The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused great damage to the Russian state. Enormous damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Rus'. The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. Russian cities were subjected to mass destruction. Simplified, and sometimes disappeared, many crafts. Tens of thousands of people were killed or driven into slavery. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongol-Tatars were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The constant struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization, as well as a lower level of cultural and historical development of the Tatars. In addition, the Russian lands were unsuitable for breeding nomadic cattle breeding. The main meaning of enslavement was to receive tribute from the conquered people.
The relatively easy conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars is explained by the fragmentation and disunity of the Russian principalities, as well as the superiority of the martial art of the Mongols.
Before the invasion The development of Russian culture in XI - early XIII century is a continuous progressive process, which on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion reached its highest level: in painting - Novgorod frescoes, in architecture - Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in literature - chronicles and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
During the period of the Tatar Mongolian yoke a new psychological condition a people that might be called a "national depression". This national mood gave rise to a fairly extensive literature - "Tatar" episodes of the chronicle, legends about various events Tatar invasion, partly also included in the annals by special articles - from the time of Batu, then Mamai, Tokhtamysh, Tamerlane. The era of Tatar domination gave rise to folk epic with a new epic character - "Tatar dog". This time became a time of general decline in Rus', a time of narrow feelings and petty interests, petty, insignificant characters. In the midst of external and internal disasters, people became timid and cowardly, fell into despondency, left high thoughts and aspirations ... People closed themselves in the circle of their private interests and left there only to take advantage at the expense of others
10. Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands under the authority of Moscow. The process of centralization of Russian lands.
The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke became in the XIII-XV centuries. main national goal. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of the Russian lands. The question was being decided - around which center the Russian lands would unite.
Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east, it was covered from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west - by the principality of Tver and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were difficult for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of people to the lands of the Moscow principality. Moscow was a center of developed handicrafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes, which served both for trade and for military operations. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.
The first "senior prince" to receive a label from Batu was Alexander Nevsky. Despite his merits in the past, Alexander Nevsky skillfully pursued the policy of the Mongol-Tatars, especially in matters of tribute collection, suppressing by force the speeches of other specific princes who were dissatisfied with his policies and new system authorities. At the same time, Batu, until his death in 1255, in every possible way contributed to the strengthening of the sole power of Alexander Nevsky as the sole Grand Duke of Rus' and protege of the Golden Horde.
After the death of Alexander Nevsky in 1263, the process of centralization of Russian lands proceeded in the following way:
The transformation of the label for a great reign from elective to hereditary and its gradual assignment to the descendants of Alexander Nevsky;
Elevations of Moscow, where the descendants of Alexander Nevsky reigned;
Gradual expansion of Moscow, incorporation into the Moscow Principality, led by the descendants of Alexander Nevsky, other specific principalities;
The transformation of the specific Moscow principality into the Muscovite state, dominating all the principalities of northeastern Rus'.
Eastern customs spread uncontrollably in Rus' during the time of the Mongols, bringing with them new culture. Has changed in a general way clothes: from white long Slavic shirts, long trousers, they switched to golden caftans, to colored trousers, to morocco boots.
A great change in everyday life made that time in the position of women:
the domestic life of a Russian woman came from the East. In addition to these big features everyday Russian life of that time, abacus, felt boots, coffee, dumplings, the monotony of Russian and Asian carpentry and carpentry tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlin of Beijing and Moscow - all this is the influence of the East
church bells, this is a specific Russian feature, they came from Asia, from there the Yamsky bells. Before the Mongols, churches and monasteries did not use bells, but “beat and riveted”. The foundry art was then developed in China, and bells could come from there.
Influence Mongol conquest on cultural development traditionally in historical writings defined as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation set in in Rus', expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc.
Recognizing these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view.
To understand the consequences beneficial influence Mongol domination of Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongolian state as public education. It owes its origin and existence to the brute and unbridled power of the numerous and wild "horde", whose leaders had the only method of governing the conquered peoples was the most severe terror.
If we talk about the notorious "cruelty" of the Mongols, then it should be noted that among the successors of Genghis Khan on the imperial throne there were undoubtedly enlightened and humane monarchs. According to all researchers who study the issue from primary sources, "the rule of the Chingizids was useful for their subjects, and the Chingizids were above their century in education." The founder of the empire himself, in that cruel time saturated with human blood, managed to leave a saying that can be attributed to the best achievements human culture: "I respect and honor all four (Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed) and I ask whoever of them is the greatest in truth to become my helper."
Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West. In the Muslim lands devastated by the war, scientists and architects lived under the Mongols, if not to Golden, then to Silver Age, and the XIV century. in China was the century of flourishing of literature and the century of brilliance - the century of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. This time can be safely called the Golden Age, especially under the enlightened Emperor Kublai, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Only after the Mongol conquest could European preachers of Christianity risk appearing in distant Asian countries. In the XIII century. In China, for the first time, papal legates appeared, who enjoyed the patronage of the Mongol monarchs. In 1299, the first Catholic Church, and proceeded to translate the New Testament into Mongolian.
In the Volga region, the remains of houses with marble lining, water pipes, tombstones, parts of silver things, Venetian glass testify to the life of the Mongol-Tatar cultural relatives of the 13th-14th centuries. And relations with other peoples of the East.
The power of the Golden Horde state tradition was not exhausted in the "great century" of the Golden Horde. A major factor is the twofold revival of the state-political tradition of the Golden Horde. The first of them can be called Timur's revival (late XIV - early XV centuries), the second - Mengli-Giveev or Crimean-Ottoman XV-XVIII centuries. Interesting information about the life and way of life of the Golden Horde capitals. The city near the village of Selitrenogo is the old Saray, the city near the Tsar's settlement is the new Saray (founded by Uzbek).
The hydrotechnical irrigation facilities of Novy Saray are remarkable. The city was crossed by canals and irrigated with ponds (water was also carried to individual houses and workshops). One of the basin systems was located on the slope of the Syrt. Fall, the water was used by the plants located near the dams. Remains of iron driving wheels were found. Old Saray in the time of Uzbek was mainly an industrial center: the ruins of furnaces, a brick factory, entire towns of ceramic workshops. Also in New Sarai, the remains of the mint, jewelry, driving shoe, tailor and other workshops were discovered. Remains of goods originating from all parts of the Mongolosphere, such as coffee, were found in the trading quarter, which rejects the opinion that coffee came into use only in the 17th century. Spruce logs are found in wooden structures (the nearest spruce forests are several hundred kilometers away from Saray). In both cities there were areas consisting entirely of brick buildings. The residential buildings of the Golden Horde city were technically well equipped and landscaped: beautiful floors and a curious heating system testify to cleanliness, warmth and comfort. In the vicinity were located palaces surrounded by gardens. On the outskirts there were tents of steppe dwellers who migrated to the city.
The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of the Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding rites is compiled in the so-called "five-ton", or "Indochinese" scale. This gamut exists, as the only one, among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins, among the Bashkirs, among Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indo-China, it still dominates. This unbroken line from the East ends at the Great Russians.
The same originality is represented by another kind of art - dancing. While in the West in the dance there should be a couple - a gentleman and a lady, in the dances of Russians and Eastern peoples it doesn't matter. They dance alone, and when they are a couple, the presence of a lady is not necessary, two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so that the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in Western dances. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, a tendency to immobility of the head is noticeable, especially in women. In purely oriental dances, the legs move on toes, to the rhythm, and the body and hands dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of the movements of the body and arms, and not in the dancing of the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.
The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of the tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the "Turanian" and steppe "Horde" epic.
Many Christian burials have been found in Novy Saray. There are also ruins dated to the ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.
The main share of the Mongol yoke on Russia belongs to the field of spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed a sigh of relief during the rule of the Mongols.
All Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not suffer any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. IN hard times Under the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity, which opposed itself to the abomination of its conquerors and oppressors, subsequently served as a powerful means of national unification and national-political liberation from the yoke of the “impious Hagarians”.
The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, placing the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the conduct of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who constantly needed money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and landed property and could provide asylum to many people who sought protection from princely tyranny. In general, the Orthodox clergy enjoyed honor and patronage among the Mongols. In 1270, Khan Mengu-Timur issued the following decree: “in Rus', no one will dare to shame the churches and offend metropolitans and archimandrites subordinate to him, archpriests, priests, etc.” Khan Uzbek even expanded the privilege of the church: “All ranks Orthodox Church all monks are subject only to the court of an Orthodox metropolitan, not by any means to officials of the Horde and not to a princely court. Whoever robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Whoever dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult a church, a monastery, a chapel is subject to death without distinction, whether he is Russian or Mongol. May the Russian clergy feel themselves to be free servants of God.”
Of the few historical facts one can judge the attitude of the Golden Horde towards Orthodoxy. Saint Alexander Nevsky, realizing that Russia was unable to fight the Mongols, began to serve the khan not out of fear, but out of conscience. Only in alliance with the Mongols could he defend himself against the onslaught of militant Catholicism against the Orthodox East. Otherwise, the fact of the transition of Russians to Latinism would have to be recorded in history. In this historical role The Golden Horde was not only the patroness, but also the defender of Russian Orthodoxy. The yoke of the Mongols - pagans and Muslims - not only did not touch the soul of the Russian people, Orthodox faith, but even saved her.
To characterize the attitude of the Mongols to other religions of their subordinate peoples, the decree of Genghis Khan, the founder of all the Golden Horde khans and the founder of the policy of absolute religious tolerance, is interesting. This decree was given in the name of the head of the Taoist religious teachings, Chang Chun, called spiritually qiu-shen-hsien. “The Most Holy Command of King Genghis, Command to the chiefs of all places. What sketes and houses of asceticism do Qiu-shen-xian have, in which they read books daily and pray to Heaven, let them pray for the long life of the king for many years. May they be delivered from all large and small duties, dues and taxes, sketes and houses of monks belonging to Qiu-shen-xian in all places, may they be delivered from duties, taxes and dues. Outside of this, whoever falsely calls himself a monk, refuses his duties under an illegal pretext, informs the authorities to punish at his discretion and upon receipt of this Command, let him not dare to change and oppose it. Why is this testimony given?
Having noted this, it can be established as a historical fact that the Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of the culture of the old world.
In preparing this work, materials from the site were used.
Eastern customs spread uncontrollably in Rus' during the time of the Mongols, bringing with them a new culture. Clothing changed in a general way: from white long Slavic shirts, long trousers, they switched to golden caftans, to colored trousers, to morocco boots.
A great change in everyday life made that time in the position of women:
the domestic life of a Russian woman came from the East. In addition to these major features of everyday Russian life of that time, abacus, felt boots, coffee, dumplings, the uniformity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlin of Beijing and Moscow - all this is the influence of the East
Church bells, this is a specific Russian feature, came from Asia, from there the Yamsky bells. Before the Mongols, churches and monasteries did not use bells, but "beat and riveted." The foundry art was then developed in China, and bells could come from there.
The influence of the Mongol conquest on cultural development is traditionally defined in historical writings as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation set in in Rus', expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc.
While recognizing the existence of these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view.
In order to understand the consequences of the beneficial influence of the Mongol rule on Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongol state as a state entity. It owes its origin and existence to the brute and unbridled power of the numerous and wild "horde", whose leaders had the only method of governing the conquered peoples was the most severe terror.
If we talk about the notorious "cruelty" of the Mongols, then it should be noted that among the successors of Genghis Khan on the imperial throne there were undoubtedly enlightened and humane monarchs. In the opinion of all researchers who study the issue from primary sources, "the rule of the Chingizids was useful for their subjects, and the Chingizids were above their century in education." The founder of the empire himself, in that cruel time saturated with human blood, managed to leave a saying that can be ranked among the best achievements of human culture: "I respect and honor all four (Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed) and I ask which of them is in truth the greatest to be my assistant."
Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to the Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West. In the Muslim lands devastated by the war, scientists and architects lived under the Mongols, if not to the Golden, then to the Silver Age, but the XIV century. in China was the century of flourishing of literature and the century of brilliance - the century of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. This time can be safely called the Golden Age, especially under the enlightened Emperor Kublai, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Only after the Mongol conquest could European preachers of Christianity venture to appear in distant Asian countries. In the XIII century. In China, for the first time, papal legates appeared, who enjoyed the patronage of the Mongol monarchs. In 1299, the first Catholic church was built in Beijing, and the translation of the New Testament into Mongolian began.
In the Volga region, the remains of houses with marble lining, water pipes, tombstones, parts of silver things, Venetian glass testify to the life of the Mongol-Tatar cultural relatives of the 13th-14th centuries. And relations with other peoples of the East.
The power of the Golden Horde state tradition was not exhausted in the "great century" of the Golden Horde. A major factor is the twofold revival of the state-political tradition of the Golden Horde. The first of them can be called Timur's revival (the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th centuries), the second - Mengli-Giveev or the Crimean-Ottoman XV-XVIII centuries. Interesting information about the life and way of life of the Golden Horde capitals. The city near the village of Selitrenogo is the old Saray, the city near the Tsar's settlement is the new Saray (founded by Uzbek).
The hydrotechnical irrigation facilities of Novy Saray are remarkable. The city was crossed by canals and irrigated with ponds (water was also carried to individual houses and workshops). One of the basin systems was located on the slope of the Syrt. Fall, the water was used by the plants located near the dams. Remains of iron driving wheels were found. Old Saray in the time of Uzbek was mainly an industrial center: the ruins of furnaces, a brick factory, entire towns of ceramic workshops. Also in New Sarai, the remains of the mint, jewelry, driving shoe, tailor and other workshops were discovered. Remains of goods originating from all parts of the Mongolosphere, such as coffee, were found in the trading quarter, which rejects the opinion that coffee came into use only in the 17th century. Spruce logs are found in wooden structures (the nearest spruce forests are several hundred kilometers away from Saray). In both cities there were areas consisting entirely of brick buildings. The residential buildings of the Golden Horde city were technically well equipped and landscaped: beautiful floors and a curious heating system testify to cleanliness, warmth and comfort. In the vicinity were located palaces surrounded by gardens. On the outskirts there were tents of steppe dwellers who migrated to the city.
The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of the Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding rites is composed in the so-called "five-ton" or "Indochinese" scale. This gamut exists, as the only one, among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins, among the Bashkirs, among the Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indo-China, it still dominates. This unbroken line from the East ends at the Great Russians.
The same originality is represented by another kind of art - dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in the dance - a gentleman and a lady, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. They dance alone, and when they are a couple, the presence of a lady is not necessary, two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so that the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in Western dances. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, a tendency to immobility of the head is noticeable, especially in women. In purely oriental dances, the legs move on toes, to the rhythm, and the body and hands dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of the movements of the body and arms, and not in the dancing of the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.
The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of the tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the "Turanian" and steppe "Horde" epic.
Many Christian burials have been found in Novy Saray. There are also ruins dated to the ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.
The main share of the Mongol yoke on Russia belongs to the field of spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed a sigh of relief during the rule of the Mongols.
All Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. In the difficult time of the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity, which opposed itself to the filth of its conquerors and oppressors, subsequently served as a powerful means of national unification and national-political liberation from the yoke of "impious Hagarians" .
The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, placing the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the conduct of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who constantly needed money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and landed property and could provide shelter to many people who sought protection from princely arbitrariness. In general, the Orthodox clergy enjoyed honor and patronage among the Mongols. In 1270, Khan Mengu-Timur issued the following decree: "No one in Rus' dares to shame churches and offend metropolitans and archimandrites subordinate to him, archpriests, priests, etc." Khan Uzbek even expanded the privilege of the church: “All the ranks of the Orthodox Church, all monks, are subject only to the court of the Orthodox metropolitan, not by the officials of the Horde and not to the princely court. Anyone who robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Who dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult the church , a monastery, a chapel, that one is subject to death without distinction, whether he is Russian or Mongol. May the Russian clergy feel like free servants of God."
From the few historical facts one can judge the attitude of the Golden Horde towards Orthodoxy. Saint Alexander Nevsky, realizing that Russia was unable to fight the Mongols, began to serve the khan not out of fear, but out of conscience. Only in alliance with the Mongols could he defend himself against the onslaught of militant Catholicism against the Orthodox East. Otherwise, the fact of the transition of Russians to Latinism would have to be recorded in history. In this historical role, the Golden Horde was not only the patroness, but also the defender of Russian Orthodoxy. The yoke of the Mongols - pagans and Muslims - not only did not touch the soul of the Russian people, their Orthodox faith, but even saved it.
To characterize the attitude of the Mongols to other religions of their subordinate peoples, the decree of Genghis Khan, the founder of all the Golden Horde khans and the founder of the policy of absolute religious tolerance, is interesting. This decree was given in the name of the head of the Taoist religious teachings, Chang Chun, called spiritually qiu-shen-hsien. "The Most Holy Order of King Genghis, the Command to the chiefs of all places. What monasteries and ascetic houses do Qiu-shen-xian have, in which they read books daily and pray to Heaven, let them pray for the long life of the king for many years. Let them be delivered from all big and small duties, dues and taxes, sketes and houses of monks belonging to Qiu-shen-xian in all places, may they be delivered from duties, taxes and dues. to the authorities to punish at their discretion and upon receipt of this Command, so that they do not dare to change and oppose it. For which this certificate was given.
RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14th-16th centuries INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOLIAN YOKE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE cultural property. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Rus', the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost. During feudal fragmentation local centers of chronicle writing were formed, as well as literary art schools. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared. Involved in the system of world trade relations through Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones. On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus. Chronicle Writing Beginning in the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers were Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver. Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. Leading place gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike the local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Rus', here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is justified. In the middle of the 15th century, a brief The World History- chronograph. Rus''S ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them. The first cycle of epics is a revision and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state. The second cycle of epics is Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies. The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich. Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tales-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the ruin of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults. RUSSIAN LITERATURE In the tradition of lamentation, the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” was written (only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works devoted to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky." Whole line hagiographic works dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. This is the life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'. The military story Zadonshchina, compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazanets, modeled on the word about Igor's regiment. From here the images were borrowed, literary style, separate turns, expressions. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo. This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, Moscow is glorified as state center Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language. In the genre of secular literature, Afanasy Nikitin's Journey beyond the Three Seas is written. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It recounts the impressions of travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary. THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN Rus' The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people. A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant. With education centralized state increased the need for literate, educated people. In addition, it was necessary to strengthen the authority of the church and introduce uniformity in church books. And for this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius, with the support of Ivan IV, initiated book printing. In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. The first published book is the Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church. In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov. GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY. The reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Rus' reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support. Ivan Peresvetov (Russian nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state are the dominance of the nobles, their unjust judgment and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is actively flashed. Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were really interested in military service closer to the tsar. Another position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Chosen Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people Russ should help her. The streak of persecution by the boyars coincided with the streak of failures of Rus'. That is why Kurbsky left the country, because the boyars were treated incorrectly here. Ivan the Terrible loved and respected this man very much, so he painfully endured his departure. They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since in childhood he experienced it himself. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will. Ivan 4 equated the departure of Kurbsky with high treason (for the first time). Ivan the Terrible DOMOSTROY In connection with the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. Largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - the Great Menaion of the Great Menaion of the Honor of the Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaia contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Makariy, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century. Domostroy is a monument to the Russian Literature XVI century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester. Although Domostroy was a collection of housekeeping tips, it was written artistic language and became literary monument era. PAINTING OF Rus' Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. IN contemporary literature this period is estimated as Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Rus'. At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod the painter Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399). The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev. He is a master of concise, but very expressive composition. An amazing pictorial color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and a prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420). His brush belongs to the masterpiece of world painting - the icon of the Trinity. "Icon of the Trinity". "Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery The image reflects biblical story when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in Byzantium of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham. One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance Likov shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. In front of the Angels is a cup - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins. At the end of the 15th century, the outstanding icon painter Dionysius made a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in the Force. At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition. ARCHITECTURE OF Rus' In the 14th-16th century, Moscow was decorated in connection with the centralization of the state (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed). Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white-stone Kremlin was first erected. During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and restructurings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies. The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'. The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.
The collapse of a large state early medieval was natural. Similar processes took place in Europe. However, for Ancient Rus', the circumstances are different. Rus' found itself under the long and powerful influence of the Golden Horde, which stood outside the Christian world.
The Horde invasion is a special page in the development of Russian culture and the formation of its core - national mentality. With the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the conditions cultural creativity have changed radically. The young country, which had just determined its spiritual foundations, was actually barbarized again. It is not surprising that the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars was perceived by the Russian people as a universal catastrophe, as the intervention of divine forces.
The once famous path ceased to exist "From the Varangians to the Greeks". Communications between the south and center of Rus' were interrupted with Western Europe. Now direct communication with Western Europe has become problematic. The Mongol-Tatar conquest brought numerous troubles to the Russian lands. According to the calculations of archaeologists, out of 74 Russian cities of the XII-XIII centuries, known from excavations, 49 were devastated by Batu Khan. Moreover, 14 cities were not restored and 15 more gradually turned into villages. Not a single living person remained in Vladimir-Volynsky, Torzhok, Kozelsk.
The Russian cultural gene pool experienced a powerful shock. The Tatars captured exceptionally beautiful and physically strong people, as well as talented craftsmen, skilled artisans. This resulted in the loss of knowledge of many technologies, skills and abilities for Rus'.
The intermediate position of ancient Rus' between the West and the East is gradually changing towards the East. With the help of Tatars, Russians adopt values political culture China and Arab world. Horde dominion influenced the image of the princely power itself. In the Horde, Russian princes learned the concepts of absolute despotic power, previously unfamiliar values of self-abasement, forms of political etiquette that were offensive to a Russian person (for example, “beat with a forehead”). A generation of uncomplaining princes was formed, for whom the law is the will of the khan. These circumstances cause profound changes in Russian national character and way of thinking. To such an extent, a long position of national subordination could not but form slave psychology in all social strata of the Russian population. Thus, one of the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar rule is the formation of isolationism in the minds of the Russian people.
Under these conditions, the status of the city as a military administrative center is consolidated. There was a general coarsening of morals as a result of the barbarization of culture. The new situation most of all contributed to the development of the idea of the value of power and the state, and not the individual and society.
The level of democracy of the entire feudal society depended on the nature of relations within the ruling class. Mongolian society was permeated with a relationship of uncomplaining obedience. The power of the supreme ruler was absolute, limited by no one and nothing. Having become khan servants, the Russian princes acquired the unconditional obedience of their subjects and the unlimited power of the rulers.
In Rus', during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, an organization of a special type spread social connections- citizenship, when the servant is in direct and absolute subordination to the master. The rule of the nomads gave Rus' a system of merciless coercion, terrorist and predatory methods of governing the country, degrading human dignity and national identity people.
A peculiar relationship was formed between the Tatar khans and the Orthodox Church. Like many pagans, they worshiped foreign gods, believing that this would propitiate them. Russian metropolitans received from the khans labels(letters), which guaranteed the personal integrity and privileges of the clergy, as well as the inviolability of the property of the church. Khans in fear death penalty did not allow their subjects to plunder the monasteries. The institution of the Orthodox Church itself was not destroyed, but this religious tolerance was not disinterested.
Only from the second half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the first major victory over foreign conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.
This event has become important step liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The victory in the battle restored the glory and power of the Russian land. Gradually, the leading role of Moscow, which led the struggle for the unification of Russian lands, is being determined.
