Cultures in Russian lands after invasions and the establishment of Horde domination as a whole did not undergo such serious destructive changes, similar to those that occurred in the socio-political sphere. However, as a result of the Tatar raids, material and cultural values were severely damaged. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of all-Russian cultural processes. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Rus', the formations are temporarily stopped.
construction of stone buildings. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost (production of products with niello and grain, with cloisonne enamel, etc.). The production of handwritten books has been reduced. The horizons of the chroniclers are significantly narrowed, they almost lose interest in the events taking place in other principalities.
At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, is oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.
In the XIV century. understanding Mongolian A number of tales are dedicated to the conquest: about the battle on Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, the legend about Evpatiy Kolovrat, and also about the defender of Smolensk, the young Smolensk Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from Batu's army.
In North-Eastern Rus', which during the XIV - early XV centuries. gradually moved towards the restoration of state unity, favorable conditions were created for a cultural upsurge enriched by the growth of national self-consciousness. The Battle of Kulikovo gave a powerful impetus to the development of the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. The brilliant victory of the Russian soldiers on the Kulikovo field is dedicated to a whole series of outstanding works literature: chronicle story, military tale. Another work from the anti-Horde cycle is the historical song about Shchelkan Dudentievich, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327, about the destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382, about invasions to Rus' Tamerlane and Khan Edigei.
The idea of national liberation and patriotism is also reflected in the works devoted to the protection northwestern borders of the Russian Land: "The Life of Dovmont" and Alexander Nevsky>.
Whole line hagiographic works dedicated to the princes who died in the Horde. This and. The princes appear in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and their Fatherland.
Gradually from the second half of XIII V. chronicle writing is gradually being restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers were Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, a little later (from about 1250) - Vladimir, and from the end of the 13th century - Tver. From the second half of the XIV century.
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the compilation of annals and handwritten books is experiencing a significant rise. Leading place gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition, and Simonov, Andronikov and other monasteries become its centers. It has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle of the beginning of the 15th century. and is, in contrast to local annalistic records, the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Rus'.
Along with the development of literature, writing develops. An indicator of the degree of literacy among all segments of the population are found in the XX century. during excavations in Novgorod, birch bark letters. Gradually, with the development of bookishness, the nature of writing changes, business documentation expands. In the XIV century. comes to replace - more fluent and free writing. And from the end of the XIV century. the development of cursive writing begins, the very name of which speaks of the principle of writing. Expensive parchment is gradually being replaced by cheaper material - paper.
At the end of the XIII-XIV centuries. stone construction resumes in Russian lands. Until now, the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna (1292), the Church of Theodore Stratilat on the Creek (1360) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) have survived to this day. Several civil buildings of the 14th - early 15th centuries have also been preserved in Novgorod. The most interesting building among them is the Faceted Chamber (the name appeared later), created in 1433. It was erected at the direction of the Archbishop of Novgorod Evfimy, an ardent opponent of Moscow, to emphasize the sovereignty of Novgorod.
Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral (1326), the Church of Ivan Lestvichnik (1329), the Church of the Savior on Bor (1330) and the Archangel Cathedral (1333). Some fragments have been preserved from some of them. The resumption of stone construction in Moscow is associated with the reign Dmitry Donskoy, during which the white-stone fortifications of the Moscow Kremlin were erected (1360s). The monuments of stone architecture of the first quarter of the 15th century that have come down to us. testify to their new technical quality. An example of this kind of monuments is the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod. In addition to Moscow, stone fortresses are being built around a number of monasteries, as well as in Izborsk, Oreshka, Yama, Koporye and Porkhov.
The powerful rise of Russian culture at the end of the XIV century. found reflection in the development of Russian painting. One of the earliest monuments monumental painting are the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Snetogorsk Monastery in Pskov (1313). The largest artist of this period was Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - 61
after 1405), Byzantine master. Fresco paintings Theophan the Greek in the surviving Novgorod churches are distinguished by extraordinary virtuosity of performance, freedom in dealing with eschatological traditions, original monochrome performance in deep red-brown tones.
Apart from fresco painting Theophanes the Greek is credited with depicting the Assumption on the back of a famous icon from the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow. His brush belongs to a large icon from Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries in Moscow, a Russian national school of icon painting. By this time, the earliest period creativity of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev.
A huge role in the development of culture in Rus' in this era was played by the great spiritual shepherds Metropolitan Alexy (c. 1310-1378) and hegumen Sergius of Radonezh (1314 (or 1319) -1392). The latter, the founder of the Trinity Monastery near Moscow, is the true inspirer of the struggle of the Russian people against the Horde rule.
For more than 200 years Mongolian yoke brought about transformations in all spheres of life of Russian society. Bringing their own changes to everyday life, clothing, jewelry, construction and trade relations. throughout culture as a whole.
Clothing changed: long white Slavic shirts and long trousers were replaced by golden caftans, colored trousers and morocco boots. Such women's jewelry as beads, beads, shells, etc. came into use.
They brought abacus to Russian culture, which the West still does not know, felt boots, dumplings, coffee, the identity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlin of Beijing (Khan-Balyk) and Moscow and other cities - all this is the influence of the East
Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to the Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West.
The influence of the East on Russian culture is clearly reflected in dances. While in the West there should be a couple in the dance - a lady and a gentleman, in the dances of Russians and Eastern peoples it doesn't matter. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. Similar to oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.
Having noted all of the above, it can be established as a historical fact that the Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to some extent to the rise of the culture of Rus'.
Russians adopted a lot from Tatar food and drinks. Russian researchers wrote about the fact that tea entered Russia thanks to the Tatars. The preparation of bread, known in Russia as “Kalach” (wheat bread, shaped like a castle), was also taught to Russians by the Tatars. According to certain estimates, the number of Turkic borrowings denoting a piece of clothing has at least 300 words, and those related to cooking - about 280. In general, there are about 2000 Turkisms in the Russian language. Akdes Nimet Kurat actively studied this issue in his works on the Turkic peoples in Russia and the Northern Black Sea region. The book entitled "The Golden Horde and Russia" (author - Ilyas Kamalov) provides comprehensive information on this topic.
Many princes and Russian dignitaries took Mongolian girls into a wife. The Russian upper stratum underwent cultural Mongoloization. Many Tatars from the khanates that arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde (Crimean, Kazan, Kasimov) entered the service of the Russian princes and eventually became Christians. Many Russian aristocrats who played important role in Russian history, were of Tatar origin. Statesmen with Tatar roots taught the Moscow Principality of the Mongolian state organization and management concepts. The Golden Horde military system had a great influence on the Russians.
The influence of the Mongols is also observed in the economic and financial fields. Following the example of the Golden Horde, tax and monetary systems were created. We can see echoes of this process in the Russian language. For example, the word "customs" comes from the word "tamga" (or "trade duty"), the word "money" - from the Mongolian "tenge". From the Tatars, the Russians learned the more common use of postal organization, horse-drawn carts. The influence of the Tatars in the diplomatic field is also great. The Russian princes learned the rules and traditions of diplomacy from the Golden Horde state.
The problem of Mongol-Tatar influence has always worried Russian society. The two extreme positions are opposed to each other.
1. The Mongol-Tatar yoke brought ruin, death of people, delayed development, but did not significantly affect the life and life of Russians (S. Solovyov, V. Klyuchevsky, S. Platonov). It is also traditional for Soviet historiography. The main idea is that Rus' developed during the period of the Mongol invasion along the European path, but began to lag behind due to the scale of destruction.
2. The Mongol-Tatars had a great influence on the social and social organization of the Russians, on the formation and development of the Moscow kingdom (N. Karamzin, N. Kostomarov, N. Zagoskin). N. Karamzin, condemning the violence of the Mongols in Rus', believed that in general their influence was positive: the khans interfered with the packs of princes, increased specific fragmentation and led the Russian lands to autocracy. This point of view was developed in the works of the Eurasianists, and the publications of L. Gumilyov are especially distinguished here. Before defining a position on this issue, let us turn to the problem of ethno-social factors in history, without which the argumentation of the Eurasians, and in particular L. Gumilyov, will be unclear. According to the theory of “passionarity” by L. Gumilyov, physical factors influence the historical process. The behavior of ethnic groups (peoples) is largely determined by the phenomena occurring in the biosphere. This is a natural-scientific approach to understanding history. The theory of "passionarity" is based on the teachings of V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere as a "living substance" endowed with biogeochemical energy. Thanks to her, life exists. The energy of the biosphere is obtained due to the radiant energy of the sun, the atomic energy of radioactive decay inside the Earth, the cosmic energy of scattered elements emanating from the galaxy. V. I. Vernadsky wrote about extremely rare energy outbursts, as a result of which the planet receives more energy than is necessary to maintain the equilibrium of the biosphere. This leads to passionary explosions. Based on the biogeochemical energy of the living matter of our planet discovered by V. I. Vernadsky, L. Gumilyov divided people and entire ethnic groups according to the ability to absorb this energy. Accordingly, three types of people are distinguished. The first is harmonious people - people with sufficient energy, working just to live. The second - passionaries - people with excess, extreme energy. The third - subpassionaries - people with insufficient energy even for a philistine life, living at the expense of others. Passionarity in this concept is the innate ability of the human body to absorb from external environment energy and release it as work. L. Gumilyov defines it as the ability of an organism to change its environment. Those who possess this energy in abundance, the passionaries, play a significant role in the historical process. It is the passionaries who make a significant breakthrough in the course of historical events. Passionarity manifests itself primarily in the desire to change the habitat of ethnic groups. Its nature is energetic. The psyche only receives impulses that stimulate increased activity. The mechanism of processing the energy of the external environment into the energy of the body is the subject of physiology. Passionary explosions lead to micromutations in the body, and these changes are transmitted genetically. Passionary people are people outside the norm, very energetic, striving for change, aware of their difference (cultural, ethnic, mental). Energy emissions, according to L. Gumilyov, rarely occur - approximately two or three times in a thousand years. The points capture a zone that is elongated either in the meridian or in the latitudinal directions. It gives the impression that Earth streaked with a ray. Passionary push zones are narrow strips no more than three hundred meters wide. L. Gumilyov explains the creation of such empires as the Arab Caliphate (the Arabs experienced a passionary explosion in the 5th-6th centuries), the Mongol Empire (the Mongols in the 12th century) and others by the passionarity of ethnic groups. ethnic groups: French, German, English. Ethnic groups, according to L. Gumilyov, go through certain phases of development: rise, flourishing, breaking and attenuation. The duration of the existence of ethnic groups in history largely depends on the natural-geographical factor. As a result of ethnic contacts, in some cases new ethnic groups arise, in others this does not happen, which is explained by the complementarity of ethnic groups. If there is positive complementarity between ethnic groups, then assimilation proceeds naturally: they easily marry, assimilate each other's culture, there is no pathos of mutual destruction (for example, Russians and Mongols, Spaniards and Indians South America). Often this leads to the enrichment of ethnic groups (genetic, cultural, psychological, social, etc.). But there is also a negative complementarity between ethnic groups, assimilation is impossible, mestizos were destroyed. The negatively complementary ethnic groups are characterized by the pathos of mutual destruction. Mongols and Chinese can be an example: the conquest of the latter was accompanied by terrible cruelty on the part of the Mongols. Russians and Americanoids are the Indians of North America. One of the reasons for the sale of Russian America was precisely the pathos of mutual destruction that these peoples have in relation to each other. According to the concept of L. Gumilyov, the Russian ethnos had two stages of ethnogenesis. The first - V - XII centuries, the second - XIII century. and to the present. The logic of L. Gumilyov's reasoning is as follows. The Mongols, having become passionate, in the 12th century united around Temuchen, the future Genghis Khan, and created the greatest empire in a short time. Russians, by the beginning of the 13th century, were experiencing a phase of fracture of their ethnic group, which was manifested in the fall of moral values, the absence of a sense of patriotism, and the fragmentation of the state. Since Russians and Mongols are complementary ethnic groups, assimilation proceeded naturally and produced talented descendants. There was a borrowing of culture, language, elements of the social structure. The passionarity of the Mongols, which is transmitted genetically, allowed the Russians not only to preserve themselves as an ethnic group, but also to enter a new stage of ethnogenesis. At the same time, the Russians experienced changes in the physiological type. So, on Kiev icons - oval faces, thin features, bright eyes, etc., on Vladimir-Suzdal icons the type is different - round faces, soft unexpressed features, dark eyes, etc. Changes have also occurred in the mentality. This was reflected primarily in the language, in the perception of the surrounding world, in relation to nature. The social life of Russians has also changed. The Mongols had such a strong impact on the Russians, their fate in history, which allows us to talk about the pre-Mongolian and post-Mongolian eras of Russian history.
→ → Russian culture of the period of the Golden Horde yoke (XIV - XV centuries)The most difficult test for ancient Russian culture was yoke of the Golden Horde. Many Russian cities were burned, plundered, monuments of art, destroyed, artists were killed or taken prisoner. The leading role in the culture of this period was played by church. The Russian people managed to realize their strength and rise to the struggle for independence. The rise of national self-consciousness is largely associated with the activities of one of the most revered Russian saints - Sergius of Radonezh. It was he who inspired the Moscow prince Dmitry (Donskoy) to the Battle of Kulikovo. He laid the foundation of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, many monasteries and temples. Sergius and his students considered their main task spiritual education of the people.
Old Russian cities Novgorod And Pskov they did not know the Mongol-Tatar yoke, but they paid tribute to the Baskaks sent there. The artistic life continued here. Here appeared the story "The Legend of the City of Kitezh", which became a symbol of Russia, a prototype of the earthly paradise. The revival of ancient Russian cities begins in the middle of the XIV century. The need for defense consolidated Russian forces, contributed to the unification of Russian lands, the formation Russian nationality. In this process leading role played Moscow. The point is that by this time Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Turks, Constantinople as the center of Christian Orthodoxy fell and was renamed Istanbul. The establishment of Turkish rule in the Balkans was a terrible threat to the Slavs. All this strengthened the importance of Muscovite Rus' as center of Orthodoxy. The first defeat of the Tatars, inflicted by the regiments of Dmitry Donskoy in 1378, and then the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, was the end of slavery. The rapid unification of the Russian lands begins, which ends at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century under the rule of Moscow.
Trinity "Andrey Rublev"
The central element of ancient Russian art was iconography And temple architecture . The true masterpiece of this painting is the icon "Trinity" by Andrei Rublev. The names of such masters of icon painting as Alimpiy Pechersky and Daniil Cherny are also known. Their work is comparable to the masters of the Italian Renaissance. Stone churches are being built in Novgorod and Pskov: the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, the Church of the Assumption on the Volotovsky Field, the Church of Fyodor Stratilat and others. A local school of painting developed in Novgorod, the formation of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek. Being invited to Rus', he took part in the paintings of more than 40 churches. His painting style was original, unique, his icons, images of saints - Christ Pantokrator and others breathe with passion, spiritual energy and inner tension. Theophanes the Greek introduced the Russian masters to Byzantine art and became a huge phenomenon in the artistic life of Moscow. He painted the churches and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, worked together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets on the murals of the Cathedral of the Annunciation.
A certain influence on ancient Russian culture had connections with the nomadic East. Russians and nomads not only fought, but also directly traded among themselves. Khazars, Scythians-Sarmatians, cities of the Black Sea, Transcaucasia and Central Asia entered into cultural contacts with Muscovite Rus.
Mongolian influence on Russian culture evaluated by historians in different ways. So, for example, Karamzin believes that Moscow owes its greatness to the khans, and S.M. Solovyov believes that the Tatar-Mongols did not have a significant impact on the Russian internal administration. Of course, the Mongol yoke suspended the cultural development of the country: traditional ties with Byzantium were severed, destroyed and taken prisoner. a large number of population, destroyed cities. But only this Mongol invasion is not limited. Some historians (N.S. Trubetskoy) believe that the Moscow state arose thanks to Tatar yoke. Allegedly, the Mongol yoke brought the Russian people out of being small disparate tribal and urban principalities onto the wide road of statehood (B. Shiryaev). The Mongols, in his opinion, gave the conquered Russian lands the foundations of political culture, centralism, autocracy, serfdom. This led to the creation of a new ethnotype, the psychology of the Russian people. But there was no direct impact of Mongolian law on Russian law. The Mongols did not create any special code for Russia. Yes, and there was no systematic control of Russia by the Mon-Golo-Tatars. The Russian princes remained in power, they paid tribute to the Horde. But the very power of the princes has changed. From time to time, a Baskak was appointed to one or another Russian city for supervision, mainly for the collection of tribute. However, this was not a system; the Baskaks did not have certain functions.
Of course, the Mongol yoke led to loss of democratic governance in Russia. Ceased to exist city meetings, folk veche (with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov). But when the Russian vassals received from the khan the right to collect taxes for him themselves, the competence of the Grand Duke of Russia expanded. She grew even more Dmitry Donskoy, who became in fact a single and autonomous ruler. During the Mongol period, the great Russian prince became a stronger ruler than his predecessors. Thus, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was one of the factors formation of autocracy in Rus'.
Mongol-Tatars fortified in Rus' idea of sovereignty. At the same time, the power Mongol Khan was not limited by anything, was of an absolute, despotic character. And this principle of autocracy began to take root deeper and deeper into political culture Russian people. Power, standing at the center of everything, itself gives rise to law, is outside and above law. The king became not a legal concept, but a doctrinal one (power from).
Russian culture borrowed from the Mongols such traits of military prowess as courage, endurance, and the tactics of using cavalry in military affairs. Many Mongolian words related to money and taxation have been preserved in Russian, this was associated with the collection of tribute and various taxes. The Mongols did not have a significant impact on Russian education, because. they didn't have it themselves. The same can be said about Russian architecture and art.
Orthodoxy was an important factor in the preservation of Russian culture in these difficult times. The Mongols were tolerant and did not touch Orthodox churches. The reasons for this lie in the paganism of the Mongols, and the pagans consider all faiths to be the same. The Mongols themselves were extremely superstitious and considered shamans to be people endowed with supernatural properties. In one of the decrees of Genghis Khan there was an indication that all faiths should be tolerated.
What else did the Mongols of ancient Rus' give? Principle of etiquette of diplomatic negotiations. Acquaintance with the Mongol way of conducting diplomacy greatly helped the Russian princes in relations with the Eastern powers, especially with the successors of the Golden Horde. On the whole, the importance and significance of the Mongolian influence on Russian culture should not be exaggerated. By itself, Russian culture, having gone to the "steppe", has become a civilizing factor. Many Tatars eventually came to Christianity and became prominent figures in Russian culture, for example, Karamzin, Chaadaev, Bulgakov.
If during the period of Kievan Rus the basis of economic development was foreign trade and exploitation natural resources, then by the end of the XII-XIII centuries. the economy was reoriented to agricultural production within the framework of the feudal fiefdom. This had a negative impact on the level of entrepreneurial activity. Even more damage was caused by the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted almost two and a half centuries.
Villages and cities were destroyed, including a number of large economic centers: Vladimir, Ryazan, Tver, Suzdal, Kyiv. Was destroyed a significant part of the able-bodied population, the means of production. The payment of tribute meant the regular withdrawal of a significant part of the gross domestic product. The center of economic life has moved to the northeast; which significantly changed the economy and life. Traditional foreign economic relations have sharply decreased. The most important incentives for economic activity were undermined: prosperity could only increase the tribute to the Golden Horde. The destruction (during the first period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion) of most large trading cities, the periodic removal of skilled artisans to the Horde led to the decline of Russian crafts, and part of the industries was not revived (filigree, stone carving, etc.). Agriculture suffered much less than trade and crafts. Its extensive development continued, and as a result, it gradually became the leading branch of the economy. It was during the Mongol period that Russia became predominantly agrarian. The center of commercial entrepreneurship was preserved in the north-west, where Veliky Novgorod survived the Tatar-Mongol invasion. On the one hand, a certain role was played by those difficult natural conditions that hindered the development Agriculture in these parts. The forested, swampy area, in which meadows and deciduous trees were rarely found in those days, was absolutely impassable for the Tatar cavalry hordes, who did not find enough food for their horses. Twice the Tatars tried to conquer the Novgorod lands, and both times were unsuccessful. On the other hand, the Novgorodians, who had significant experience in dealing with eastern nomads, developed in the course of the Volga trade, were able to diplomatically establish relations with the Golden Horde. Gifts to the khans and their entourage allowed Novgorod to get rid of oppression and even maintain the former freedom of trade on the Volga. Practically without losing anything, during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Novgorod managed to achieve the highest prosperity, remaining in fact the only major intermediary between Western and North-Eastern Europe, and partly Asia.
Thus, the center of Russian entrepreneurship during the period of the Mongol-Tatar conquest was preserved in Veliky Novgorod. Novgorod trade was based on the following principles: the exploitation of the richest forest industries in Northern Rus'; buying up raw materials throughout Rus' for export to the Hanseatic cities; close ties with the Hansa; trade with the Volga region.
The forestry industries have become somewhat scarcer compared to early period, although furs still remained the main Russian commodity and often replaced money: they took fines with furs, paid for travel and trade duties, even made donations to monasteries and churches. Furs were used not only in foreign trade, but also in domestic markets. Fur clothing not only protected from the cold, but was also a sign of social status. So, the lower classes wore only goat or sheepskin furs, while the upper layers dressed in squirrel, fox, beaver, marten, sable fur coats. Thus, each type of fur had its own market segment, and there was a steady demand for each type in the domestic market. Of course, not only Novgorodians traded in such goods, but furs were concentrated mainly in their hands through an extensive network of trading agents and fishermen associated with them. The massive demand for furs in the domestic and foreign markets led to the impoverishment of resources in the Novgorod lands and gave rise to the need to colonize the north of the European part of Russia. As a result, Novgorodians came to the banks of the Northern Dvina, to the Vyatka and Pechora regions, to the Urals and even to Siberia. At the same time, Novgorodians rarely engaged in direct fishing outside the Novgorod lands, limiting themselves to buying, i.e. intermediary operations, which were fraught with considerable dangers. Conducting trade required significant skills in military affairs, and in the XIV-XV centuries. a stratum of merchant-warriors arose, called ushkuiniki, who on river oar boats made trips both to the northern territories and to the Volga.
Fisheries were of great importance for Novgorodians, since salted and dried fish was a convenient food product during long-distance trade trips. In other areas, meat was more widely consumed. The need of Novgorodians for salt for fish processing early led to the emergence of salt production. The salt mines were no less important than the fur trades.
As a result of the conquest by the German knights in the XIII century. the Baltic territories, which previously belonged to the Pomeranian and Polabian Slavs, were interrupted by the long-standing trade ties of the northern Russian cities. However, the vacated niche was soon filled by the trade and political union of the North German cities - the Great German Hansa, which was formed in the 13th century. initially around Cologne and then around Lübeck.
Hansa actively bought not only furs, but also bread, flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather, wool, sheepskins and other raw materials. The production of these goods in the Novgorod lands was insufficient even for their own consumption, and therefore local merchants actively bought them in other areas. Since the basis of the economic prosperity of Veliky Novgorod was intermediary trade, the preservation and development of trade relations with the Russian principalities was of great importance. Grain, wax, hemp and honey were bought up mainly in the Dnieper region, flax - in the upper reaches of the Volga, as well as in the Smolensk and Pskov lands, leather, wool, sheepskin - partly on the Dnieper, but mainly from the Tatars and other nomads. Trade remained predominantly barter. Novgorod merchants brought furs, salt and items of the Hanseatic trade, mainly metal products and fabrics, wines, to domestic markets. At the same time, imported goods were highly valued. Being monopolists, Novgorod merchants arbitrarily set prices.
Internal: trade remained, as before, under the auspices of the church, which continued to maintain order in trade, moderation of interest on loans.
Trade people were still not singled out as a special class. Not only professionals were engaged in trade, but also princes, clergy, even peasants. Moreover, engaging in trade significantly increased social status: for an offense inflicted on a trader, the fine was doubled. Merchants had experience of communicating with foreigners and therefore often participated in embassies. As a rule, they had experience in military affairs.
Novgorodians were forced to make extensive use of credit in domestic trade. Small merchants from Russian principalities were used by Novgorod wholesalers and as trading agents for buying up raw materials. In the event of a shortage of own capital, the agents needed a loan. Credit transactions were certified by rumors (witnesses) and the clergy. Violation of obligations was considered a sin, therefore, non-repayment of loans in domestic trade was practically not observed. Obligations to the Gentiles were carried out less strictly, and therefore relations with them were more wary. Being very interested in buying up raw materials, the Hanseatics were forced to lend it, but, given the danger of not repaying the loan, they raised the price of goods and used other, indirect means of reducing risk. Apparently, due to frequent non-returns, soon (the charter of the German court) of the XIII century. contains a ban on both lending and borrowing from Russians.
Novgorodians, in turn, were also not always satisfied with the quality of Hanseatic goods: wines, beer, jams, even salt. However, the great benefit from intermediary trade made relations with the Hansa attractive to Novgorodians. The closest ties were established with the Hanseatic city of Lübeck. The Lubecks founded a large trading yard in Novgorod, called Petershof. Here was an elected representative - the alderman of the farmstead, who was essentially a consul, as well as the alderman of St. Peter (after the name of the German church in the farmstead), who was in charge of the economic part, the center of which was the church of St. Peter. The order of interaction between the Hanseatic and Novgorod merchants was strictly regulated by agreements, with the main Hanseatic office in Novgorod acting as an intermediary. The Hanseatic guests were divided into summer guests who came by sea and winter guests who came by land. In 1344, fearing the strengthening of Novgorod's ties with German cities and possible competition, the Lübeck Senate decided to stop overland trade. There were no winter guests in Novgorod.
Novgorodians were supposed to meet summer guests on the island of Kotlin at the mouth of the Neva. A special bailiff with pilots was sent there, and they led the Hanseatic ships up the Neva and Lake Ladoga.
The charter of the Hanseatic trading court, which regulated the relationship between the Hansa and Novgorod, was a set of acts called skra. The first time the skra was composed at the beginning of the thirteenth century; for the second time at the end of the 13th century; in the third - in the middle of the XIV century. In addition, the Hanseatics were guided by a letter in Latin (the so-called Latin letter), which was a kind of standard of Lübeck law, on the basis of which the representatives of the Hanse made agreements with one state or another. Naturally, the treaties drawn up on the basis of the Latin letter resolved all issues in favor of the Hanseatic people, with which Novgorod could not agree. The privileges of the Hansa in Novgorod were less than in Sweden, Denmark or England. This was explained by the fact that the government of Novgorod did not have credit obligations to the Hansa, like the kings of England and Norway, on the one hand; on the other hand, the benefit of Novgorod trade for the Hansa consisted precisely in mediation with the East, which other countries did not provide.
At the same time, relations with the Hansa were legally formalized in accordance with the acts of the secret and numerous agreements approved by the Novgorod government. At the same time, the Hanseatics. they had significant privileges: they had the right not to let the Russians into their courtyard, loans were issued only with the consent of the main Hanseatic office and the Novgorod authorities. The leadership of the Hansa to a large extent regulated the activities of their merchants. In order to keep high prices, the volumes of imports of goods and money were limited. So, the Hanseatic people were allowed to import money in the amount of no more than 1 thousand marks, so that there would be no temptation to raise prices when buying Novgorod goods, even if it seemed profitable. In its turn. Novgorod allowed German merchants only wholesale trade, and only as an exception, on a small scale, retail trade was allowed for teenagers (for educational purposes).
The methods of trade were chosen very simple: goods were bought from the Novgorodians on the spot at higher prices than overseas, i.e. used a completely modern method of price competition. Thus, two goals were achieved, the first was to ruin the Gothic and Pomeranian trade, the other was to wean the Novgorodians from navigation, building ships, and independent sailing to foreign cities. Gradually, these goals were achieved.
The monopoly of the Hansa and the restriction of independent trade in the West prompted the Novgorodians to concentrate their efforts in the East. Despite Tatar-Mongol invasion, already in 1265, Novgorod merchants traded widely on the Volga and even had permanent clerks and permanent shops in the capital of the Golden Horde - Capae. The furs that were used there were still imported to the Horde. in great demand, as well as European goods: lead, tin, linen, cloth, locksmith products, walrus ivory. Bread, steppe and Asian goods were brought from the Horde: spices, dried fruits, flowers, medicinal herbs (aloe, camphor), silk and satin fabrics, gems, Jewelry, pearls, beads.
Other western Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation were less active in foreign trade. Smolensk, Vitebsk and Polotsk lands traded mainly along the Western Dvina. IN middle of XII V. The Bremen ships that accidentally got into the mouth of the Dvina were convinced that it was possible to conduct profitable trade there, and founded the trading posts of Ukskul and Dalen. Through these trading posts and Dvina trade fell into the hands of the Hanseatic. Salt, malt, herring, wine, beer, silk, linen, etc. went from Riga to Russian lands. By the 15th century. even Moscow joined this trade, using basically two ways of promoting goods: the first way: Moscow - Smolensk - Grodno - Augustovo - Lik - Wildminnen - Koenigsberg; second route: Moscow - Pskov - Riga - Curonian Lagoon - Memel (meaning the Neman River) - Schaaken - Koenigsberg.
A significant role in the economic development of Rus' was played by the transfer of the center of economic and political life from the southern regions to the northeast - in the interfluve of the Oka and the Volga (the land of the Vyatichi). New shopping centers (Moscow, Kostroma, Ryazan, Tver) arose and grew rapidly in the 11th-12th centuries. They were located on profitable trade routes and were relatively less ruined. As a result of the decline and plunder of the southern lands, it was to the northeast that refugees poured in a stream, finding settled land there. Local princes showed interest in receiving and resettling migrants. This favored the further colonization of the northeast, and then the north, the population increased, the plowing expanded, crafts developed. In the future, it was these lands that became the stronghold of the new Russian state and the center of the struggle against the Golden Horde.
Before the fall of Veliky Novgorod, Moscow could not become the center of Rus''s foreign trade, but already from the 14th century. it was a significant center of domestic trade. According to the testimonies of foreigners, Muscovites had an extraordinary propensity for petty trade, almost every resident of Moscow traded something. The markets of Moscow were extremely crowded and lively. Connections with the East have given rise to some inclination towards Oriental luxury, Moscow has become a major consumer of Asian goods.
The trading rules of the Muscovites were in many respects similar to the trade procedure of the Novgorodians, but it was believed that the Moscow merchants were more conscientious, less mercenary. Muscovites showed interest in trade and handicraft activities, trying to use foreign experience, especially Asian. This was the key to the future commercial prosperity of Moscow, which relied not only on trade, but also on production activities. At the same time, handicraft industries developed a culture of work, and, accordingly, a general culture.
After the establishment of peaceful relations with the Tatars in the south, the Don route acquired great importance. So Muscovite Rus established trade relations with the Italians who traded on the Tanya route. Goods were sent to the city of Dankov on the Don and further along the Don to Azov, some even ended up in Kafa (Feodosia). The Don route played an important role in Moscow's trade with Crimean Tatars. South Tatar trade was concentrated in the city of Surozh and was of great importance for Moscow. Guests from Surozh enjoyed significant privileges in Moscow. The heyday of the Don trade came in the 15th century, but it did not last long. The fall, apparently, was associated, firstly, with the increased robbery attacks on the Don by the Ryazan and Azov Cossacks; secondly, with the transfer of centers of Italian trade with Asia in connection with the opening of new trade routes by Europeans. The Nogais continued to use the Don route, delivering mainly horses to Moscow. Nogai trade was important for Moscow, linking Rus' with the peoples of the Caucasus and even with Persia. Trade along the Northern Dvina and in the northeast has not yet received significant development and during the period under review was purely local in nature. Rivers remained the main means of communication. The lack of stone was the reason for the lack of paved roads, such as in Western Europe. Overland freight transportation was possible only in winter along frozen rivers and in the steppes. At the same time, additional difficulties arose due to the lack of horses. Trade was also hampered by the fact that, overcoming desert territories, merchants could be attacked by robber gangs or nomads every time. Do not forget that the period under review is a time of unrest and civil strife. All these factors significantly hampered the development of trade relations and reduced entrepreneurial activity.
With the exception of Novgorod and northern lands, in all Russian lands, agriculture was the main source of prosperity. Relocation to Upper Volga region from the more fertile and warm Dnieper region required new approaches to the organization of the economy and life, left its mark on the nature of labor and trade. Rural settlements and settlements became smaller than in Kievan Rus, where villages were, as a rule, large. It was necessary to win islands from nature for agricultural processing. Since the forests in the north were more dense, it was necessary to return to the slash-and-shift farming system in a more complex form than before. The abundance of swamps made it even more difficult to find suitable sites. The loamy soil required fertilizer, and the peasant was forced to burn the forest in order to relatively short term improve the fertility of the soil, and then set off in search of a new place. This led to a shift to the northeast, away from the nomadic raids and the extortions of the Golden Horde.
It should be noted that the colonization was predominantly peaceful: in the order not of conquest, but of the settlement of free territories, on which there were only rarely islands inhabited by the Chud - the people of the Finno-Ugric group.
At the same time, the processes of securing land ownership for service people intensified. If in Kievan Rus the service of the prince was rewarded through the feeding system, and by the XII century. cash salary (due to the fact that foreign trade provided significant funds), then during the period of specific principalities, these income items became extremely unreliable due to the impoverishment of the economy of both the princes and the population. The search for more stable sources of income led to the development of land ownership. There were incentives to stop the migration of the population, to make it more sedentary and secure on the ground.
The low fertility of the soil forced the search for additional sources of life support. Forests and rivers provided raw materials that could be processed during the long autumn-winter period. Thus, the conditions for the development of local rural crafts, which later became known as handicrafts, have long been formed. Although the decline and stagnation in the development of urban crafts and trade gradually pushed agriculture, which continued to develop, into the main branch of the Russian economy, the enterprising population mastered new types of activities, such as tar smoking, salt production, ironwork, etc. At the same time, hunting and beekeeping.
Constant movement, new conditions of existence, the volatility and unpredictability of nature have given rise to new features of the nature of labor: on the one hand, this is observation and caution necessary in unfamiliar conditions, and on the other hand, a willingness to take risks and play luck, which is usually called " hope for a Russian chance." The inconstancy of the external environment made the concept of labor discipline relative, but brought up labor ingenuity and endurance, unpretentiousness and patience. These newly acquired in the XIII-XV centuries. qualities of the Russian character to a certain extent are found to this day in Russian economic culture.
A significant increase in productivity was greatly hindered by the lack of horses and livestock, which was observed almost everywhere in the Russian lands. Only after 1380, when the pressure of the Mongol-Tatar yoke decreased, crafts began to revive.
Mills appeared only in the 14th century; before that, grain was ground on hand millstones. Vegetable growing and horticulture developed, but had a purely consumer value. Fisheries also developed rapidly and everywhere. Ownership of waters and fisheries was combined with the right to land ownership.
In the ancient Russian state, there was no unified monetary system, although there were more minted money in circulation by the end of the period under review, since from the 14th century. coinage resumed. In the Principality of Moscow, Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy began to mint the Tatar silver coin - denga, then other principalities joined the process. dominant monetary unit in the Russian principalities became a silver ruble, obtained from a silver stick chopped into small pieces and flattened. The coins were of irregular shape, weighing in most cases about 0.25 pounds of silver, but sometimes much less. Therefore, when concluding transactions, money was necessarily weighed. The ruble contained 100 money, 6 money was equal to altyn, in one money there were 4 polushki. Foreign coins were used in circulation, which were accepted by weight at the rate of 0.25 pounds of silver per ruble, gold was estimated at 12 times more expensive.
Numerous principalities gave rise to many trade duties. The main type of duties was washed, i.e. payment from a cart or boat for a pass in a certain place, a kind of customs duty. In addition, for trade at churches, and this was a common thing, a fee was charged for the right to trade - tithe (10% of the value of the goods). The collectors of myt were called mytniks, and the tithe was collected by persons elected from among the merchants - foremen. Myto was going to different places several times and it was small. The right to collect myta belonged to the princes, but they often transferred or donated this right to the church and even to private individuals. The size of myt could vary greatly. In addition to myt and tithe, during the time of the Tatar-Mongols, a tax was levied on the capital - tamga. The size of the tamga was also not the same, but, as a rule, it amounted to 7 money per ruble from the sales volume. For evasion from paying the myta, a penalty was levied, called "washed", for evading the payment of tamga - "protamozhye".
A number of duties were levied not to the treasury, but for the improvement of trade itself: for the creation of warehouses, scales; for payment and maintenance of guards at warehouses; for branding services, etc. Such duties were usually calculated from the natural volume of the goods, but partially also from the cost.
The duties were subdivided into Darage and customs. The first were paid at the outposts, while the tamga was not collected; customs - directly in the cities along with tamga. Darazh duties were taken from transit goods, customs - only when the goods entered the market.
Only the clergy were exempted from paying duties, the rest of the merchants, regardless of class, were required to pay.
The fee system was extremely complex and burdened not so much with the size of the fee as with the variety of types and sizes. Merchants could never plan in advance the amount of taxes and therefore inflated the price in order to remain profitable in any case.
In foreign trade, things were easier. Foreigners did not impose duties on Russian goods at all because of their high profitability, agreeing to pay export duties on Russian goods. The Hansa, which itself paid import duties, did not impose duties on Russian goods either. Duties on the Dvina, on the Don and on the Volga were not levied on either imported or exported goods. The Tatars were content with gifts from Russian merchants, they did not charge any duties.
Foreigners in Russian lands paid some special taxes. All duties were paid by foreigners meekly in view of the extraordinary profitability of Russian trade. High profits were provided due to the difference in prices between Russia and Europe, which arose as a result of the artificial isolation of Rus' created by the Hansa.
Economic and social upheavals of the XIII century. for a long time they led to the decline of trade and crafts, but gradually life was getting better, which was largely facilitated by the preserved trade relations with the northern Russian lands. In the Russian Volga region by the XIV century. important shopping mall became Nizhny Novgorod where the Tatars actively traded.
The inability to clearly predict the results of economic activity has formed a tendency to analyze the past rather than to set goals and determine ways to achieve them.
The gradual restoration of commodity production, the rise of the great principalities and cities created in the second half of the XIV century. conditions for the resumption of Russian coinage.
Thus, during the period Tatar-Mongol yoke and feudal fragmentation, entrepreneurial activity did not stop, but continued to develop, adapting to new conditions. The shift of the economic center to the northwest stimulated the interaction of disparate Russian lands, and also made it possible to create a system of relationships with Asian partners. Preservation of the foreign trade center with Western Europe in Veliky Novgorod and Pskov also contributed to the preservation and development of the entrepreneurial spirit, although there trade was limited mainly to mediation.
The primary concern of church rulers was the restoration and multiplication of the material property of the church.
This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the Mongol-Tatar conquerors endowed the church in Rus', as elsewhere in the countries they conquered, with great privileges. The Church was exempted from paying tribute to the Horde. The possessions of the church became inviolable. The conquerors understood the power of church influence and, not without reason, expected to receive their ally in her person. The privileged position of the church was one of the most important reasons why the church in the XIV-XV centuries, especially in North-Eastern Rus', became the largest feudal landowner. The acquisitiveness of the church has always been justified by "divine" interests. In the acts that secured land holdings for the church, it was usually written that the land did not belong to the monastery itself, but to the “Most Pure Mother of God”, “Holy Trinity”, etc. Letter of grant from the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg Ivanovich Olgov to the monastery of the second half of the XIV century. was richly decorated with images of Christ, the Virgin, apostles, saints; this expressed the sacredness of the monastic ownership of the land. The lands of monasteries, the metropolitan house, episcopal sees, cathedral churches grew in different ways. a significant role in the growth of church landownership they had princely grants, however, it should be borne in mind that in many cases princely letters only formalized the possessions of churchmen on the peasant lands they had already captured.
The formation of the Russian nationality is associated with the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the creation of a centralized Russian state around Moscow in the 14th-15th centuries. This state included the northern and northeastern Old Russian lands, where, in addition to the descendants of the Slavs - Vyatichi, Krivichi and Slovenes, there were many settlers from other regions. In the 14-15 centuries. these lands began to be called Rus, in the 16th century. - Russia. Neighbors called the country Muscovy. The names "Great Rus" in application to the lands inhabited by Russians, "Little Rus" - to Ukrainian, "Belaya Rus" - to Belarusian, appeared from the 15th century. As early as the beginning of the 20th century, along with the ancient name, Russians were sometimes called Great Russians. The colonization of the northern lands (Baltic, Zavolochye) by the Slavs, which began in antiquity, Verkh. The Volga and Kama regions continued in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 16th-17th centuries. The Russian population appeared in the Middle and Lower Volga regions and in Siberia. The Russians here came into close contact with other peoples, exerted economic and cultural influence on them, and themselves perceived best achievements their economy and culture.
