§ 4. Regional and national specificity of literature
The deep, essential differences between the cultures (and, in particular, literatures) of the countries of the West and the East, these two great regions, are self-evident. Latin American countries, the Middle East region, Far Eastern cultures, as well as Western and Eastern (mainly Slavic) parts of Europe have original and original features. The national literatures belonging to the Western European region, in turn, differ markedly from each other. Thus, it is difficult to imagine, say, something like the "Posthumous Notes of the Pickwick Club" by C. Dickens, which appeared on German soil, and something akin to "Magic Mountain" by T. Mann - in France.
The culture of mankind, including its artistic side, is not unitary, not of the same quality, cosmopolitan, not “unison”. She has symphonic character 1: each national culture with its original features plays the role of a certain instrument necessary for the full sounding of the orchestra 2 .
To understand the culture of mankind and, in particular, the world literary process urgent concept non-mechanical whole, whose components, according to a modern orientalist, "are not similar to each other, they are always unique, individual, irreplaceable and independent." Therefore, cultures (of countries, peoples, regions) are always correlated as complementary: “A culture that has become like another disappears as unnecessary” 3 . The same idea was expressed by B. G. Reizov in relation to literary creativity: “National literatures live a common life only because they do not resemble one another” 4 .
All this determines the specificity of the evolution of the literatures of different peoples, countries, regions. Western Europe over the past five or six centuries has revealed a dynamism of cultural and artistic life unprecedented in the history of mankind; the evolution of other (366) regions is associated with much greater stability. But no matter how varied the paths and rates of development of individual literatures, they all move from epoch to epoch in the same direction: they pass through the stages that we have spoken about.
§ 5. International literary relations
The symphonic unity discussed above is provided to world literature, first of all, by a single foundation of continuity (for the topic, see pp. 356–357), as well as by the commonality of stages of development (from archaic mythopoetics and rigid traditionalism to the free identification of the author's individuality). The beginnings of essential closeness between the literatures of different countries and eras are called typological similarities, or conventions. Along with the latter, a unifying role in the literary process is played by international literary connections(contacts: influences and borrowings) 5 .
Influence it is customary to call the impact on literary creativity of previous worldviews, ideas, artistic principles (mainly the ideological influence of Rousseau on L.N. Tolstoy; the refraction of the genre and style features of Byron's poems in Pushkin's romantic poems). Borrowing on the other hand, it is the use by the writer (in some cases passive and mechanical, in others creative and proactive) of single plots, motifs, text fragments, speech turns, etc. Borrowings, as a rule, are embodied in reminiscences, which were discussed above (see pp. 253–259).
Impact on writers literary experience other countries and peoples, as A.N. Veselovsky (arguing with traditional comparative studies), “assumes in the perceiver not an empty place, but counter currents, a similar direction of thinking, analogous images of fantasy” 1 . Fruitful influences and borrowings "from the outside" are a creative and creative contact of different, in many respects dissimilar literatures. According to B. G. Reizov, international literary relations (in their most significant manifestations), “stimulating the development<...>literature<...>develop their national identity.
At the same time, at sharp turns in historical development, the intensive introduction of this or that literature to foreign, hitherto foreign artistic experience sometimes conceals the danger of subjugation to foreign influences, the threat of cultural and artistic assimilation. For world artistic culture, broad and multifaceted contacts between the literatures of different countries and peoples are essential (as Goethe spoke about), 3 but at the same time, the “cultural hegemonism” of literatures that have a reputation of world significance is unfavorable. The easy “stepping over” of national literature through one's own cultural experience to someone else's, perceived as something higher and universal, is fraught with negative consequences. “At the heights of cultural creativity”, according to the philosopher and culturologist N.S. Arsenyev, there is a "combination of spiritual openness with spiritual rootedness" 4 .
Perhaps the most large-scale phenomenon in the field of international literary relations of modern times is the intense impact of Western European experience on other regions (Eastern Europe and non-European countries and peoples). This globally significant cultural phenomenon, called Europeanization, or Westernization, or modernization, is interpreted and evaluated in different ways, becoming the subject of endless discussions and disputes.
Modern scientists pay close attention both to the crisis and even negative aspects of Europeanization, and to its positive significance for "non-Western" cultures and literatures. In this regard, the article “Some Peculiarities of the Literary Process in the East” (1972) by G.S. Pomeranets, one of the brightest modern culturologists. According to the scientist, the ideas familiar to Western European countries on "non-European soil" are deformed; as a result of copying someone else's experience, "spiritual chaos" arises. The consequence of modernization is the "enclave" (focal) culture: the "islands" of the new according to someone else's pattern are being consolidated, contrasting with the traditional and stable world of the majority, so that the nation and the state risk losing integrity. And in connection with all this, a split occurs in the field of public thought: a confrontation arises between Westerners (Westernizers-enlighteners) and ethnophiles (Romanticists of the soil) - the keepers of domestic traditions, who are forced to defend themselves against the erosion of national life by "colorless cosmopolitanism." (368)
The prospect of overcoming such conflicts G.S. Pomerants sees in the awareness of the "average European" the values of the cultures of the East 5 . And he regards Westernization as a deeply positive phenomenon of world culture.
In many respects, similar thoughts were expressed much earlier (and with a greater degree of criticism of Eurocentrism) in the book of the famous philologist and culturologist N.S. Trubetskoy "Europe and Humanity" (1920). Paying tribute to the Romano-Germanic culture and noting its worldwide significance, the scientist at the same time emphasized that it is far from identical with the culture of all mankind, that the complete familiarization of an entire people with a culture created by another people is impossible in principle, and that a mixture of cultures is dangerous. . Europeanization, on the other hand, proceeds from top to bottom and affects only a part of the people, and therefore, as a result of it, the cultural layers are isolated from each other and the class struggle intensifies. In this regard, the introduction of peoples to European culture is carried out hastily: galloping evolution "squanders national forces." And a harsh conclusion is drawn: "One of the most serious consequences of Europeanization is the destruction of national unity, the dismemberment of the national body of the people" 1 . Note that another, positive side of introducing a number of regions to Western European culture is also important: the prospect organic combinations of primordial, soil principles - and assimilated from outside. G.D. spoke well about her. Gachev. In history not Western European literatures, he noted, there were moments and stages when they were carried out "energetic, sometimes violent pulling up under the modern European way of life, which at first could not but lead to a certain denationalization of life and literature." But over time, a culture that has experienced a strong foreign influence, as a rule, "reveals its national content, elasticity, conscious, critical attitude and selection of foreign material" 2 .
About this kind of cultural synthesis in relation to Russia in the 19th century. wrote N.S. Arseniev: the assimilation of the Western European experience went on growing here, “hand in hand with an extraordinary rise in national self-consciousness, with a boil of creative forces rising from the depths of folk life<...>The best in Russian cultural and spiritual life was born from here” 3 . Top Score cultural synthesis (369) the scientist sees in the work of Pushkin and Tyutchev, L.N. Tolstoy and A. K. Tolstoy. Something similar in the XVII-XIX centuries. observed in other Slavic literatures) where, according to A.V. Lipatov, there was an "interweaving" and "connection" of elements literary trends who came from the West, with "traditions of local writing and culture", which signified "the awakening of national self-consciousness, the revival of national culture and the creation of a national literature of the modern type" 4 .
International ties (cultural, artistic, and literary) seem to constitute (along with typological similarities) the most important factor in the formation and strengthening of the symphonic unity of regional and national literatures.
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Integration of Turkic-Speaking States in the Sphere of Literature: Status, Problems, Solutions
Today there is no doubt that the history of the world will have to be rewritten from time to time. Such a need arises not from the fact that more and more new events are revealed over time, but from the fact that new views appear, prompting the advanced man of modern times to take a point of view from which he could see and evaluate the past in a completely new way.
There are not many ruling races, peoples with an imperial mindset. Among them, next to the Persians, Greeks and Romans, one can name the Turks.
The Turks are a people with three thousand years of history, which took place from the Pacific Ocean to mediterranean sea, from Beijing to Vienna, Tunisia, Algeria. However, the vast area between Western Europe and China, a country with an original nature, a diverse population and a unique culture - Eurasia - for a long time was unnoticed, as a result of which it was considered non-existent. Nevertheless, she existed. The Great Steppe is the heart of Eurasia, and it stretched from the Chinese Wall to the Carpathians, bordered from the north by a strip of Siberian taiga, and from the south by the deserts of the Iranian plateau and the oases of Persia. In ancient times, the Greeks called the Great Steppe Scythia, the Persians - Turan, and the Chinese - the steppe of the "northern barbarians". Thus, China, the Middle East, Byzantium and Europe were, as it were, a frame framing the picture - the Turkic steppe.
It is rather difficult for representatives of our civilization to imagine what the Turkic archival chronicles were and what they still are, striking in their quality and quantity. They are found everywhere, in all major cities ever captured by the Turks, because they recorded all the events and kept them on paper. You can learn about the life and history of many nomadic communities, which also include the Turks, from their oral and written folklore, which is often epic in nature. With the help of words and content, it reflects both historical events and the mythical beliefs of the people. Nomadic tribes that lived in the territory of Central and Central Asia in the period of the beginning of the Middle Ages, they sometimes gathered in large and powerful tribal unions, however, over time they disintegrated. That is why everything literary monuments of that period are considered the common property of all Turkic-speaking communities. Scientists believe that the Turkic literary process began its development in the 8th century. Ancient Turkic literature tells not only about the cultural life of its people, but also about other phenomena that were important in the formation of historical and cultural values.
The difficulty in studying Turkic works lies in the interweaving of literary and oral elements. Folklore is closely intertwined with historical events, adjusting to book literature. For example, there are a huge number of beliefs about the existence of the voluminous work "Janagar", which, however, was never found, but is considered an ideal text.
The first works of Turkic literature originated in the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, when in the 7th century it separated from the general Khaganate, they include runic monuments. The texts on them contain calls to their people to strengthen their khaganates.
One of these monuments is Kultenin. Kultegin is an outstanding commander of the Turkic Khaganate. In order to strengthen the kaganate, he made campaigns several times, in which he proved himself to be a talented commander. In 718, with his army, he repulsed the attacking troops of the Tabgash (Chinese), after which a peaceful life was established between the two peoples for several years. The author of the work about Kultegin is a talented poet of his era, a prominent public figure Iollyktegin. A work that calls the people to internal unity is distinguished by high artistic merit.
It was a kind of epic. As the Uzbek writer Rustan Rakhmanalie said: The main idea of the epic is a call for rallying, unity of the Turkic people, joint struggle against external enemies, and observance of the customs of ancestors.
The author of Kultegin, speaking about the former independent, free and happy life of the Turks, in the following lines notes their sad fate, because they trampled on the covenants of their ancestors and were deceived by enemies: Your strong male offspring became slaves, Your pure female offspring became slaves. The outstanding military leader of the Turkic Khaganate, the brave hero Kul-tegin - real person- in the epic is idealized and depicted as an invincible warrior. It is clear that the monument to Kul-tegin is not a formal fixation and enumeration of historical facts. Therefore, it is appropriate to recognize it as the first example of a heroic epic, glorifying the aspirations and dreams of the Turkic people for a happy life, their struggle for independence.
With the help of words and content, it reflects both historical events and the mythical beliefs of the people.
Turkic literature was largely connected with mythology. Ancient Turkic mythology is being studied by a representative of the Kazakh intelligentsia, writer Zira Nauryzbayva.
In her book "The Eternal Sky of the Kazakhs" Zira Naurzbayeva tells the reader about Turkic myths and Tengrism
"The Eternal Sky of the Kazakhs" is a book about Kazakh myths and rituals, but this is not a retelling of myths, but an attempt at analysis and reconstruction inner world a person of traditional culture.
literature turkic horde heritage
Literature of the Golden Horde
The well-known Arabic philologist Amin al-Kholi writes that the capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai in the XIII-XIV centuries was the largest center of science and culture. The Arab scholar among the progressive people of his time names such khans as Berke, Uzbek, Zhanibek, who received an excellent education, knew Turkic-language literature well, and were talented orators. They brought the best scientists and poets of Egypt and Khorezm closer to themselves. World-famous literary critics, linguists, historians lived in the capital of the Golden Horde; Qutub ad-Din ar-Razi, Sadat-Din at-Taftazani, Zhalel ad-Din, Hofiz ad-Din al-Bazzavi, Ahmad al-Khad-jandari.
Of the literary and cultural heritage of the Golden Horde, little has been preserved. But the works of such great poets and writers as Saif Sarai, Khorezmi, Kutb, Durbek, Lutfiy, Saydakhmad, Ali Atai, Rabguzi and others have come down to us.
They created highly artistic poems: "Muhabbat-name" (Khorezmi), "Gulistan" in Turkic ("Saif Sarai"), "Khosrav-Shyryn" (Kutba), "Yusuf and Zuleikha" (Durbek), "Stories about the prophets" (Rabguzi).
The Turkic tribes that spread across Central Asia were soon converted to Islam and were strongly influenced by the Arabs. Two classical languages developed. The poets Alisher Navoi and Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire and the author of the famous memoirs Baburname..., wrote in Eastern Turkic, or Chagatai. Western Turkic was called Oghuz, or Ottoman, and the literature in this language developed in different ways. Mystic poetry, represented by the work of Yunus Emre and others, gave way to court poetry, which was under the influence of the Persians. The largest representatives of the latter were Fizuli, Baki and Nedim. At the same time, poems were composed, designed not only for the nobility. The poetic work of Keygusuz Abdal, the Pir of Sultan Abdal was often performed by wandering singers throughout the Turkic countries. Defeated in 1918 Ottoman Empire and the formation of modern Turkey, the Turks switched from the Arabic alphabet to Latin. New Literature Appeared The novelist Yasar Kemal (born 1922) and the communist poet Hikmet won worldwide fame.
The most famous writer of the Eastern Turkic world is Chingiz Aitmatov, who writes in Kyrgyz, Kazakh and Russian. Chingiz Aitmatov is one of the few sons of the Kyrgyz people who every Kyrgyz and every Turkic people can be proud of. The works of Ch. Aitmatov make you worry, think, reflect.
Features of ancient Turkic poetry can be found in the epic poetry of the Kirghiz. Their epic, "Manas", thanks to the oral tradition, has survived to this day.
In Soviet times, it was customary to call the epic a trilogy and proceed from the division into 3 parts known in Kyrgyzstan: Manas itself, Semetey and Seitek. The main content of the epic is the exploits of the hero Manas.
And it is to the Kazakh scientist Shokan Ualikhanov that the world science owes the recording of a brilliant excerpt from "Manas" - "The death of Kukotai Khan and his commemoration."
In the second half of the 20th century, we, as a society, as a nation, were able to turn to history in a timely manner. Think back to the 60s and 70s. It is recognized that the Kazakh literature of the historical genre of that period played a significant role in the formation of the national identity of the Kazakhs. Then public enthusiasm reigned, which was due to this festive procession of our literature into the depths of centuries. This is the work of Anuar Alimzhanov “Souvenir from Otrar”, which became the discovery of our medieval history. These are the poetry of Olzhas Suleimenov, the fundamental books of Ilyas Esenberlin, who created entire historical paintings, the magnificent works of Mukhtar Magauin, who was not inferior to anyone not only as a writer, but also as a serious researcher. Bulat Zhandarbekov's dilogy about the Saka period. All of them were forced to deep read historical contexts, since historical science at that time did not seriously deal with the Middle Ages, antiquity, etc. Thanks to them, previously closed eras of national history returned to us.
During the Khrushchev thaw, many nations began to look for answers to the question: “Who are we?”. In Kazakhstan, these searches have become particularly acute. A country of the repressed, a country crushed by social experiments. After 1937 - the Patriotic War, before that, the famine of the 30s. Lost more than a third Kazakh people during collectivization. In the war, which took about 450 thousand Kazakhs, 300 thousand died. Everyone knew about the landfill, which has been rattling since 1949. The protest was piling up. But the soul of the people who survived after all that they have experienced is immortal. When the “M? Deni M?ra” program was born, society was ready to sensibly deal with the possibilities that were laid in this program. Our current history study program should be its logical continuation. After all, society has not yet gone through the process of decolonization, detotalization of consciousness. It is impossible to consider history by fragmentary highlighting. Unfortunately, we have been doing this. We were looking like a mushroom picker in the forest. Whereas a date with history involves extracting the meaning of history. And Murat Auezov, a representative of our intelligentsia, calls such a policy “Rukhani m?ra”, or “Spiritual heritage”. It's time to extract high meanings, high spirituality from our common cultural heritage.
The prose of all the Turkic-speaking countries, as well as the world, is now going through a fundamentally new stage in its development. It is safe to say that the future belongs to comprehensive, highly intellectual, deeply meaningful historical novels.
The novels “Akhan-sre” by S. Zhunusov, “Messenger” by A. Alimzhanov, “Elim-ay” by S. Smataev, “Spring Snows” by M. Magauin, “Pleiades - a constellation of hopes” by A. Kekilbaev, “Last nomads ”K. Zhumadilov, “Aksu is the land of happiness” by K. Iskakov and others significantly expanded the temporal and artistic range of the genre. This series should also include famous novels Uzbek writer "Empire of the Turks. Great Civilization” by Rustan Rakhmanaliev, “Stormy Station” by the Kyrgyz writer Chingiz Aitmatov.
The Turks are an original people, they are at least passionate lovers and connoisseurs of art, antiquarians and patrons, but they are also great creators: it was during the rule of the Turkic Wei dynasty in China that one of the best sculptural schools was formed in the Yungang and Longmen caves; the Turks created the most beautiful and expressive monuments of Asia - great mosque Fridays in Isfahan, the Taj Mahal in Agra, the Registan in Samarkand and the Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul…
So, before us are the heirs of all nomads - as a living organism with its own specific laws and manifestations, as part of humanity, consisting of very different elements, but forming a magnificent combination that can be called by a specific name: the Turks. Among wise sayings There is one thing about the Türks that especially corresponds to the essence: “A Türk is like a pearl in a sea shell, which has no value while living in its dwelling, but when it comes out of the sea shell, it acquires value, serving as an adornment of royal crowns.”
In the monograph, the writers of modern Turkic countries are not going to commit violence against the sources in order to squeeze them into a preconceived scheme - although they will definitely note those that do not fit into their reasoning - in their works they want to explain the Turkic reality, exploring the three thousand-year history of this people in context of their great empires.
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BULLETIN OF TGGPU. 2009. №1(16)
UDC 882.09(072.3)
PROBLEMS OF STUDYING THE COURSE "LITERATURE OF RELATED (TURKIC) PEOPLES" AT THE UNIVERSITY
© R.Z. Khairullin
The article discusses the specifics of teaching the course "Literature of kindred (Turkic) peoples" on the example of the Tatar department of the philological faculty of the Moscow State Pedagogical University.
Keywords: teaching literature at the university, Turkic literature, dialogue of cultures
This article is based on reflections on the structure and content of the course "Literature of kindred (Turkic) peoples", which is read to students of the Tatar department of the philological faculty of Moscow State Pedagogical University. Due to the fact that the course is taught at the Tatar department, Tatar literature is not included in the program, although one way or another it is present when considering the interconnections and mutual influence of literatures. A similar course is taught in other republics and autonomous entities of the Russian Federation. When studying the course, we focused on the program compiled by the Department of Tatar Literature of the Tatar State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University with some modifications.
The objective of the course should be to read and study outstanding works of literature Turkic peoples, their aesthetic comprehension. Therefore, the course should by no means be purely informative. The course should be built on the alternation of review and monographic topics, which will allow students, along with obtaining a general idea of the development of Turkic literatures, to get acquainted with the masterpieces of these literatures.
The program of the course "Literature of the Turkic peoples" is built as a combination of review and monographic topics. This approach makes it possible, firstly, to acquaint students with the era when the work was created, and secondly, to consider the work in the context of a particular era, to show the continuity of traditions and innovation in literary works.
There are more than twenty peoples included in the Turkic ethno-cultural community. This includes about twenty nations. The territory occupied by these peoples is huge: in Russia it is the Volga region and the Urals (Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash literature), the North Caucasus (Balkar, Karachai, Kumyk and Nogai (li-
literature) and Siberia (Altai, Tuva, Khakass, Yakut literature). In the Near Abroad, this is Kazakhstan and Central Asia (Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek literature). This includes Transcaucasia (Azerbaijani literature), Turkey also belongs here.
Despite the differences in history, culture, traditions, we can still consider the literature of the Turkic peoples as a kind of community, within which a certain mutual attraction has developed, based on belonging to the same language (Turkic) group, some similar traditions, customs, rituals, worldviews. elements, as well as some commonality of worldview and artistic reflection of reality.
Within this community, we can distinguish some other communities. For example, on a regional basis, such communities as the Ural-Volga, North Caucasian, Siberian-Far Eastern, Kazakh-Central Asian communities are clearly distinguished. Structuring Turkic-language literatures, one can also single out ethno-confessional communities, of which the most significant is the community of peoples who are guided in their artistic work by the culture of Islam (Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachays, Balkars, Nogais, Kumyks).
As for the level of development of literatures, it is very uneven: there are literatures with centuries-old artistic traditions(Tatar and Bashkir), and there are literatures that relatively recently acquired a written language and are taking their first steps (Dolgan, Tofalar). Such uneven development requires an individual approach to the study of these literatures.
The development of national literatures in different regions had its own specifics. Until the 16th century, the Turkic literatures of Russia developed in the context of Eastern literatures (mainly Iranian-Persian and Arabic). In the XVII-XVIII centuries, with the strengthening of the centralization of the Russian state
states, national literatures fall into the force field of Russian literature. After a general review of the development of Turkic literatures, we considered them in three large regions: the Volga and Ural regions, Siberia and the North Caucasus. For each of the regions, the specifics of the development of the literatures included here, their distinctive features, and then on the basis of the knowledge acquired by students, i.e. at a higher level, common, typological features their development. The study of each section is carried out according to the following scheme: general review- regional specificity - identification of typological commonality.
Special attention should be paid to the problem of periodization of national literatures. In the course "Literature of the Turkic peoples" we adhered to the following periodization:
ancient and medieval literature(V-XVI centuries), literature XVII-XVIII centuries, literature of the 19th century, literature of the 20th century. This period was subdivided in turn into the following sub-periods: literature of the early twentieth century (1900-1920), literature of the 20-30s, literature of the period of the Great Patriotic War, literature of the second half of the twentieth century. As a special period, we consider it appropriate to single out the literature of the late 20th - early 21st century.
It is necessary to start acquaintance with national literatures from folklore, since folklore is of great importance for the development of national literatures, in our opinion, much more than for the development of Russian literature. It was during the study of the course "Literature of the Turkic peoples" that we had the opportunity to acquaint students with such outstanding monuments heroic epic, common to many Turkic peoples, such as "Alpamysh", "The Tale of Grandfather Korkut", "Ger-Ogly", as well as literary monuments belonging to specific peoples: for example, the Bashkir kubair "Ural-Batyr", the Yakut olonkho " Nurgun Bootur the Swift", Altai epic "Maadai-Kara", heroic epic peoples of the North Caucasus "Narts" and others.
The study of the literature of the Turkic peoples should begin from the period of the first Turkic Khaganate (^-UP centuries), when the first written literary monuments were created, written on gravestones using the Or-Khono-Yenisei script. The Orkhon-Yenisei monuments are of great interest to us, because they tell about the events of that time in an artistic form. The author's beginning is strongly expressed in them. Love for the motherland, native people, a passionate call to
consolidation and preservation united state
Here are the main themes of the works of this period. For many years, this layer of high-quality literature was inaccessible to the general reader, and only quite recently, in 1993, the book "The Poetry of the Ancient Turks" was published in a brilliant translation by A. Prelovsky.
It should be noted that the development of Turkic literatures was influenced by Iranian-Persian poetry (Rudaki, Firdousi, Khayyam, Saadi, etc.), as well as Arabic (tales "Thousand and One Nights") and Indian ("Panchatantra") sources. An important role in the development of Turkic literature was played by Mahmud Kashgari (1029-1101), who created the Divan Lugat At-Turk dictionary, and Yusuf Balasagunsky (1018 (?) - 1086 (?)), the author of the immortal poem "Blessed Knowledge".
The course program also includes the poem "The Tale of Yusuf" by the outstanding Bulgarian poet Kul Gali. In 1988, the entire Turkic community solemnly celebrated the 800th anniversary of the birth of Kul Gali. Shortly before that, in 1985, the poem was published in a Russian translation by the Turkologist S. Ivanov and was highly appreciated by readers of Russia and neighboring states. The poem has taken a worthy place among such works as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" by S. Rustaveli and others.
At the lesson devoted to the study of the Kul Gali poem, students get acquainted with the 12th sura of the Koran, which tells about the life and deeds of Yusuf the Beautiful and which formed the basis of the poem, compared the content of this sura with a similar plot from the Bible about Joseph the Beautiful. In this lesson, students determined how the plots differ and what brings them together. They come to the conclusion that both the Qur'an and the Bible contain age-old wisdom peoples, they affirm universal human values, and both sacred books are the greatest cultural monuments of mankind. When studying the above works of national literatures, it was important for us to overcome the stereotype about the youthfulness of the literature of the peoples of Russia. Their history goes back to ancient times. Translations of works of antiquity and the Middle Ages into Russian made it possible to include them in literary use and eliminate white spots in students' ideas about the literature of this period.
During the course, students had the opportunity to get acquainted with examples of Sufi poetry, which is represented by the work of such poets as M. Kuly, A. Kargaly, G. Chokry, G. Salikhov and others. many
Turkic peoples until the end of the eighteenth century. These writers are considered their own by both Tatars and Bashkirs.
The course program included the work of such famous writers as S. Yulaev, K. Ivanov, M. Sespel, P. Oyunsky, Mustai Karim, Kaisyn Kuliev, B. Ukachin and others. Students in the classroom got acquainted with the work of these writers with interest. A real discovery for students was the work of the Chuvash poet G. Aigi.
The creative fate of Aigi is complex and unusual. For a long time in the homeland of the poet, his poetry was passed over in silence or was mentioned only in a negative context. However, his works were highly appreciated abroad. In 1972, Aigi became a laureate of the French Academy for the translation of the anthology "Poets of France" into the Chuvash language. Outside the country for foreign languages fourteen of his books have been published; in Russian, the selected lyrics of the poet were published in a separate book in Paris in 1982. Only in the early 90s did a wide circle of Russian readers get the opportunity to get acquainted with Aigi's original poetry: in 1991 and 1992, two of his voluminous collections, "Here" and "Now it's always snow," were published in Moscow.
The basis of Aigi's work is native folklore, the Chuvash literary tradition, originating from the work of M. Sespel, Russian literature and the tradition of French surrealistic poetry (primarily Baudelaire and Eluard), which he deeply comprehended when translating the anthology "Poets of France". At the intersection of these seemingly so different poetic traditions, a striking phenomenon was born, which we call Aigi's poetry. The poetry of Gennady Aigi has a rich cultural basis. In his work, the Chuvash poet refers to the images of the poets B. Pasternak and D. Burliuk, the artists K. Malevich, V. Tatlin and M. Chagall, the Russian philosopher N. Lossky, enters into intercultural dialogue. Aigi is one of the few modern Russian poets who consciously and consistently develops in his poetry the traditions of French surrealism and Russian symbolism.
The free verse of the associative type that Aigi uses reflects the originality and uniqueness of his poetic thinking. Aigi's poetry at first may seem difficult and unusual to perceive. His poems must be read thoughtfully and unhurriedly in order to penetrate the world of poetic and historical-cultural associations that the poet lives by. We see the key to understanding Aigi's work
dim, first of all, in understanding the specifics of the original associative thinking Chuvash poet and ways of poetic expression by the author of his innermost thoughts.
In the process of classes, we also turned to such a form of work as a comparison of poetic translations. For example, students were offered tasks to compare translations of G. Tukay's poem "Mother tongue". There are several translations of this poem. The most famous are the translations by S. Lipkin and R. Bukharaev. The students were offered a line-by-line poem compiled by us. During the analysis of the translations, the students noticed that S. Lipkin's translation is very poetic, but it does not preserve the size and poetic pattern of Tukay's work. He kind of broke away from the original and healed own life, becoming a phenomenon of Russian poetry. Therefore, he will be more liked by the Russian-speaking reader, brought up in the Russian poetic tradition. R. Bukharaev’s translation, in our opinion, is also poetic, but at the same time, R. Bukharaev chose the size from the meter of Russian poetry, in maximum degree close to original size. And, obviously, it will be closer to the reader, for whom Tatar language native, because in every line and intonation of this translation one can feel the personality of the genius of Tatar literature Gabdulla Tukay.
The peak of the development of national literatures was the 19th century, especially its second half. Confidently declare themselves Tatar writers G. Kandaly and K. Nasyri, Bashkir poets M. Akmulla and M. Umitbaev. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, such outstanding national poets as K. Ivanov, K. Mechiev, B. Pachev and others worked.
It should be noted that at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the geographical boundaries of Russia and the forms of literary ties between the regions were expanding. National literatures, along with the critical assimilation of the traditions of closely related literatures, also turn to the experience of Russian literature, and through it are involved in European literature. art system. National writers are attracted by the realism and folk spirit of Pushkin, the citizenship of Nekrasov, the "dialectics of the soul" and the epic thinking of L. Tolstoy, the emotionality, richness of the narrative and the fidelity of details in Chekhov. This is recognized by the representatives of national literatures themselves. So, G. Tukay noted the influence of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov and N. Nekrasov on his work, and R. Fakhretdinov learned a lot from A. Chekhov and L. Tolstoy.
It should be recognized that the events of the revolution and the first years of Soviet power (for all their ambiguity) gave a powerful impetus to the development of national literatures. Among the writers of this period, the Chuvash poet Mikhail Sespel, whose work was complex and controversial, stands out especially. They were able to most vividly and concentratedly express the mood of that part of the national intelligentsia, which, unlike those who enthusiastically greeted the revolution, foresaw the dangerous tendencies associated with it.
When getting acquainted with the literature of the peoples of Russia, one should constantly keep in mind that since ancient times, Russian and national literatures have developed in close interaction and have had a constant influence on each other. These ties become especially intense in the 20th century. In search of artistic means and new forms of depicting reality, national writers turn to the experience of M. Gorky. The Gorky tradition is clearly seen in the autobiographical works of M. Gafuri, S. Tok and others.
During this period, national poets actively translated Russian poets close to them in spirit into their native language. In bringing national poetry closer to life, strengthening its civic sound, expanding artistic possibilities and enriching the arsenal of rhythmic and intonational means, the creative application of V. Mayakovsky's experience was invaluable.
The desire of representatives of national literatures to create broad epic canvases leads them to study the creative heritage of L. Tolstoy and M. Sholokhov, authors of the outstanding epic novels "War and Peace" and "Quiet Don". The appeal of national writers to the experience of Russian literature can be explained by the fact that until the 20th century there were no large forms of epic prose in many literatures, and the growing self-consciousness of the people required a large-scale philosophical understanding of both their historical past and present.
For a long time, the dramatic genre was not developed in national literatures. Therefore, the appeal of emerging national literatures to the dramatic heritage of A. Ostrovsky and A. Chekhov is quite understandable.
In the literature of the 40-50s of the XX century, the work of the Bashkir writer H. Davletshina, who was largely influenced by M.A. Sholokhov, stands out noticeably. Her novel "Irgiz", which became famous after the death of the writer, brought her national recognition and in many ways
determined the further development of Bashkir literature.
Since the end of the 1940s and 1950s, national literatures have come into maturity. This stage is characterized not so much by the assimilation of the experience of literatures with more developed artistic traditions by national cultures, but by the closeness of themes, problems, artistic forms of the embodiment of reality. So, when studying works of literature of the modern period, one should pay attention to phenomena that are characteristic not for one, but for many literatures, for example: military theme in the works of V. Bykov and in the work of representatives of other national literatures; the problem of moral choice in the work of V.Rasputin and M.Karim; myth and reality in the novels of M. Bulgakov, Ch. Aitmatov and Y. Rytkheu, etc.
The most fruitful for the development of national literatures were the 60-80s of this century. During this period, the creativity of a whole galaxy of original writers reaches its peak. These are K. Kuliev, M. Karim, P. Khuzangay, S. Danilov and others. In our opinion, the legitimacy of introducing these names into the course of the literature of the Turkic peoples is beyond doubt.
In the classroom great attention paid attention to the disclosure of the relationship between the Turkic literatures of Russia and the Turkic literatures of the CIS: Kazakh (O. Suleimenov), Uzbek (Zulfiya), Kyrgyz (Ch. Aitmatov), Turkmen (Berdy Ker-babaev), Turkish literature (M. Karim - Na-zym Hikmet). In the Volga and Ural regions, Turkic literatures intensively interacted with Finno-Ugric literatures (M. Karim - N. Erkay, M. Sespel - K. Gerd). There is an interaction of the Turkic literatures of the Ural-Volga region with the Kalmyk literature (D. Kugultinov's poem "Prisoner of Moabit", dedicated to Musa Jalil).
The literature of the peoples of the North requires serious reflection. The sharp jump in literatures that have only recently acquired a written language, from folklore forms to highly artistic author's works, was a mystery to many. On the example of the work of these writers, one can single out the characteristic features of the literature of the peoples of the North, with a type somewhat unusual for a general reader. artistic thinking, special worldview and unexpected forms of artistic expression. Of the peoples of the North, three are Turkic-speaking - Dolgans, Shors and Tofalars. Students should be introduced to the specific features of the peoples of the North, their psychology, worldview.
vision and worldview, briefly characterize the general patterns of development of the literatures of the peoples of the North and dwell in more detail on the Shor and Dolgan literature (Tofalar literature has not yet had major artistic achievements). Of the northern Turkic literatures, the most significant is the work of the Dolgan poetess Ogdo Aksenova.
Ogdo Aksenova - the founder of Dolgan literature and writing. Her poems are distinguished by a peculiar vision of the world, excellent knowledge and careful attitude to the native culture and northern traditions. During the short life of the Dolgan poetess, in her person, Dolgan literature rapidly went a long way - from the birth of writing (Ogdo Aksenova was the creator of the first Dolgan primer) to mature literature, which in just a few years became on a par with other literatures of the peoples of Russia. In her poems "Melt water", "My tundra", "My dear Volochanka", her beloved tundra visibly rises, without which she cannot imagine her life, people for whom the harsh nature of Taimyr has also become native ("Hunter's Song", "Girl -dolganka", "Song for fishermen"). Love to mother tongue Dolgan people and its unique culture, deeply rooted in national folklore - the main theme of such works as the poem "Speak" and the poem "Bakhyrgas". Dolgan
A small people whose unique culture is on the verge of extinction, therefore the poetess, deeply believing in the possibility of the revival of her native people, is in a hurry to pass on to subsequent generations the traditions and customs of her native people, which she absorbed with her mother's milk. The poetry of Ogdo Aksenova is the poetry of the Dolgan people, but at the same time, it reflects many features inherent in the literatures of all northern peoples. Therefore, it can be said that, using the example of the poetess's work, students received an initial idea of the literature of the peoples of the North and an impulse to awaken interest in it.
Students studied with great interest the work of Bakhyt Kenzheev, an ethnic Kazakh who was born in Chimkent, grew up in Moscow, on the Arbat, having absorbed Russian culture. In the early 1980s, he emigrated to Canada, where, fluent in English, he successfully integrated into North American culture. He writes actively and fruitfully. Published in Russia, Canada and the USA. Three cultures organically merged in his poetry and prose: Eastern, Russian and Western. Literary critic A. Kasymov, on-
calling him creative method"Slavic-Turkiz-mom", writes that "there is no such second voice in Russian poetry" ("Znamya", 2000, No. 11).
Thus, we believe that, despite the existing differences, it is legitimate to consider the literature of the Turkic peoples as a kind of artistic and aesthetic community. To substantiate this position in the final lesson, the following questions should be considered:
a) the revival of national self-consciousness and the increased interest of writers in issues of national culture,
b) ways and opportunities for the development of national languages and literatures,
c) commonality of languages, history and culture as a factor in the consolidation of peoples belonging to one ethno-cultural community.
Recognizing the positive processes that are taking place in the literatures of the peoples of Russia, I would like to touch on some problems.
The turn to market relations and the commercialization of art hit, first of all, national literatures. The works of national writers are not able to compete with the works of "mass" culture. If earlier national literatures were intensively promoted, decades of national cultures were constantly held in Moscow, the works of national writers were translated into Russian and published in such central publishing houses as Soviet Writer, Sovremennik, Friendship of Peoples, in thick literary and art magazines. , which served as a means of introducing the literary community to young national talents, now this process has drastically slowed down. Young writers (under 40) are almost unknown outside their national territorial units and are forced to stew in their own juices. The beginning of the 90s was a turning point for some venerable writers, such as M. Karim, R. Gamzatov and others. This is evidenced by their work recent years, in which one feels confusion in front of the processes taking place in our country: the "westernization" of values and ideals, the decline in the moral culture of society, the criminalization of the situation, the expansion of conflicts on ethnic grounds.
Iosif Kobzon offers his vision of the problem of the spiritual revival of Russia in the book "Healing by Culture". Literature, its teaching at school and university, is called upon to play a major role in this process, in his opinion. In this process, we place certain hopes on the courses "Literature of the Peoples of Russia" and "Literature of the Peoples of Russia".
literature of the Turkic peoples", which have great potential in updating the moral potential of the studied works.
The principle of variability should become the leading principle for constructing a program on the literature of the Turkic peoples of Russia. This means that in the course "Literature of the Turkic peoples" we, as well as in the course "Literature of the peoples of Russia", which we conduct for students of the Russian department, it is advisable to single out the "core". Depending on the location of the university, the "core" is supplemented by works that are somehow connected with the students' native culture. These are, as a rule, works of literature of neighboring peoples,
closely related culture, etc. Such "flexible" programs make it possible to give a general idea of the literature of the Turkic peoples of Russia, near and far abroad, its originality and patterns of development, and at the same time take into account the possibilities and interests of students to the maximum extent.
In order to improve the teaching of the course, we also consider it necessary that the course "Literature of the Turkic peoples" include the section "Theory of Literature". This should include such theoretical and literary concepts
ty, as types of literary connections - contact, genetic, typological; types of literary communities - zonal, regional, terms from national versification, periodization of the development of Turkic literatures, etc.
When studying the course, it seems very promising to introduce an elective course "Arabic graphics", since all literary monuments of Turkic literatures until the 20th century were created on the basis of Arabic graphics. And the current generation of young people, who never studied this script and did not use it, practically turned out to be cut off from a whole layer of culture.
The course "Literature of the Turkic peoples", of course, cannot include the study of all the works of all Turkic literatures, and this is not required. The objective of the course is that, based on the work of one or two representatives of this or that literature, the student can feel its spirit, become interested in it. For example, having become acquainted with the work of Ch. Aitmatov, a student may begin to show interest in all Kyrgyz literature, and reading the works of M. Karim may arouse his interest in Bashkir culture.
PROBLEMS OF STUDYING OF THE DISCIPLINE LITERATURE OF RELATED (TURKICH) PEOPLES IN HIGHER EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS
In thearticle the specificity of teaching the discipline The literature of related (Turkich) peoples is considered (on the example of the Tatar branch of philological faculty of the Moscow state pedagogical university).
Key words: teaching literature at higher educational establishments, Turk literature, cross-cultural dialog
Khairullin Ruslan Zinatullovich - Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor of Moscow State Pedagogical University
The earliest monuments of Turkic literature are works written in Turkic runic writing. They are connected with the cultural life of several states: the Turkic Khaganate, which arose in the middle of the 6th century on the territory of Northern Mongolia and then, at the beginning of the 7th century, broke up into the Western Turkic and Eastern Turkic Khaganates; it was in the latter in the first third of the 8th century that the so-called Orkhon writings appeared - inscriptions on funerary steles, in which historical events are depicted in poetic form in the genre of historical-heroic poems that arose under the influence of the heroic epic. Another group of runic texts - the Yenisei epitaphs - is associated with the military-political unification of the Yenisei Kyrgyz (according to Chinese sources- the Khyagas state, defined by some historians as an ancient Khakas state). In terms of genre, this is an epitaph lyric, dating back no earlier than the 7th century and no later than the 11th-12th centuries. There is strong evidence that the ancient Turkic verses were called by the term yr / yyr, which means “song”, “poem”.
Ancient Uighur verses were called the word koshug- "poetry", "poem". This term in this and phonetically modified form has survived, especially in folklore, to the present day. Another original Turkic term is tagshut (takshut) - "verses". The term tagshut was used in pairs with the words "shlok" in the meaning of "verses", "poetry". In addition to the mentioned term, the term kyug / kyuk was used in the verses of the Manichaean content, which meant “verses”, “poem”, “song”, possibly “hymn”. It is assumed that the kyug had musical accompaniment. In the Manichaean texts, the term bashyk is also found - “hymn”, “song”. In verses of Buddhist content, the term padak (padaka) was used - a verse. This term is relatively rare, rather in the meaning of a poetic line. Also rare is the term kavy (kavya) in the meaning of "poem", "epos". However, it is believed that this term does not denote a genre, but, apparently, indicates a certain style of presentation.
New period in Turkic poetics
A new period in the development of Turkic-language literature and poetics begins after the formation in the 10th century on the territory of Eastern Turkestan, in the Semirechye and Southern Pretyanynanye, the Turkic state under the rule of the Karakhanid dynasty (927-1212), the adoption of Islam (a process that began among the Turkic peoples in the 10th century and dragged on for many centuries) and the conquest of the Turks of Central Asia, where literature in the Persian language was already flourishing at that time. Under the influence of Arabic and Persian literature, a new literary language, the Turki, was formed by borrowing a large number of words from Arabic and Persian, especially in poetry.
In the 11th century, during the heyday of the Karakhanid state, the first Turkic-language work appeared- a didactic poem written by the meter aruza (quantitative versification) mutakarib in the form of mesnevi (masnavi) with a large inclusion of rubai-type quatrains, the final three chapters are written as qasidas. Thus, the first work in the history of classical Turkic-language poetry included several genres of Arabic and Persian literature, which later developed independently among the Turks and became isolated in separate genres. Since that time, the creation of classical literature began, which reached its peak in Central Asia in the era of the Timurids, in Asia Minor in the Ottoman Empire, having passed a natural stage of formation in the Golden Horde state association and at the courts of the rulers of Asia Minor. This literature was created on two very close variants of the Turkic literary language: the Central Asian Turki (the Central Asian-Turkic literary language of the Middle Ages, or the Chagatai language, later called Old Uzbek) and the Asia Minor Turki (Ottoman or Old Turkish language), which, depending on the territory of distribution, had small Tatar , Turkmen and Azerbaijani dialect differences.
Classical Turkic-language poetry was created on the basis of Arabic-Persian poetics, which included a system of versification - aruz, the theory of rhyme and the theory of poetic figures. However, over time, a Turkic version of Aruz was developed, based not only on canonical rules, but also on the actual practice of adapting the Turkic language, which did not have a phonological distinction between long and short vowels, to the quantitative meters of Aruz. As a result, the ancient Turkic tonic-temporal versification, in which the rhythmic parts of multisyllabic lines were equalized by the time of their pronunciation, was replaced by a system of quantitative meters with a strictly regulated alternation of long (in borrowed Arabic and Persian words or conventionally long in Turkic words) and short syllables.
The genre system of classical Turkic-language literature was the same throughout the vast space from Central to Asia Minor and almost identical to those systems that existed in Arabic and Persian literature. It should be said that by the time of the flourishing of Turkic-language literature in the middle of the 15th - the first third of the 16th century in Central Asia and the 16th century in Turkey, these genre forms, like the entire aruz, were not perceived as something alien, classical literature developed precisely in these genre forms, which took into account the content (the theme of the work), the type of rhyme and the number of baits (a bait is a unit of a verse, it consists of two misra - half lines). The epic genre is mesnevi (masnavi), half-lines rhyme: aa, bb, cc, etc. in any arbitrary volume. All other genres are lyrical: ghazal, half-lines rhyme: aa, ba, ca, etc., a small number of bayts, the content is love-lyrical, often with Sufi overtones; qasida - rhyme as in a ghazal, but a much larger number of bayts, contains either madh - praise (panegyric qasida), or hajv - reproach (satirical qasida), there is also the so-called philosophical qasida; kyta, type of rhyme: ab, cb, db, etc., a small number of bayts, often two, which is reproduced in Europeanized editions as a quatrain: abcb, thematically rather freely; rubai, the type of rhyme is predominantly: aaba, rarely - aaaa (called rubaitarane), rubai is always written in meter x azaji, always contains only two bayts, is devoted mainly to love lyrics, but there may be other topics; fard, one bait, half lines or rhyme: aa or not: ab, the topics are very different - the beauty of the beloved, the experiences of love, the sorrows of separation, the meaning of life, descriptions of nature in connection with love experiences. Classical Turkic-language poetry created its own genre, which was not found in either Arabic or Persian literature. This is a tuyug, which contained only two bayts, rhymed like a rubay (aaba, aaaa) or like a kyta (abcb), but it was always written in ramal meter and in rhyming words a poetic figure was always used - tajnis (homonymous words). All of the listed types of rhymes form non-strophic forms of verse. Non-strophic forms also include such a complex structure as mustezad (mustazod); usually composed of one of the modifications of the khazaj meter, the type of rhyme as in a ghazal: aa, ba, ca, etc., but at the end of each half-line two more feet of the same meter were added with their own rhyme, also of the ghazal rhyme type: adad bead cgad and etc. Rubai and that south can be considered as stanzas as solid forms of verse.
Strophic forms are all types of musammat: murabba (half-lines rhyme: aaaa, aaab, cccb, dddb, etc.), muhammas (aaaaa, aaaab, ccccb, ddddb, etc.), musaddas (aaaaaa, aaaaab, cccccb, etc.), those. 4 half-lines, 5 half-lines, 6 half-lines are the most common forms, but there could be 7 half-lines - musabba, 8 half-lines - musamman, 9 half-lines - mutass a, 10 half-lines - muashshar. Such verses were written for famous ghazals, and additional half-lines were composed for each bait of the ghazal. The strophic form is tarjiband - a chain of ghazals united by a common refrain consisting of one bait, which is repeated after each ghazal, the refrain's bait was supposed to have an organic semantic connection with each ghazal. The first ghazal: aa, ba, ca and so on until the end, then the refrain follows: dd, then comes the second ghazal with its rhyme and after it the refrain: dd then the third ghazal and refrain. This form was used in works with Sufi themes. A variant of this form is the tarkibband, which was also a chain of ghazals, but each of them was followed by a new bayt. The first ghazal: aa, ba, ca, etc., then a new bait: dd, then the second ghazal with its own rhyme, after it another new bait: hers, and so on until the end of the work.
existed and used very popular so-called application forms. For example, lugz is a type of charade, which contained a description of the signs of an object, but it itself was not named. Muwashshah is a kind of acrostic, where some marked letters form either separate words or whole lines - both poetic and prose. Muamma is a riddle, contains hints not at the signs of the hidden character, but at the letters in his name. Many classical poets were fond of this form: Jami, Fuzuli, Navoi. Tarikh - some date was encrypted in poetic form. Munazire (munazora) was a qasida or other form, which contained a competition, a dispute between two rivals: a bow and an arrow, winter and summer, etc.
Since the 16th century, curly verses have become widespread.. For example, "square verses" - murabba. The poem fit into a square, and it could be read in any direction: from right to left, i.e. usually, but also from left to right and from top to bottom, the meaning did not change. Mudavvar - a poem enclosed in a circle, divided into segments, such poems could be read starting from any segment. Muakkad - a poem in the form of five and six-pointed stars. Mushadjar - verses in the form of a tree. There was a practice of writing poems in two languages, this form was called mulamma or shiru shakar (literally, milk and sugar), if poems were written in three languages, it was called shahdu shiru shakar (literally: honey, milk and sugar).
Poetics also provided for the rules for creating prose.- nasr, which could be of three types: nasr-i muradjaz - some meter was observed, but there was no rhyme, nasr-i musadja - rhymed prose, but without meter, nasr-i ari - free prose. Prose writings were called name - “composition”, “book”, but this word also means “message”, “letter”, therefore it is sometimes included integral part and in the designations of poetic works, for example, sakiname (Bacchic-poem). It must be said that in the practice of Chagatai poetry, the form of a work could be more important than its content. So, although the term mesnevi was used to refer to poems, i.e. epic genre, the author could write lyric poem and call it mesnevi on the basis of the system of rhymes used in it. Sometimes, on the contrary, it was the content that was the main thing. So, the marsiya genre is lamentation, lamentations for the deceased could be created in the form of a gazelle, qasida, mukhammas, musaddas, tarjiband and tarkibband.
In the Turkic-language writings on poetics "Mizan Alavzan" by Navoi (1441-1501) and in the "Treatise on Aruz" by Babur (1483-1530), a number of poetic forms are indicated that were inherent only in Turkic-language poetry. One of them - tuyug was a developed literary genre, others were on the verge between folklore and literature. This is the Turki, which was composed by one of the modifications of the Ramal meter; the koshuk was of two types: one was a variant of the meter madid, the other was a variant of the ramal; chinge was composed as a variant of the meter munsarikh; muhabbatname - one of the types of the hazaj meter; arzvari (arzuvari) was of two types: one was a variant of the khazaj meter, the other was a variant of the ramal. In Babur's treatise, the form of chinge is called oleng and another form is indicated that Navoi does not have - tarkhan and composed by the meter rajaz. Some of these forms are called songs by both authors. For example, arzvari, according to Navoi, is a song of the Iraqi Turkmen, and chinge (oleng) is a song that was performed at weddings. Some modern researchers believe that this form was common in the Middle Ages among the Turks, who spoke the Azeri dialect of the Oghuz Turks.
Aruz meters were also used in the works of ashugs(ashik - letters, lover, folk poet-musician) in Turkey. One of these forms, known in ashug poetry, since the 16th century, was called a divan, it was composed by a variant of the meter ramal and sung to its own melody, it consisted of stanzas like classical form murabba sometimes with a refrain after each stanza. In the future, the system of rhymes could be in it, as in mukhammas and musaddas. Another poetic form of folk ashug poetry was semai, composed by the Khazaj meter and also performed to its own melody. There was also a yakla semai (an elongated semai) form that rhymed like a ghazal and followed the structure of the mustezad form of classical poetry. Other forms were composed: selis - a variant of the ramal meter (different from the sofa form), calendars - a variant of the hazaj meter, both forms had the rhyme of murabba, muhammas, musaddas and were popular until the 19th century. Ayakli calendars (long calendars) also looked like a classic mustezad, but was performed to a different melody. The shatranch form was composed by one of the variants of the meter rajaz, also performed to its own melody, rhymed like a murabba, only the first two bayts had a rhyme: abab.
In addition to poetic sizes adapted to the aruz meters, ashug poetry also had syllabic verses - hedzhe - with a two- and three-part line structure characteristic of Turkic poetry. These were predominantly 7-8-syllables and 11-syllables, although there are also lines of a larger volume, for example, 14-syllables. Ashug syllabic verses are called koshmatürkyu (Azerbaijani goshma, Turkmen, goshgy), the rhyme system is like in murabba, but the first stanza is either with rhyme, like in kyta (abcb), or with cross rhyme (abab), the second stanza: dddb, etc. . The koshma form has a refrain line: abcbd or ababd (first storf), eeebd (second stanza), gggbd (third stanza), etc. The number of lines in the refrain can be increased. Then, repeating in each stanza, additional lines are added that have their own rhyme: abcbdd, eeebdd, etc. A complicated form is formed by the zinjirleme koshma (koshma connected by a chain), where the first line of each new stanza begins by repeating the last word of the last line of the previous stanza. Thus, the syllib verses of ashug poetry are predominantly strophic forms, although in some verses the ghazal rhyme may also be used. Poems usually contain a small number of stanzas (3, rarely 10). The shortest form is bayati - mani, which is a 7-syllable rhyme like rubay (aaba), modern tradition perceived as a quatrain. This form is widespread not only in Turkey (in Eastern Anatolia), but also in Azerbaijan, it can be of very different content: love lyrics, comic (like ditties) poems, divinatory, and even riddle verses). The form is known - jinasly mani, i.e. mani containing a play on words in rhyme. The form of alagozlu is a mani with 11 complex lines. Mani katar is a chain of mani, rhymes: aaba, ccdc, etc., i.e. there is each quatrain, as it were, separately, but all are connected by a theme. Singers who specialized exclusively in the performance of mani were called maniji. The form of ashug poetry guzelleme was dedicated to praising the beauty and virtues of the beloved, the poem was short. The tashlama form contained satire and social criticism, the kochaklama form was dedicated to heroic theme, but compared to destan, the description in such a poem was more figurative, designed for a great emotional effect. The agyt form contained lamentation, lamentation for the deceased, just like mercie. The form of muamm in the tradition of ashug poetry was folk riddles in verse. The longest works of ashug poetry were destans, which could reach several dozen stanzas (rhyme koshmatyurkyu). The lengthy narratives told about some important military, political and social events. Plots could also be humorous, satirical and parodic. In addition to the ashushva poets, there were folk narrators of prose in Turkey - meddakhs. They told different stories in the hikaye genre (story, tale, story). The content of the hikaye was historical-heroic and adventurous-love stories about fictional or actually existing characters of past times or considered as such. This could include, for example, biographies of famous war heroes and famous storytellers. The prose narration could be interrupted by songs that were sung accompanied by saz, as well as poetic jokes by tekerleme. A short story inside the narration was called kyssa, or serkyushte, a separate episode of the narration - kol. There were also other, smaller terms for the structural features of the genre, indicative of the elaborate storytelling technique. Med dahi performed on holidays, at weddings, in coffee houses and were very popular. Meddakhs (in the Uzbek pronunciation madtsohi) also existed in Central Asia, but they mostly told about the life of saints.
Forms of syllabic verse were common among Azerbaijani ashugs(khedzha): keremi, kesikkeremi, gerayly, sharki, shikeste. Folklore songs of the Turkmens - aidim - were performed by aidimchi folk singers. A playful song on a love theme is known - varsaki (varsags) and lale - a girl's song in the form of a quatrain. Turtlik form is very common in Uzbek folk poetry. These are 4 half-lines (misra), which can be written both in aruz (rubai in a meter, i.e. different types of khazaj), and in syllabic verses (barmak). The rhyme is the most diverse: abab, aaba, abba, aaaa, abcb. The themes of these quatrains are love lyrics, satire, accusatory and comic motifs. Humorous verses were performed by kazykchi singers. Since ancient times, the wedding song yor-yor (yor - beloved) has been known, which as "chinge" is mentioned in the essay about Navoi's aruz, in a similar treatise of Babur it is called "oleng". A song with musical accompaniment is called kushik. One of the popular genres of Uzbek folklore, which got into the written tradition from there, is alla - a lullaby. The performance of songs by Aytishuv (lapar) has become widespread among the people. choral singing when guys and girls alternately sing verses in the form of ditties. In the Central Asian folklore tradition dastans (the Central Asian tradition of pronunciation) were included in the repertoire of storytelling poets: bakhshi (Uzbek), bagshi (Turkmen), baksy (Karakalpak). Those storytellers who specialized in performing only dastans were called dastanchi. Central Asian, as well as Kazakh dastans were prose interspersed with poetic inserts written in the form of koshma (goshgy among the Turkmens). Sometimes the poetic part almost exceeded the prose part. Dastans were heroic, heroic-romantic, romantic (adventurous-love), fairy-tale-fantastic (processings of Arabic and Persian fairy-tale epic) in content. The dastans included stories from both folklore and written literature, for example, from the works of Nizami, Navoi, etc.
Among the Turks, the genre of playful ditties was very popular., which different peoples has similar names: takmak (among the Tatars), takpak (among the Karakalpaks), takhpakh (among the Khakasses). These are equally syllable or relatively equally syllable quatrains with different systems of rhymes, with the exception of the Khakass takhpakh. The sound organization of the Khakass takhpakh - the alliterative system - demonstrates the consistent principle of alliteration in the anaphora, and the quatrains are often combined into octets. Poetic jokes in Tatar folklore were called - samak, in Bashkir - hamak and takmaza. The term Baitu Tatars was used to describe historical songs and poems with sad, even tragic content. Bayit's Bashkir folklore- these are poetic narratives that allowed improvisation of the narrator. The epic tales of the Bashkirs - yyr - were performed by narrators-improvisers, who were called sesen.
The narrator-improviser in the Kazakh and Kyrgyz folklore traditions - akyn - performs various works to the accompaniment of dombra or kobza. The performers of only heroic epics - fat or jir - are called jirau and jirchi. From the point of view of rhythm, the epics are a 7-8-syllable of equally syllable and relatively equally syllable verse with inconsistently drawn rhymes. The initial alliteration is rich, which serves as an additional means of rhythmic organization of the verse and its decoration. Alliteration in anaphora and rhyme (often rhymes) organize irregular strophic periods. Akyns, jirau and jirchi periodically participated in aitys (Kyrgyz aitysh) - competitions of storytellers (aitygs) to maintain their authority. If the jirchi in the Kyrgyz folklore tradition specialized in the performance of only one epic work, for example, the epic "Manas" (recorded in the 19th century), it was called manaschi, the epic "Semetey" - semeteychi. storytelling in epic works changed all the time: from smooth when describing fat (jira) to the accelerated rhythm of zheldirme (in images of running a horse, racing, etc.) by shortening poetic lines.
The term tolgau in Kazakh literature refers to works of a didactic nature.. Tolgau can be anonymous, author's in the oral tradition and literary. Their content is all sorts of teachings, instructions, reasoning on various occasions. The genre continues the tradition of didactic literature widespread in the Near and Middle East. The form of zhoktau in Kazakh folklore is a ritual, funeral song. The term oleng (song, verse) refers to 11 complex quatrains with a rubay-type rhyme of lyrical content. Aitysu is a competition in the performance of songs, when the songs are sung in turn, as if in the form of a dialogue.
A special group is formed by the literature and folklore of the Turkic peoples inhabiting Southern and Eastern Siberia., - peoples whose culture developed outside Muslim world and close contacts with Islamized peoples. In their folklore and literature, the original Turkic rhythmic and sound organization of verse continued to exist and develop, similar to that which existed in ancient Turkic literature. The Khakassian heroic epic alyptyg (alyptyg) nymakh is composed of unequal (6-12 syllables) lines, in the regulation of which there are both metric and percussion principles. The rhythm of such a verse is closely related to the distribution of musical rhythm and the characteristics of guttural singing - hai. The performer of epic tales is called haiji (haichi) nymakhchi. The recitative high, characteristic of the epic, was also used in the performance of improvisational songs - takhpakhs, which can also be performed with a melodic high. The performer of tahpahs is called hajjitahpahchi. In the process of performing a work, haiji subordinates uneven lines to a rhythmically stable melody, equalizing them by introducing additional vowels - individual syllables and words without a specific meaning (asemantic), stretching the final (stressed) syllables, as well as by reducing vowels, shortening syllables. The sound organization of this verse is represented by alliteration in anaphora, and from 2 to 1213 lines can be combined with it. Interword alliteration is less pronounced. Alyptykh nymakh - strophic works. Haiji performs the work in complete semantic segments, including 29 or more lines, which can be connected by initial alliteration. Since this is an improvisational genre, there is no solid pattern here, much depends on the skill of the haiji. In some places of the text you can see rhyme, but these are more likely rhymes - the coincidence of sounds in the same grammatical forms. According to the content of alypt nymakh - heroic, genealogical and mythological poems. The lyrical genre was developed in the form of tahpakh, which, according to the content, was a quatrain ( comic ditties), or eight lines (love lyrics and other topics), however, there could be deviations from the rules here, since this genre is also improvisational. There were also genres algys - bless wish and haargys - curse.
The epics of the Altai, Tuvan and Yakut peoples are exactly the same in content., the performance of which is also accompanied by guttural singing. The Altai heroic epic - kai cherchek - is performed by the narrator kaichi, who correlates poetic and musical rhythms. In terms of poetry, kai cherchek are relatively equally syllable poems with a small gap in the number of syllables in the lines: from 78 to 1213 syllables. Inter-linear alliteration covers 28 lines, rhymes are clearly expressed and frequent. The term kozhong (kozhon) in the Altai folklore denotes historical, everyday and lyrical songs, they are performed by the zhongchi singer in an ordinary voice. These are predominantly quatrains (sometimes the number of lines is increased to 6) with 7-8 complex lines (sometimes 4 and 10 syllables appear) with inter-line alliteration that can cover all four lines. In Altai folklore, the form algysh syos is also known - well-wishes. The Yakut heroic epos - olonkho, performed by the storyteller - olonkhosut - is a combination of prose and poetic parts. The latter are performed by recitation and singing. The declamatory part (recitative) consists of descriptions and those episodes that are presented on behalf of the narrator. The song part is the monologues of all the characters, different in volume: some in 34 dozen lines of poetry, others in 200, 300, sometimes up to 400 lines. The lines are polysyllabic, the number of syllables ranges from 4 to 14, the rhythm of the verse is controlled musical rhythm and guttural singing - khabarga yryata. There is no rhyme, in some places rhymes are visible in the coincidences of grammatical forms. The initial alliteration covers a small number of lines (2-3 lines), sometimes used through the line. Other genres: yrya - song, may have different content, khohoon - verse, poem, song, yrya-khokhoon - song-verse, algys - good wishes, kyryys - curse. The performer of songs is called yryakhyt.
Literary monuments are an important element in the culture of any civilized people. Literature reflects not only a certain historical situation, but also the public consciousness and mood characteristic of this period. In addition, literature reproduces the very portrait of the people. Literature expressing folk spirit, commonly called "folk". However, literary studies often identify folk literature with national literature. But these are different concepts: the first can include the work of writers of different nationalities who cover the topics of folk life, raise the problems of the people (which are multinational). National literature is the literature of a certain nation, where it also affects folk theme, but with an emphasis on the peculiarities of the mentality.
There is also another literary gradation. The territory of any state consists of several regions that differ from each other in relief, climate, way of life, social environment, etc. Works created in one area and reflecting its uniqueness belong to regional literature.
Works on the study of national and regional literature in domestic science appeared relatively recently (in the last quarter XX century). At the same time, the regional aspect has been studied less theoretically than the national one. However, in the work of many writers, these aspects are found, consciously or not, included in the works. The term "national literature" is broader than regional literature. following the works literary scholars(identifying "folk" and "national" literature), we define the main features of this concept.
The main component of national literature is the reflection in it of the peculiarities of the mentality of any ethnic group. The psychological portrait of the nation, moral norms, connection with nature - all this, one way or another, is present in the works about the people as a whole.
The historical component is also important. In the literature of any country, one can trace the attitude of society to its past directly through works of art, in particular, using literary texts as an example.
Russian national literature has always been distinguished by humanity, philanthropy, the victory of good over evil. Works about the people are often built on Orthodox canons. Events most often occur against the backdrop of a specific historical situation. The characters' characters are endowed with both negative (laziness, slowness) and positive (responsiveness, generosity) traits inherent in the Russian mentality.
National literature includes regional literature. There are several opinions about the last term. For example, A.N. Vlasov includes in the regional literature works "created by local authors and in demand by local readers" . AT"Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts" (2001), regional literature is understood as a collection of "works of writers, focusing their attention on the image of a certain area (usually rural) and the people inhabiting it" .
In addition, literary critics offer synonymous concepts for the term "regional literature". Thus, in the "Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary" (1987) the concept of "local color" (from the French. couleur locale ) as "reproduction in fiction of the features of national life, landscape, language, characteristic of a strictly defined locality or region" . In the same edition, a reference is made to the everyday-descriptive trend of costumbrism (from Spanish. ostumbrismo, costumbre - temper, custom), which captures "the desire for the most accurate descriptions of nature, the characteristics of national life, often with the idealization of patriarchal mores and customs" . Verism (from Italian. vero - truthful). Verists, in describing the life of the poor social strata, as you know, widely used the folk language and its dialect manifestations, which was a necessary means of illustrating the naturalistic closeness of the phenomena and events described to the realities, not embellished artistic means true human nature. In addition, there are the concepts of "regionalism", "veritism", "zonal literature", etc.
Despite the obvious differences, these definitions form a synonymous series of regional literature, where a common feature is the geographical and social description of any area.
The embodiment of the national and regional aspect can be traced on the example of the book by A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) "Sakhalin Island" (1895). Known not only in Russia, but also abroad, this work opened to the world the Russian soul, compassionate and sympathetic. Compassion, the ability to see the pain of another - Russian national traits. In "Sakhalin Island" these qualities are shown through the feelings of the author. From the first impressions of the writer about the island and further throughout the work, one can catch the experiences of A.P. Chekhov about hard labor, free settlers, about the island as part of Russia, as well as about Russia itself.
The book "Sakhalin Island" reflected, first of all, the hard life of convicts and settlers, who "feel the absence of something important" . The convicts "do not have enough of the past, traditions", they "have no customs", "and most importantly, there is no homeland". This mood is facilitated by climatic conditions (“Good weather is very rare here”), relief features (“the coast is completely sheer, with dark gorges and coal seams ... a gloomy coast!”). Almost everyone who arrives on Sakhalin is guided by the phrase: "It's better in Russia". This comparison creates an even greater gap between the mainland and the island, separating Sakhalin from Russia.
In Chekhov's book, there is often a hidden opposition "Russian - non-Russian", a kind of antithesis "Russia - Sakhalin". This artistic technique is stated on the first pages of the work during a visit to A.P. Chekhov Nikolaevsk. Due to the lack of an inn in the city, the writer dined in the assembly, where he became an unwitting witness to the conversations of the visitors who were there. “If you listen carefully and for a long time,” A.P. concludes. Chekhov, - then, my God, how far life here is from Russia!<…>in everything one feels something of one's own, not Russian <…>not to mention the original not Russian nature, it always seemed to me that the warehouse of our Russian life is completely alien to the native Amur people<…>and we, visitors from Russia, seem foreigners"even" morality here is somehow special, not ours"(Italics ours. - T. P.) A.P. Chekhov, like other residents of central Russia, does not associate the island with the mainland as part of the Russian state. For him, Sakhalin is an unknown, other land.
A.P. Chekhov often uses the combinations “on our Russian arshin”, “in our Russian villages”, “Russian field”, “Russian tsar”, etc., drawing a parallel between Russia and non-Russia, large and small land.
However, on the island, the writer also sees something that makes him related to the Russian state - faith, thanks to which people do not allow themselves to sink, overcome inhuman torments, and, having overcome them, begin to live again. Churches have been built for believers on Sakhalin. and A.P. Chekhov often mentions them: “There are several houses and a church on the shore”; "six versts from Douai<…>little by little a residence began to grow in the neighborhood: premises for officials and offices, a church<…>» ; “the main essence of the fast is its official part: the church, the house of the head of the island, his office”; "gray wooden church"; “the church is whitening, of old, simple and therefore beautiful architecture”, etc. As can be seen from the examples, the description of any settlement, post of A.P. Chekhov often begins with an indication of the presence or absence of a church, which indicates the importance of faith in the spiritual life of people. It should be noted that representatives of various confessions and religions lived on Sakhalin (the island was and remains multinational), which, however, peacefully coexisted with each other. Here is how A.P. writes about it. Chekhov: “Catholics complained to me that priests come very rarely, children remain unbaptized for a long time, and many parents, so that the child does not die without baptism, turn to an Orthodox priest<…>When a Catholic dies, then, in the absence of his own, they invite a Russian priest to sing "Holy God".
Having touched on the religious theme, one cannot fail to mention such a feature of Sakhalin as its multinationality (which is the reason for the large number of religions on the island). The rich ethnic composition of Sakhalin is due to the fact that people were sentenced to exile regardless of nationality. “Local residents,” A.P. Chekhov one of the villages - this is a disorderly rabble Russians, Poles, Finnish, Georgians <…>» . On the one hand, such a mixture did not interfere with maintaining human relations, but, on the contrary, contributed to the assimilation of cultures; on the other hand, people did not seek to settle in this land, since for everyone it was a stranger, a temporary place of residence, as people believed in it. “The local villagers do not yet form societies. There are still no adult natives of Sakhalin, for whom the island would be home, there are very few old-timers, the majority are newcomers; the population changes every year; some arrive, others leave; and in many villages, as I have already said, the inhabitants give the impression of not rural society, but random rabble. They call themselves brothers because they suffered together, but they still have little in common and they are strangers to each other. They do not believe in the same way and speak different languages. The old people despise this diversity and laughingly say that what kind of society can there be if Russians, crests, Tatars, Poles, Jews, Chukhons, Kirghiz, Georgians, Gypsies live in the same village? ... ".
On Sakhalin, which was seen by A.P. Chekhov, there was no definite way of life, each of the settlers and convicts lived in their own way. An example of this is the description of A.P. Chekhov of Sakhalin life: “On Sakhalin, there are all kinds of huts, depending on who built it - a Siberian, a crest or a Chukhonets, but most often it is a small log house<…>without any external decorations, thatched<…>There is usually no yard. Not a single tree near.<…>If there are dogs, then they are lethargic, not evil.<…>And for some reason these quiet, harmless dogs are on a leash. If there is a pig, then with a block around his neck. The rooster is also tied by the leg.
Why do you have a dog and a rooster tied? - I ask the owner.
We have everything on the chain in Sakhalin, - he jokes in response. “The earth is like that.”
“Such” means different, different, alien. The reluctance of people to recognize the island as part of Russia is explained by its purpose. Sakhalin as a place of exile at the turn XIX - XX For centuries, it has evoked negative emotions, fear, and terror in Russians. Heavy impressions contributed to a similar perception by the writer of the Sakhalin nature. “From the high bank,” writes A.P. Chekhov, - stunted, diseased trees looked down; here in the open, each of them alone wages a cruel struggle with frost and cold winds, and each has to fall and winter, in long scary nights, sway restlessly from side to side, bend to the ground, creak plaintively - and no one hears these complaints. As natural complaints remain unanswered, so the groans of people punished by law and the surrounding reality do not reach the high authorities. But Chekhov's Sakhalin people, like trees, defend their right to life, and sometimes to existence. The entire “Sakhalin Island” is permeated with such a depressing mood, because A.P. Sakhalin felt this way. Chekhov.
Thus, in the travel notes of A.P. Chekhov "Sakhalin Island" can be conditionally distinguished "big"(Russia) and "small"(Sakhalin) worlds, "central" and "regional" concepts, which are embodied in the following features:
1) features of the Russian mentality. The first impressions of a different, “non-Russian” life from Nikolaevsk change with A.P. Chekhov as they learn about the real situation on Sakhalin. A.P. Chekhov sees thieves, murderers, morally and physically degraded people. But, at the same time, a believing, tolerant convict is revealed to him, loving Russia. The writer sees on the island a kind of model of the Russian state, where important role the church plays and where representatives of different ethnic groups coexist peacefully. This manifests such features of a Russian person as catholicity and tolerance;
2) historical authenticity. A.P. Chekhov recorded in writing the history of hard labor in its most active period. The book made a revolution in the public mind, as it was created by an eyewitness of those events;
