rows of baked bricks were laid under the walls. Only in some places the presence ground water and soil salts forced to raise the base and use insulation in the form of reed gaskets. From the second half of the XIX century. in the cities, large merchants began to build houses with a low basement, which was used as a warehouse. In Bukhara, in the semi-basements, where it is cool in summer and warm in winter, they sometimes lived or set up a workshop here.

The floor of the house was almost level with the ground. Usually it was earthen, well-packed, sometimes smeared with clay; in city houses wealthy people it was lined with burnt bricks.

The most common construction of the walls of the dwelling was a frame consisting of an upper and lower trim, between which racks and struts with poles were strengthened. The frame was single-row (yash-sinch) and double-row (tsush-sinch). The frame was filled with mud or guval masonry. Raw masonry on the territory of Uzbekistan is found mainly in Fergana. Walls were also built from guval mainly in Ferghana (moreover, in its eastern regions), partly in the Kashka-Darya (Guzor) valley. Pahs masonry walls were used in rural estates.

The flat roof rested on wooden beams (ledge, bolor), on top of which small slabs (vassa) were laid; both formed an open ribbed ceiling. A reed braid (buyra) was laid on top of the vasa, then an earthen backfill was made, completed with a clay-coated coating. Water from the roof was drained by wooden gutters or ceramic pipes. The adobe plastering of the roof had to be renewed annually, which brought a lot of worries and required considerable expenses.

The meager external architecture of the house was enlivened by the gates, the loggia of the second floor, and sometimes by the intricate overhead cap with openwork walls towering over the house. The entrance gates in the houses of large cities were usually located in a niche, sometimes with a pair of posts and adobe benches on both sides. Bronze and iron hammers or rings were hung on the gates of Bukhara and Khiva houses.

The living quarters - uy - of the Uzbek house of the old type had two or three window openings and doors (ethics) on the facade, leading to the front or to the aivan. Doors and shutters (darcha) similar in shape and size started from the floor; the difference between them was that the shutters opened outward, and the door - inward. The window opening from below was sometimes closed with a lattice or a board; a transom (tobadon) was left over the opening. through which the light penetrated when the shutters were closed. The tobadon was closed by a tightly set wooden or alabaster lattice.

At the entrance to the room, a rectangular recess (poigak) was arranged, where shoes were placed: according to custom, they were removed when entering the room. A spillway was placed in the corner (sawed-off shotgun, adan, tashnav). In Bukhara and Samarkand it was covered with marble slabs, in Khiva they made special ceramic covers for spillways.

The proportions of the rooms usually represented the simplest and most convenient ratio of 2x3. Their size was determined by the number of ceiling beams, always odd. According to the climate conditions, ayeon (covered terrace) has long played a prominent role in the Uzbek dwelling. Sometimes it was replaced by an open soup area - an elevation of brick and clay. Depending on the old tradition prevailing in each region, the aivan was placed either in line with the room or at an angle to it.

A characteristic feature of the planning of the estates of large cities - Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva, where courtyards were very small or absent at all, was the presence of differently oriented living quarters, which were used in accordance with the season. The north-facing summer rooms were taller, more spacious and richly decorated. Winter rooms were placed on the opposite side of the courtyard, facing south.

Extremely decorative decoration of the dwelling, closely related to its design. The decoration of the rooms has always been given special attention. In houses with a two-row frame, rectangular or lancet niches (takhmon, tokcha) were arranged along all the walls, in which household items were placed. The walls were finished depending on the means of the owner of the house. The poor limited themselves to adobe plaster walls; in the houses of middle-class people, the walls were covered with rough stucco plaster; among the rich, they were rubbed with pure, finely screened ganch, which provided ample opportunities for the finest artistic decoration. The intricate cells of the wall niches were decorated with a thin stucco board with a scalloped cut, a lattice or a plate with an openwork pattern in the shape of a jug. Sometimes the niches and fireplaces of rich houses ended with a stalactite half-dome (Margelan, Kokand).

The walls of living rooms in rich houses were decorated with paintings and carvings on alabaster plaster. In Bukhara, the living room of the courtyard was more carefully finished, in the eastern regions - the mehmankhana. In Bukhara, first of all, the walls were covered with ornaments, and the ceilings, for the most part, even in rich houses, remained undecorated; in Ferghana and Tashkent, on the contrary, special attention was paid to the ceilings, and they were first of all finished with paintings. Rich Ferghana houses are characterized by figured, often complex profile, painted ceilings and magnificent stalactite capitals of the iwan columns. Carving and painting were used in Tashkent, Bukhara, Samarkand; at the end of the 19th century. their technique was rich and varied. In Khorezm, where the dwelling was smoke-filled, the ceilings and walls of the rooms were not decorated at all. There, all efforts were directed to finishing artistic carving wooden parts of the house - doors, columns and sub-beams.

For heating in winter in pre-revolutionary Uzbekistan, sandalwood was almost universally used - a low table set above a recess in the floor, where hot coals were poured. The family sat around the table, stretching their legs under the blanket thrown over it; near the sandal and slept. In Ferghana and some other regions, in addition to sandalwood, fireplaces were arranged in the houses, where food was cooked in winter. In Khorezm, in the room next to the spillway there was a hearth (uchots), and in front of it there was a small rectangular or oval area (tan*dircha), where coal was shoveled and around which they warmed themselves.

The interior decoration of the dwelling was peculiarly decorative. The floors were covered with mats woven from reeds, and on top of them - felt mats, rugs or (in richer houses) carpets.

There was no furniture in Uzbek houses in the old days. The inhabitants of the house sat on the floor, on narrow mattresses (kurpacha) laid out along the walls; during meals, tablecloths were usually spread on the floor. Only in winter they ate with sandalwood; in Tashkent and Bukhara, a low table had some distribution. In large niches (tahmon), which were usually arranged in the front wall opposite the entrance at floor level, a chest was placed and beds folded for the day were laid on it. In many places blankets and mattresses were laid out as flat cushions with beautiful embroidered edges visible between the blankets. Sometimes the bed was covered with an embroidered bedspread - suzani.

In smaller niches, which in wealthy houses were divided into compartments of various shapes and sizes - maida topcha, reza topcha, posamon, small dishes were placed - bowls, teapots, etc. Large lower shelves were intended for wooden caskets, trays, dishes, jugs, sometimes a samovar. Decorated with great artistic taste, such niches were a very beautiful sight.

On the walls of the room, on pegs and outstretched ropes and poles, they hung clothes, small embroideries and various household trifles.

The most honorable place in the room was considered to be the one that was located in the part farthest from the entrance. Guests were sitting here, and in the absence of guests, the owner of the house.

The construction and decoration of the house was carried out by masters of various specialties, united in workshops. The common name for master builders is binokor. Works associated with clay - laying adobe and brick buildings, erecting domes, plastering various buildings - stood out as a special craft. It was represented by a large number of craftsmen, since it was these works that were the main ones in the construction business of Uzbekistan.

Among the builders (in Bukhara and Samarkand - gilkor, in Tashkent and Fergana - suvotschi, literally - plasterers), highly qualified craftsmen stood out; performing personally various works and supervising their assistants, they were at the same time architects. Such masters owned all the traditions of national architecture. They designed and built large buildings: residential buildings of any type, large two-story madrasas, mosques, and baths. The construction of a bath required some special skills, so the construction of baths was the profession of a few of the best craftsmen.

The best gilkors repaired and restored ancient structures, and this restoration often consisted in their complete re-laying. Thus, the famous Bukhara architect - a specialist in domed ceilings - Usto Majit Salikhov (d. 1950), in the konga of the 19th century, during the time of the emirate, dismantled one of the Bukhara domed passages (Tim Sarrofon) and then, with great skill, again erected the whole building with its complex domed vaults.

Very thin, requiring special skills and great art, was the profession of plasterers and alabaster carvers (ganchkor). They were considered masters of the highest qualification, they were engaged in simple plastering and making artistic panels, ganch carving and casting patterned ganch lattices. Good plaster was valued very highly - among the masters of Bukhara there was a story about a competition between two ganchkors finishing two halves of one room. It was not the carver who won, but the plasterer, who polished the walls of his half of the room so that they, like in a mirror, reflected the carving with which his rival decorated the walls of the second half of the room.

Carpenters (duradgor) played an important role in construction. During the erection of frame buildings, they supervised all work, planned the building and determined its architecture. The carpenters also had to arrange beam ceilings and prepare their parts: they trimmed and sometimes decorated beams with simple carvings, carved figured consoles, etc. They also made complex ceilings from boards and wooden cornices, sometimes in the form of stalactites.

At ethnographic groups Uzbeks, who in the recent past were semi-nomadic, along with the transition to settled life and farming, also appeared stationary housing, however, not all groups at the same time. Until the end of the XIX century. The main dwelling of the tribes of the Turkic group was the yurt. Only the Musa-Bazari tribe, which wintered high in the mountains, where the winters were severe, had a primitive adobe dwelling for a long time. The rest of the tribes of this group - Karluk, Barlas and others - began to build adobe winter dwellings only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, and the Karluks living within Tajikistan - only after collectivization. And in the presence of a stationary dwelling among all these tribes, the ancient portable dwelling such as a yurt or a hut has not lost its significance.

Among the Turks, it had a peculiar design, significantly different from the design of the yurt, which is common among the Uzbeks of the Dashti-Kypchak group of tribes. Yurt among the tribes of the Turkic group, called lochig. or burl, had a hemispherical frame (from 4-5 to 15 m in diameter) of intersecting wooden arcs. The ends of the arcs were stuck into the ground. The walls and the dome, in contrast to the Gyurtydashti-Kipchak Uzbeks, represented one whole. To obtain a large arc, it was made up of several slightly bent poles connected at the junction. When dismantled, the skeleton of the yurt broke up into many bent poles. The dome of the lochig was covered, like the yurts of nomadic Uzbeks, with felt mats, and the walls were covered with mats (chie, chie), in which the stems were fastened into a pattern with colored woolen threads. For the winter period, mats were placed in two or three rows, dry hay was stuffed between them, and the dwelling was sprinkled with earth all around. In the summer heat, on the contrary, the mats were rolled up from time to time in order to open access to a fresh wind, and instead of a felt mat, the lochig was often covered with reed mats (|buyra) for coolness. This archaic dwelling has outlived its time. Only occasionally can it still be found as a summer kitchen or summer home for the elderly.

The portable dwelling of the Deshti-Kypchak Uzbek tribes has survived much better. The yurt (uy, tsora-uy), which in the past was the only dwelling for them, now exists along with an insulated winter house; it is used as a convenient portable dwelling by shepherds on distant pastures. The walls of the yurt are made up of several links of the lattice (keraga). The spherical roof is formed by long poles (uuts), the lower end of which, having a fold, is tied to the wall of the yurt, and the upper end is inserted into the hole of a large wooden circle crowning the dome of the yurt. The mat and felt mat are attached to the skeleton of the yurt with wide, sometimes carpeted, paths of different widths (bow, boshtzur). A fire is made in the middle of the yurt, above it, on a tripod, a cauldron is placed for cooking. A hole is left at the top for lighting and smoke. In extreme cold, after the fire burns out, the hole at the top of the yurt is tightly closed with a piece of felt to keep the heat in the yurt.

The interior of the yurt consisted mainly of various woolen bags, sacks, bags, usually decorated with ornaments. Often the front part of this peculiar furniture of a nomad was carpeted. Processed mutton and goat skins (pustak) were widely used as bedding.

As in a stationary dwelling, the place opposite the entrance was considered the most honorable place in the yurt. The left part of the yurt from the entrance was the male half, the right part was the female half. The economic life of women was concentrated here, dishes and household utensils were placed.

Uzbek yurt-kungrad. Kamashinsky district, Surkhan-Darya region

Even with full transition Some Uzbek tribes (Kungrad, Sarai), due to the traditions associated with nomadism and cattle breeding, preserved a yurt along with a stationary dwelling to a settled life. It was placed in the courtyard of the estate or in the garden, in the garden. In Khorezm, in a cramped, often covered courtyard, they sometimes made a special round elevation - a platform for a yurt.

The poor, in the absence of a yurt, which was an expensive dwelling, built primitive huts (kapa), rectangular or round in plan. We also spent the winter in these huts. For insulation, the walls of the hut were sometimes coated with clay from the inside (Lokais). As they settled down and switched to arable farming as the main occupation, these strata of the population had adobe houses (chubtora), which were also made both rectangular and round, in which one should see the preservation of the traditional shape of the yurt. Chubtora were low adobe structures with a gable roof made of reeds and grass. A hole was made in the roof for smoke to escape; such a dwelling was heated with the help of a hearth placed in the middle, dug into the ground; Dry pet droppings served as fuel. In some places, sandalwood, borrowed from the settled population, was included in everyday life. They usually lived in adobe houses only during the three winter months. With the onset of spring, they moved to yurts or huts.

Although with the annexation of the region to Russia, some innovations penetrated into the Uzbek dwelling (they began to use factory-fired bricks, roofing iron, window glazing), but all these improvements mainly took place in rich city houses. The reorganization of construction equipment, closely related to the restructuring of life and culture, began only after the Great October Revolution.

Housing construction grew rapidly in Uzbekistan, especially during the years of the seven-year plan, when the industrial base of construction work expanded significantly. Large plants for the production of prefabricated reinforced concrete structures, house-building plants have been built in the republic. New enterprises for the production of cement and other building materials have been set up.

At present, the construction of cities and villages in Uzbekistan is carried out mainly by construction organizations in a planned manner, but individual construction is also developed, which is often also carried out according to standard projects.

Most workers in the cities and towns of Uzbekistan live in well-appointed factory houses or in city communal apartments. Factory houses, usually multi-storey, sometimes like cottages, consist of sections-apartments, each of which has one, two, sometimes three rooms, a corridor, a terrace or a balcony. Often, factories allocate plots near the enterprise for "individual buildings" to workers.

Individual houses, designed for one or two families, are located on the border of the site and face the street through the windows of the facades. They are carefully plastered inside and out. Houses are built from raw, less often from burnt bricks, on a concrete or cobblestone-clay foundation. The basement is built from burnt bricks, sometimes from concrete with cobblestones. The factory usually provides the workers with building materials, many factories produce sets of doors, windows, metal window bars for developers. By folk tradition quite often the developer in the city, as well as in the village, is provided with public assistance by fellow workers, relatives and neighbors in the mahalla.

Most houses have two or three rooms, an antechamber, an open or glazed aivan. The rooms are high, bright, with large windows; the floors are wooden; ceilings are either plastered with ganch or lined with plywood and painted oil paint light tones.

In winter, apartments are heated with Dutch stoves, stoves or cast-iron stoves. Sometimes, according to the old tradition, they also contain sandalwood.

Electricity, various electrical appliances have become commonplace in the life of the population of cities and workers' settlements. Gasification of residential buildings is growing every year. Radios and televisions are especially loved by the population. In the evenings, the whole family, and sometimes neighbors, gather to listen to a concert and watch an interesting program on TV. Firmly came into use factory furniture - beds, tables, chairs. Many houses have wardrobes, cupboards, bookcases, bookcases and desks. Most housewives purchased sewing machines. Many rooms are decorated with decorative embroideries (suzani) and wall mirrors.

Despite the presence of furniture, in the atmosphere of city houses, including workers' houses, one should note the preservation of national forms of decoration. Often separate rooms are allocated or a corner is set aside in one of the rooms, where carpets, felt mats, mattresses are spread on the floor and pillows are placed. There is also a small square table on low legs. In winter, it is often replaced with sandalwood. This part of the house is usually occupied by old people and furnished according to their taste; but very old people often prefer to sleep on beds rather than on the floor. A feature of the decoration of almost all dwellings are elegant multi-colored blankets for guests, folded in a high pile on chests standing in niches.

Dishes are often stored not in cabinets, but in niches. The floors must be covered with carpets, rugs, felt mats or paths.

Along with houses of a new type, built according to architectural designs, among the Uzbek workers there is also an old dwelling. Usually this is a house that has been inherited. As a rule, it no longer satisfies the needs of the family and undergoes restructuring, sometimes very significant: they make extensions, lay wooden floors, update modern style decoration, the house is electrified, urban furniture is purchased.

Modern Uzbek housing in rural areas, while retaining some local differences, is increasingly approaching the urban one in its design and improvement. This progressive process is especially clearly visible in the new state farms of the Hungry Steppe, where on a large scale the construction of two-story comfortable residential buildings for virgin lands is being carried out using industrial methods. The construction of state farm settlements in the Hungry Steppe is served by the Jizzakh plant, which produces silicalcite; Hundreds of new houses have already been assembled from light and durable silicalite blocks.

In other regions of Uzbekistan, the houses of the rural population also completely changed their appearance. Typical Features of the modern rural house are well reflected in the dwellings of the collective farmers of the Ferghana Valley. Houses face the street with a facade with windows. They are surrounded by household plots, fenced with adobe duvals, the plots are planted in most cases with fruit trees.

When building new houses, some national architectural features are preserved. Usually, traditional aivans are attached to them from the side of the yard, which are necessary in a hot climate. Flat earthen roofs without cornices have also been preserved. But along with this, slate and roofing iron are widely used for roofs. The new houses are built on solid brick foundations and made of mud bricks.

In homes designed for big families, the rectangular building of the house is usually divided into four rooms of equal area: three living rooms and a kitchen, in which in winter the family prepares food, dine and often spends free time near the fireplace, traditional for Ferghana. Two rooms overlook the street with their large windows, the third room and the kitchen open onto an open veranda that stretches along the wall of the house. The house is planned in such a way that two separate related families could live in it; it is divided into two non-communicating halves; each of them has a separate exit to the aivan and includes one front room overlooking the street. Houses of small families consist of two rooms with windows to the street and a large kitchen with a window to the courtyard. Next to it is an open aivan. The entrance to the dbm^ is arranged from the yard, from the aivan. The division into separate non-communicating halves is also preserved in these houses: one half is formed by a room with a kitchen, the other is a room with an aivan.

There are new houses in the Ferghana Valley that preserve the local traditional, very successful layout: between two rooms there is an aivan closed on three sides. In some houses, it is turned into a front - the open side is laid by a wall with a door leading to the courtyard. These houses are distinguished from the old buildings by their brick foundations, large glazed windows overlooking the street, and wooden floors.

A significant part of the housing stock in collective farm settlements is made up of old houses that used to belong to middle-class dekhkans; built in pre-revolutionary times, they, like the old town houses, no longer meet the new, higher needs of the population. They are rebuilt, stoves are installed, whitewashed, sometimes decorated with stencils and paintings. The walls of houses are usually painted by specially invited professional craftsmen (nazzos). Often, a new house is built next to the old house, and the former dwelling is used as a kitchen or pantry.

The use of living rooms and their distribution reflect both the old, traditional forms family life, and the ongoing process of folding a new way of life and new family. The functional division of rooms has not yet developed. In most families, even if there are several rooms, there are no separate dining rooms, bedrooms, or children's rooms. Usually the same warmest and most comfortable room serves as both a bedroom and a dining room. In winter, the family spends their leisure time in it. Often there is also a corner, appropriately equipped (table, chair, bookcase with books) for schoolchildren. If there are several rooms, students are assigned a separate room for preparing lessons; this reflects the caring attitude of the collective farmers to the education of children, testifies to the beginning of the functional division of the dwelling. One of the rooms often serves also for receiving guests, being a kind of living room. However, this is not an old-style mehmankhana, which was built in isolation from the entire residential complex, with a separate entrance, and sometimes a separate yard. Now the room for receiving guests, both men and women, is not separated from the family home.

The arrangement of the house usually combines elements of modern culture with the traditional originality of the national Uzbek way of life. A characteristic feature of the new collective farm houses, as well as many rebuilt old ones, are hermetic stoves and stoves. Despite their presence, part of the collective farm families, according to tradition, continues to use sandalwood, which is harmful to health. In the Ferghana Valley, in all houses, both new and old, there are hearths-fireplaces.

According to a tradition that has developed over the centuries, the family lives in rooms only during the cold season; with the onset of heat and until the very cold, the main place of stay becomes an aivan or courtyard. The sizes of the yards of collective farmers are not the same, but they are all well-maintained, kept, like the living quarters, in great order and cleanliness. Many yards have beautiful vineyards or fruit trees. spreading trees or a dense vineyard that rises high on wooden stands (suri) provide shade and coolness even at the hottest time of the day. In the most shady place of the yard or on the veranda there is usually a large wooden ottoman. Many yards have an earthen sufa. In some yards, comfortable beautiful pavilions (shipang) are built, sometimes raised above ground level. They sleep in them, in the same place - the main place of stay of the family in the evenings. Electricity gives a new look to the courtyards, brightly illuminating an open aivan, outbuildings, and a gazebo in the evenings. Radio receivers or radiograms with the transition of the family to summer time in the yard are transferred to the aivan or to the gazebo.

Elements of the new material culture are taking an increasing place both in the home environment and in the household utensils of the collective farmers. There is a tendency to replace items of the old type with new ones; factory stuff. This applies especially to collective-farm families from the local Soviet intelligentsia and the families of leading collective farm workers; but specifically national objects are still widespread. In some families they exist on a par with new ones, in others they prevail. Of the national items of decoration, almost all families have carpets, rugs, felt mats, which are usually spread on the floor. In addition to bedding sets for family members, each family has new elegant blankets, mattresses and pillows specially prepared for guests. Blankets are sewn from bright sadan or multi-colored expensive fabrics (silk, semi-silk, velvet). Skillfully stacked in a pile for one or two chests, these things serve as decoration for the room. Chests, decorated with a pattern of colored metal stripes, are placed against the front wall or pushed into large niches. Niches in the walls, open and unprotected from dust, in most of the new houses are turned into comfortable and beautiful glass cabinets.

An indispensable part of the national decoration of the room is good dishes. Many porcelain teapots, bowls, bowls large sizes(spit), dishes, plates are placed in shallow niches or in wall cabinets and cupboards.

The rooms of the newlyweds are cleaned in the national style. A characteristic feature of this decoration are various self made large decorative embroideries hung on the walls.

Paintings, maps, photographs of family members, relatives and acquaintances now occupy a prominent place in the decoration of many collective farm houses, sometimes large portraits party and government leaders; but until recently, among the Uzbek population, the prohibition of Islam to keep images of people and living beings in general in the house was very strong.

The modern housing of the Uzbeks testifies to a significant cultural growth and an increase in the material well-being of the Uzbek people.

What are the traditions and customs of these peoples based on, what unites them in the creation of household handicraft products, what are the differences and how did they manage to preserve national characteristics?

The use of textile materials in the dwelling of peoples Central Asia and the Caucasus depended on a number of factors: nomadic or settled way life, the nature of heating, the presence of furniture and its height, ethnic traditions and so on.

The dwellings of the peoples of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Nogays and Turkmens of the North Caucasus and part of the Kurds of the South Caucasus had an important feature of the interior of the nomadic lifestyle, where hanging textile bags, bags, and cases were widely used. The technique of making these things was determined by ethnic or local customs. So, among the Turkmens they were made using pile technique, among the Kazakhs and Nogais - mainly from felt, among the semi-nomadic Uzbeks - from woolen homespun cloth. Northern Kirghiz covered felt with purchased fabrics, primarily black cotton velvet.

The tradition of making this category of items among the southern Kirghiz was truly luxurious and abounded in various options: with embroidery on suede, felt, homespun or purchased fabrics; in patchwork technique, in the technique of smooth carpet and pile weaving.

In the yurt, one of the dominants of the interior was the wedding curtain, which separated the marital bed and, as it was believed, magically stimulated the fertility of the family. The curtain could be made from a piece of expensive purchased fabric, but, as a rule, it was embroidered or sewn from patches. The Kirghiz obligatory element The interior of the yurt was decorated with a patterned Ashkan mat, which served as a screen to enclose the kitchen.

The floor coverings were carpets and felt mats.

The role and place of textile items in the interior of a settled dwelling in the agricultural oases of Central Asia was directly dependent on the methods of heating it. If the dwelling was heated “in a black way”, as in the Khorezm oasis or in South Tajikistan, then the main emphasis in the interior decoration was made on wooden carved elements. When heating with a fireplace or coals placed in a special recess in the floor; the ceiling and walls were painted with paints, decorated with carved or cast plaster, and textile decorations were also widely used.

At the same time, the presence of an open hearth in the permanent dwelling of the highlanders of the North Caucasus did not prevent the use of mats and felts in it, covering the shelves with bedding and dishes. Since, according to tradition, there was practically no furniture in Central Asian dwellings, and the floor served as both a table and a bed, the quality of the floor coverings was especially important. In the absence of local production of woolen products, the inhabitants of the oases bought them from the nomadic population.

Kazakh and Kyrgyz felt mats were highly valued, and in the Ferghana Valley also Kashgar ones - plain and ornamented. Rugs were purchased from semi-nomadic Uzbeks and Arabs guilem, usually with a striped pattern. Only wealthy families could buy pile carpets - especially expensive Turkmen challahs or more affordable Uzbek ones. julhirs with high pile. In the mountainous strip from Asia Minor to the Hindu Kush, floor coverings had another purpose: households covered themselves with carpets and cloths for the night, placing them on a device resembling a stool without a seat, which was placed over a subdued hearth.

The culture of the bed, the main types of which were wadded mattresses - kurpacha, blankets and pillows, was very high, since these things characterized the prosperity of the owners of the house. In addition, etiquette standards required a decent level of reception for guests, who were seated on mattresses covered with expensive silk and semi-silk Central Asian fabrics. Nomads bought such kurpachas in the markets, but they themselves made mattresses from cloth and velvet, often decorating them with embroidery. A special style was distinguished by kurpachas, sewn in a patchwork kurak technique, which was considered a magical protective agent in the region.

The inhabitants of the oases preferred cotton cushions-rollers lula, covers for which were sewn from expensive fabrics. In Bukhara, pillows could have had special decorative tassels. The nomadic population used rectangular long pillows, in which only one end part was decorated, since only it was visible in the stack of bedding. juke. This part was made from flaps or embroidered.

Another feature of the similarity of the interior of the dwellings of the peoples of Central Asia and the South Caucasus along the route of the Great Silk Road was the presence of a pile of blankets, carpets, felts, etc. stack status juke, located in a prominent place in the dwelling, was given special attention as a prestigious area of ​​​​the interior.

A dwelling is a building or structure in which people live. It serves for shelter from the weather, for protection from the enemy, for sleeping, resting, raising offspring, and storing food. The local population in different regions of the world has developed its own types of traditional dwellings. For example, among nomads these are yurts, tents, wigwams, tents. In the highlands they built pallasso, chalets, and on the plains - huts, huts and huts. The national types of dwellings of the peoples of the world will be discussed in the article. In addition, from the article you will learn which buildings remain relevant at the present time and what functions they continue to perform.

Ancient traditional dwellings of the peoples of the world

People began to use housing since the time of the primitive communal system. At first it was caves, grottoes, earthen fortifications. But climate change forced them to actively develop the skill of building and strengthening their homes. In the modern sense, "dwellings" most likely arose during the Neolithic, and in the 9th century BC, stone houses appeared.

People sought to make their homes stronger and more comfortable. Now many ancient dwellings of this or that people seem completely fragile and dilapidated, but at one time they served faithfully to their owners.

So, about the dwellings of the peoples of the world and their features in more detail.

Dwellings of the peoples of the north

The conditions of the harsh northern climate influenced the features of the national structures of the peoples who lived in these conditions. The most famous dwellings northern peoples are booth, chum, igloo and yaranga. They are still relevant and fully meet the requirements of the completely difficult conditions of the north.

This dwelling is remarkably adapted to harsh climatic conditions and a nomadic lifestyle. They are inhabited by peoples engaged mainly in reindeer herding: Nenets, Komi, Enets, Khanty. Many believe that the Chukchi live in the plague, but this is a delusion, they build yarangas.

Chum is a tent in the form of a cone, which is formed by high poles. This type of structure is more resistant to gusts of wind, and the conical shape of the walls allows snow to slide over their surface in winter and not accumulate.

They are covered with burlap in summer and animal skins in winter. The entrance to the chum is hung with burlap. So that neither snow nor wind gets under the lower edge of the building, snow is raked up to the base of its walls from the outside.

In the center of it, a hearth is always burning, which is used for heating the room and cooking. The temperature in the room is approximately 15 to 20 ºС. Animal skins are laid on the floor. Pillows, feather beds and blankets are sewn from sheepskins.

Chum is traditionally installed by all family members, from young to old.

• Balagan.

The traditional dwelling of the Yakuts is a booth, it is a rectangular structure made of logs with a sloping roof. It was built quite easily: they took the main logs and installed them vertically, but at an angle, and then attached many other logs of a smaller diameter. After the walls were smeared with clay. The roof was first covered with bark, and a layer of earth was poured over it.

The floor inside the dwelling was trampled sand, the temperature of which never dropped below 5 ºС.

The walls consisted of a huge number of windows, severe frosts covered with ice, and in summer with mica.

The hearth was always located to the right of the entrance, it was smeared with clay. Everyone slept on bunks, which were installed to the right of the hearth for men and to the left for women.

• Needle.

This is the housing of the Eskimos, who did not live very well, unlike the Chukchi, so they did not have the opportunity and materials to build a full-fledged dwelling. They built their houses from snow or ice blocks. The building was domed.

The main feature of the igloo device was that the entrance had to be below the floor level. This was done so that oxygen could enter the dwelling and carbon dioxide would escape, in addition, such an arrangement of the entrance made it possible to keep warm.

The walls of the igloo did not melt, but melted, and this made it possible to maintain a constant temperature in the room of about +20 ºС even in severe frosts.

• Valcaran.

This is the home of the peoples living near the coast of the Bering Sea (Aleuts, Eskimos, Chukchi). This is a semi-dugout, the frame of which consists of whale bones. Its roof is covered with earth. An interesting feature of the dwelling is that it has two entrances: winter - through a multi-meter underground corridor, summer - through the roof.

• Yaranga.

This is the home of the Chukchi, Evens, Koryaks, Yukaghirs. It is portable. Tripods made of poles were installed in a circle, inclined wooden poles were tied to them, and a dome was attached on top. The whole structure was covered with walrus or deer skins.

Several poles were placed in the middle of the room to support the ceiling. Yaranga with the help of canopies was divided into several rooms. Sometimes a small house covered with skins was placed inside it.

Dwellings of nomadic peoples

The nomadic way of life has formed a special type of dwellings of the peoples of the world who do not live settled. Here are examples of some of them.

• Yurt.

This is a typical type of building among nomads. It continues to be a traditional home in Turkmenistan, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Altai.

This is a domed dwelling covered with skins or felt. It is based on large poles, which are installed in the form of lattices. There is always a hole on the roof of the dome for smoke to escape from the hearth. The dome shape gives it maximum stability, and the felt retains its constant microclimate inside the room, not allowing heat or frost to penetrate there.

In the center of the building is a hearth, the stones for which are always carried with them. The floor is laid with skins or boards.

Housing can be assembled or dismantled in 2 hours

The Kazakhs call a camping yurt an abylaisha. They were used in military campaigns under the Kazakh Khan Abylai, hence the name came from.

• Vardo.

This is a gypsy wagon, in fact, it is a one-room house, which is installed on wheels. There is a door, windows, a stove, a bed, drawers for linen. At the bottom of the wagon there is a luggage compartment and even a chicken coop. The wagon is very light, so one horse could handle it. Vardo received mass distribution at the end of the 19th century.

• Felij.

This is the tent of the Bedouins (Arab nomads). The frame consists of long poles intertwined with each other, it was covered with a cloth woven from camel wool, it was very dense and did not let moisture through during rain. The room was divided into male and female parts, each of them had its own hearth.

Dwellings of the peoples of our country

Russia is a multinational country, on the territory of which more than 290 peoples live. Each has its own culture, customs, and traditional forms of dwellings. Here are the brightest ones:

• Dugout.

This is one of the oldest dwellings of the peoples of our country. This is a pit dug to a depth of about 1.5 meters, the roof of which was tes, straw and a layer of earth. The wall inside was reinforced with logs, the floor was coated with clay mortar.

The disadvantages of this room were that the smoke could only escape through the door, and the room was very damp due to the proximity of groundwater. Therefore, living in a dugout was not easy. But there were also advantages, for example, it fully provided security; in it one could not be afraid of either hurricanes or fires; it maintained a constant temperature; she did not miss loud sounds; practically did not require repair and additional care; it was easy to build. It was thanks to all these advantages that the dugouts were very widely used as shelters during the Great Patriotic War.

• Hut.

The Russian hut was traditionally built from logs, with the help of an axe. The roof was double pitched. To insulate the walls, moss was placed between the logs, over time it became dense and covered all the large gaps. The walls outside were coated with clay, which was mixed with cow dung and straw. This solution insulated the walls. A stove was always installed in a Russian hut, the smoke from it came out through the window, and only starting from the 17th century did they begin to build chimneys.

• Kuren.

The name comes from the word "smoke", which means "smoke". Kuren was the traditional dwelling of the Cossacks. Their first settlements arose in floodplains (river reed thickets). The houses were built on piles, the walls were made of wattle covered with clay, the roof was made of reeds, a hole was left in it for smoke to escape.

This is the home of the Telengits (the people of Altai). It is a hexagonal structure made of logs with a high roof covered with larch bark. In villages there was always an earthen floor, and in the center - a hearth.

• Kava.

The indigenous people of the Khabarovsk Territory, the Orochs, built a kava dwelling, which looked like a gable hut. The side walls and the roof were covered with spruce bark. The entrance to the dwelling has always been from the side of the river. The place for the hearth was laid out with pebbles and fenced with wooden beams, which were coated with clay. Wooden bunks were erected against the walls.

• Cave.

This type of dwelling was built in a mountainous area composed of soft rocks (limestone, loess, tuff). In them, people cut down caves and equipped comfortable dwellings. In this way, entire cities appeared, for example, in the Crimea, the cities of Eski-Kermen, Tepe-Kermen and others. Hearths were equipped in the rooms, chimneys, niches for dishes and water, windows and doors were cut through.

Dwellings of the peoples of Ukraine

The most historically valuable and famous dwellings of the peoples of Ukraine are: mud hut, Transcarpathian hut, hut. Many of them still exist.

• Mazanka.

This is an old traditional dwelling of Ukraine, unlike the hut, it was intended for living in areas with a mild and warm climate. It was built from a wooden frame, the walls consisted of thin branches, outside they were smeared with white clay, and inside with a solution of clay mixed with reeds and straw. The roof consisted of reeds or straw. The hut house had no foundation and was not protected from moisture in any way, but served its owners for 100 years or more.

• Kolyba.

In the mountainous regions of the Carpathians, shepherds and lumberjacks built temporary summer dwellings, which were called "kolyba". This is a log cabin that had no windows. The roof was gable, and covered with flat chips. Wooden loungers and shelves for things were installed along the walls inside. There was a hearth in the middle of the dwelling.

• Hut.

This traditional look dwellings of Belarusians, Ukrainians, southern Russian peoples and Poles. The roof was hipped, made of reeds or straw. The walls were built of semi-logs, coated with a mixture of horse manure and clay. The hut was whitened both outside and inside. There were shutters on the windows. The house was surrounded by a mound (a wide bench filled with clay). The hut was divided into 2 parts, separated by passages: residential and household.

Dwellings of the peoples of the Caucasus

For the peoples of the Caucasus, the traditional dwelling is the saklya. It is a one-room stone building with dirt floors and no windows. The roof was flat with a hole for smoke to escape. Sakli in the mountainous area formed entire terraces, adjoining each other, that is, the roof of one building was the floor for another. This type of structure served a defensive function.

Dwellings of the peoples of Europe

The most famous dwellings of European peoples are: trullo, palyaso, bordey, vezha, konak, kulla, chalet. Many of them still exist.

• Trullo.

This is a type of dwelling of the peoples of central and southern Italy. They were created by dry laying, that is, the stones were laid without cement or clay. And if you pull out one stone, the structure collapsed. This type of building was due to the fact that it was forbidden to build dwellings in these areas, and if inspectors came, the building could easily be destroyed.

Trullos were one-room with two windows. The roof of the building was conical.

• Pallazo.

These dwellings are characteristic of the peoples who lived in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. They were built in the highlands of Spain. They were round buildings with a cone-shaped roof. The top of the roof was covered with straw or reeds. The exit was always on the east side, the building had no windows.

• Bordei.

This is a semi-dugout of the peoples of Moldova and Romania, which was covered with a thick layer of reed or straw. This is the oldest type of housing in this part of the continent.

• Klochan.

The dwelling of the Irish, which looks like a domed hut built of stone. The masonry was used dry, without any solutions. The windows looked like narrow slits. Basically, such dwellings were built by monks who led an ascetic lifestyle.

• Vezha.

This is the traditional dwelling of the Saami (Finno-Ugric people of northern Europe). The structure was made of logs in the form of a pyramid, in which a smoke hole was left. A stone hearth was built in the center of the vezha, the floor was covered with deer skins. Nearby they built a shed on poles, which was called nili.

• Konak.

A two-story stone house built in Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia. This building in plan resembles the Russian letter G; it was covered with a tiled roof. The house had a huge number of rooms, so there was no need for outbuildings for such houses.

• Kula.

It is a fortified tower built of stone with small windows. They can be found in Albania, the Caucasus, Sardinia, Ireland, Corsica.

• Chalet.

This is a country house in the Alps. It is distinguished by protruding cornice overhangs, wooden walls, the lower part of which was plastered and lined with stone.

Indian dwellings

The most famous Indian dwelling is the wigwam. But there are also such buildings as tipi, wikiap.

• Indian wigwam.

This is the dwelling of the Indians living in the north and northeast of North America. Today, no one lives in them, but they continue to be used for various kinds of rites and initiations. It has a domed shape, consists of curved and flexible trunks. In the upper part there is a hole - for the exit of smoke. In the center of the dwelling there was a hearth, along the edges - places for rest and sleep. The entrance to the dwelling was covered with a curtain. Food was cooked outside.

• Tipi.

Home of the Indians of the Great Plains. It has a cone-shaped shape up to 8 meters high, its frame consisted of pines, it was covered with bison skins from above and strengthened at the bottom with pegs. This structure was easily assembled, disassembled and transported.

• Wikipedia.

The dwelling of the Apaches and other tribes living in the southwestern United States and California. This is a small hut covered with branches, straw, bushes. Considered a type of wigwam.

Dwellings of the peoples of Africa

The most famous dwellings of the peoples of Africa are the Rondavel and the Ikukwane.

• Rondavel.

This is the home of the Bantu people. It has a round base, a cone-shaped roof, stone walls, which are held together with a mixture of sand and manure. Inside the walls were coated with clay. The top of the roof was covered with thatch.

• Ikukwane.

This is a huge domed thatched house, which is traditional for the Zulus. Long rods, reeds, tall grass were intertwined and strengthened with ropes. The entrance was closed with special shields.

Dwellings of the peoples of Asia

The most famous dwellings in China are diaolou and tulou, in Japan - minka, in Korea - hanok.

• Diaolo.

These are multi-storey fortified houses-fortresses that have been built in southern China since the Ming Dynasty. In those days, there was an urgent need for such buildings, as gangs of bandits were operating in the territories. In a later and calmer time, such structures were built simply according to tradition.

• Tulou.

This is also a house-fortress, which was built in the form of a circle or a square. Narrow openings for loopholes were left on the upper floors. Inside such a fortress there were living quarters and a well. Up to 500-600 people could live in these fortifications.

• Minka.

This is the dwelling of Japanese peasants, which was built from improvised materials: clay, bamboo, straw, grass. The functions of the internal partitions were performed by screens. The roofs were very high so that snow or rain rolled down faster and the straw did not have time to get wet.

• Hanok.

This is a traditional Korean home. Clay walls and tiled roof. Pipes were laid under the floor, through which hot air from the hearth went throughout the house.

IN Central Asia , which in everyday life is often called Central Asia or the Central Asian-Kazakhstan province, there are several species that differ from each other in many ways. These can be settled peoples and nomads, flat and mountainous areas, large and small cities, as well as belonging to one or another ethnic group. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that Central Asia occupies a rather vast territory, where each region has its own characteristics. natural conditions: Arid plains and sandy deserts lie to the east of the Caspian Sea, and high mountain systems lie in the Pamir and Tien Shan regions.

As for the ethnos, Central Asia is divided into the following cultural regions: northern (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), southeastern (Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and southwestern (Turkmenistan). However, all these countries have a lot in common with each other, so we decided to break them down into the following categories: portable dwellings of nomads and stationary houses of inhabitants of the plains and mountainous regions.

Portable nomad dwellings

In Central Asia, portable ones were characteristic, first of all, for semi-nomadic and nomadic groups of the population. However, such dwellings were also found among the settled peoples of southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The main types of portable dwellings in Central Asia are various yurts and huts.

The most widely used yurt is one of the most outstanding inventions of the nomadic civilization, which perfectly characterizes the features of the life of nomads. The yurt is relatively light, portable, quickly assembled and disassembled, well protected from the winter cold and the scorching sun.

Yurts: types and design features

In Central Asia, one could most often find a Turkic-type yurt, which had two subtypes - Naiman and Kypchak. The latter subtype was characterized by a hemispherical "" in the form of a wide but low dome circle and a large bending angle of the dome poles. Kypchak yurts were common among the Pamir and southern Kirghiz, most of the Kazakhs, almost all Turkmens and semi-nomadic Uzbeks.

In the Naiman yurts, the circle was small, but high, and the poles had a rather slight bend. The Naiman yurts outwardly looked very much like the Mongolian yurts, with the difference that the Mongols used completely straight poles to build their own. The Naiman subtype of yurts was less widespread than the Kypchak one, and mostly existed among the Altai and Semirechye Kazakhs, Ersari Turkmens and Chovdurs, Khorezm Uzbeks and Karakalpaks. Later, such yurts appeared among the northern Kirghiz, with the exception of the population of the Talas Valley.

In addition to the wooden frame, the construction of the yurt was made up of a felt covering (in some cases, mats). Felt covering existed in two versions. In the first case, it consisted of three parts: a small round or diamond-shaped felt to cover the upper circle, rectangular covers for and trapezoidal covers for the dome. The second option, found only among the Kirghiz and Kazakhs in the Kypchak-type yurts, consisted of felt for the upper circle and several large felts covering the yurt from the dome almost to the ground. There was an unfilled space up to 25 cm between the ground and the felt. The second type of felt covering could coexist with the first and be used as a summer one.

In addition, in Central Asia there were huge non-separable mobile yurts, which were installed on platforms with wheels and pulled by dozens of draft animals.

As for the inner space of the yurt, it was strictly divided into certain zones. In the center there was a hearth, which was considered a sacred center, and behind the hearth, opposite the entrance to the yurt, there was a place of honor - the owner of the house usually sat here, less often - a particularly respected guest. In the right male half yurts received guests, and the owner of the house kept his horse equipment and some livestock items there. In the left female half, a matrimonial bed was set up, closer to the door stocks of provisions and kitchen utensils were stored.

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Proverbs and sayings about the house. My home is my castle. Each hut has its own toys. Being a guest is good, but being at home is better. It is not the owner's house that paints, but the owner's house. In his swamp, the frog sings. There is nothing like leather. And the mole is vigilant in his corner.

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Houses of different peoples Since ancient times, the houses of different peoples of the Earth are different. The special features of the traditional dwelling of different peoples depend on the characteristics of nature, on the originality economic life, from differences in religious beliefs. However, there are also great similarities. This helps us to better understand each other and mutually respect the customs and traditions of different peoples of Russia and the world, to be hospitable and to represent with dignity to other people the culture of our people.

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Izba Izba is a traditional dwelling of Russians. This is a wooden residential building in a wooded area of ​​Russia, Ukraine, Belarus. In Rus', a thousand years ago, a hut was built from pine or spruce logs. Aspen boards - ploughshares or straw were laid on the roof. The log cabin (from the word "cutting") was a row of logs laid on top of each other. The hut was built without using nails.

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Hut Hut, (among Ukrainians) - a dwelling with a stove or the whole building with a vestibule and a utility room. It happens log, wattle, adobe. Outside and inside the hut is usually coated with clay and whitewashed.

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Saklya There are not enough trees in the mountains to build houses, so houses are built there from stone or clay. Such housing is called SAKLYA. Saklya, dwelling of the Caucasian peoples. Often it is built directly on the rocks. To protect such a house from the wind, for the construction they choose the side of the mountain slope where the winds are quieter. Its roof is flat, so the sakli were often located close to each other. It turned out that the roof of the lower building was often the floor or courtyard of the house that stands higher. Sakli are usually made of stone adobe or adobe bricks, with a flat roof.

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Chum Chum - nomadic, portable hut of Siberian foreigners; poles made up of a sugar loaf and covered, in summer, with birch bark, in winter - with whole and sewn reindeer skins, with a smoke outlet at the top. A summer hut, cold, but habitable, with a fire in the middle, also happens among Russians.

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Yurt Yurt, a portable dwelling among the Mongolian nomadic peoples in Central and Central Asia, South Siberia. It consists of wooden lattice walls with a dome of poles and felt covering. In the center of the yurt is a hearth; the place at the entrance was intended for guests; utensils were kept on the women's side, harnesses on the men's side.

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Kibitka Kibitka - a covered wagon, a covered wagon. Russian name for a portable dwelling nomadic peoples Middle and Central Asia.

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Cell Cell (from lat. cella - room), living quarters in the monastery. According to the monastic charters, most Russian monasteries were allowed to build their own cell for each monk or nun.

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Wigwam Wigwam is the dwelling of the forest Indians of North America. Entered the literature as a name Indian dwelling domed shape. When building a wigwam, the Indians stick flexible tree trunks into the ground in a circle or oval, bending their ends into a vault. The frame of the wigwam is covered with branches, bark, mats.

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Igloo A dwelling made of snow or ice blocks built by the Eskimos in the north, where there is no other building material other than snow. The dwelling is called IGLU. The interior is usually covered with skins, sometimes the walls are covered with skins. Light enters the igloo directly through the snow walls, although sometimes windows are made of seal guts or ice. The snow house absorbs excess moisture from the inside, so the hut is quite dry. Eskimos can build an igloo for two or three people in half an hour.

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Konak Konak is a two- or three-story house found in Turkey, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania. This is an expressive building under a wide, heavy tiled roof that creates a deep shadow. Often such "mansions" resemble the letter "g" in plan. The protruding volume of the upper room makes the building asymmetrical. Buildings are oriented to the east (tribute to Islam). Each bedroom has a covered roomy balcony and an asam steam bath. Life here is completely isolated from the street, and a large number of premises satisfy all the needs of the owners, so outbuildings are not needed.

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Tree dwellings Tree dwellings in Indonesia are built like watchtowers, six or seven meters above the ground. The building is erected on a site prepared in advance tied to the branches of poles. The structure balancing on the branches cannot be overloaded, but it must support the large gable roof that crowns the structure. Such a house is arranged with two floors: the lower one, made of sago bark, on which there is a hearth for cooking, and the upper floor, made of palm boards, on which they sleep. In order to ensure the safety of residents, such houses are built on trees growing near the reservoir. They get into the hut along long stairs connected from poles.

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Pallazo Spain: made of stone, 4-5 meters high, round or oval section, 10 to 20 meters in diameter, with a conical thatched roof on a wooden frame, one Entrance door, there were no windows at all or there was only a small window opening.

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Hut South India. The traditional dwelling of the Tods (an ethnic group in South India), a barrel-shaped hut made of bamboo and thatch, without windows, with one small entrance.

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Underground dwellings The dwellings of troglodytes in the Sahara Desert are deep earthen pits in which interiors and a courtyard are made. About seven hundred caves are located on the slopes of the hills and in the desert around them, in some of them troglodytes (Berbers) live to this day. Craters reach ten meters in diameter and height. Around the inner courtyard (khausha) there are rooms up to twenty meters in length. Often, troglodyte dwellings have several floors, the stairs between which are tied ropes. The beds are small alcoves in the walls. If a Berber hostess needs a shelf, she simply digs it into the wall. However, TV antennas can be seen near some of the pits, while others have been turned into restaurants or mini-hotels. Underground dwellings save well from the heat - it is cool in these chalk caves. This is how the housing problem is solved in the Sahara.

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