The development of culture took place in difficult conditions fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite the constant strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, in ancient Russian culture During this period, there were achievements and successes. The Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, new strata of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, customers of places of worship, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms, and under the influence local conditions started looking for new solutions. In the specific principalities arose architectural schools which differed in their characteristics. Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia, they began to build smaller temples of a simplified design. The internal and external decoration of the temples has changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, semi-columns, arcade belts and the so-called curb.
The growth and strengthening of cities - political and cultural centers individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction a large number religious and civil buildings in Kyiv, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.
The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podil, the Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.
The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied arts. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often served as amulets-amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used to decorate many of their products by master jewelers and artisans who created household items. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New centers of chronicle writing appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years with different points view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment.
New original forms historical works; family and tribal princely annals, biographies of princes, etc. Unfortunately, most of these works have not survived.
The masterpiece of ancient Russian fiction is "The Word of Igor's regiment". This work was written in a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the Polovtsy raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.
Center cultural life Ukrainian principalities of the period of fragmentation, became the Galicia-Volyn land. So, like everywhere else at that time, important role the church played a role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular nature. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
clear evidence high level culture was the architecture of the region. They were built mostly of wood. for a long time temples, in some cases chambers, remained stone structures.
Temples were built mainly of white stone with carved
ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galicia in the XII century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only a small part of them
studied to date. interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the princely palace and the Church of Panteleimon in Galicia.
Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality, in the second half of the XII century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they achieve significant political power and cultural heyday. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galicia-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land was politically weakening and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galician-Volhynian literacy, which developed on the basis of the Kievan literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively stood at a significant height. A number of copies of the gospel text have come down to us, including the Galician Four Gospels of 1144, the Dobrilovo Gospel of 1164, and others, the lives of Nifont and Fyodor Studit in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandecty of Antioch of 1307 and other manuscript books of the 12th-13th centuries centuries The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which has not been on the whole earth. In one of the monasteries, he donated the gospel, transcribed by his own hand, as well as the Great Cathedral, which belonged to his father. To several churches he sent liturgical books, including the Aprakos Gospel in Chernihiv, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the full life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot Book and, probably, the Conversations of Grigory Dvoeslov were written off. He had collaborators, just like him, bibliophiles who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical and other books. Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time.
In the second half of the XIII century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, apparently, a collection was compiled (used in the so-called Archive collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which included bible books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus Flavius; further - under the title "Russian Chronicler" - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection of the type of Svyatoslav's Izbornik of 1073
Thus, the Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translated and Russian historical literature of the Kievan period.
Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not so intensively, even after the loss of its political independence.
There can be no doubt that many monuments of literature perished in that restless historical situation that befell the Galicia-Volyn principality.
Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. Judging by individual stories, which, undoubtedly, entered the Tale of Bygone Years from the Galician Chronicle and the Kiev Chronicle (a description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097). The Galician-Volyn chronicle of the 13th century, preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that also entered Russian use. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that retinue poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's regiment,
Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the XII-XIII centuries. cannot be divided Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, the strong defensive walls of the city centers made it difficult for the Tatars to conquer quickly, and the subsequent foreign policy of Daniil of Galicia softened the hardships Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of social life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct defeat of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.
The origins of the art of Galicia-Volyn Rus are associated with a common treasury for all from the ancient Russian principalities. artistic culture- the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which, moreover, are poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by the archaeologically unearthed ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. a foundation was laid for solving a number of new tasks - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble of the princely or generally feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral Kievo-Pechersky Monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestov - Monomakh's country palace, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kyiv itself and in other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is essential to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volhynia and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of the temple located in the tract "Old Cathedra", apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.
Volyn in art, as well as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich followed a slightly different path and more critically perceived artistic heritage and canonical patterns. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated a direct connection with Western Europe and direct exposure to Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities for decorative processing of buildings - carving, the play of various tones of facing stone, etc. (Even in the middle of the 12th century), a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky draws us this building in the form of a combination of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the “canopy” and palace temple, united by a system of transitions; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing - the “choir”, which was developed here even in the conditions of life of the princely retinues of Kievan Rus. The excavated foundations of the white-stone palace Church of the Savior provide a typical example of buildings of this kind. features with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galicia with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is reshaped in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a peculiar look of architecture.
It has received especially magnificent development since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the circumstance noted above that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land, where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where public life didn't break. Undoubtedly, all cultural forces that escaped captivity and death rushed here; Chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince “parishioners of Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs go day and day and hunes and masters of all bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and tulnitsy and forge iron and copper and silver, and be life, and fill the yards around the city, field and village ".
It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in the Hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of his contemporaries.
special attention and Ivan's church deserved the admiration of the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted from a certain trickster”, “Roman glass”, that is, colored stained-glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre illumination of its internal space; in the altar above the throne, a beautiful canopy rose on two columns of solid stone. A ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.
Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and size to other temples. For this church, a beautiful water-blessing cup was made of red marble, it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The bowl was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done at the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholmsk buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and peculiar composition of its constituent elements. The appearance of the Kholmsky temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques of Romanesque art. The same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir principality; moreover, individual details of the decoration and decoration of the buildings of the Bogolyubov castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in the Hill that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other masters who built and decorated the Kholmsky temples.
The Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion to the "Latin" world, and this feature of it also contributed to the enrichment of art by acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir of the 12th century. and for the Galician Rus XIII century, since this art more fully than Byzantine, expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the XII century. there were Vladimir "autocrats", and in the XIII century. - Galician-Volyn "king" Daniel.
On the other hand, referring to Western culture was a kind of form of assertion of their own ways of artistic and cultural development in general and a departure from traditions.
This also explains the significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpture was significantly developed, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church when applied to religious subjects. It was expressed here not only in the decorative sculpture of the Kholmsky temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature. The chronicle tells of an interesting statue erected by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.
The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can only be judged by a few miniatures.
They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color range and in the very construction of the picturesque image.
So, the Galician-Volyn art of the XIII century. is one of the brightest and most significant pages of history ancient Russian art. Having started its journey along with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by the Galician masters, who created quite original and high-quality monuments of art of Galicia-Volyn Rus.
The principality became the successor of K. Rus, fought for reunification and land consolidation, promoted the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongols-Tatars; raised the authority of the Ukrainian lands to international arena, especially under conditions feudal fragmentation.
The Galicia-Volyn principality after the decline of Kyiv continued to exist for a whole century public education on the Slavic lands and became the main political center of the future Ukraine.
The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” by the theologian Gregory as early as the middle of the 11th century. The term "Ukraine" is mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle in 1187 as a synonym for the concept of "crash", that is, the land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. in Serbo-Croatian - Serbian Crash). Since 1335, for Galicia, the concept of “Little Rus'” borrowed from the Greeks began to be used, which later turned into the concept of “Little Russia”. However, in different periods it denoted different regions of Ukraine.
culture Rus' during a period of fragmentation
For Russian spiritual culture mid-twelfth- XIII century. characterized by the formation of "polycentrism" - the appearance in different regions Rus''s original cultural centers.
Chronicle writing is being further developed. If in the XI - early XII century. only Kiev and Novgorod were the centers of chronicle work, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing is carried out in most centers of the formed feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the "regional" nature of chronicle writing, the chroniclers of the XII - the first half of XIII V. did not become isolated in their narrowly regional events, to one extent or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the annalistic texts that have come down to us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected in the Ipatiev Chronicle (end of the 13th century), the North-Eastern - Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).
At the end of the XII century. one of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merits - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" was created. It is dedicated to the aforementioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this campaign that served as the reason for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the flight of the prince from captivity - were unique and produced strong impression on contemporaries (besides the "Word" two lengthy chronicle stories are devoted to them).
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the autumn of 1188 (at the same time, it is possible that its main text was written as early as 1185, shortly after Igor's escape from captivity, and in 1188 . additions were made to it in connection with the return of brother and son Igor from captivity). Unknown author his name, whose name never ceases to fascinate researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all available versions do not stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum of the ancient Russian nobility - the boyars.
The main idea of the Lay is the need for unity in the actions of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely strife and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of united state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his appeal is directed not to state unification, but to inner world, to consent in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, Lslovo¦ is at the same time a vivid monument of historical thought. "Present" time is compared in it with past events, and national history(which was rare - usually historical examples in the works of ancient Russian literature were drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of the current troubles of Rus': for this purpose, the author refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his address to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the XII century. (exact dating is "a subject of dispute) another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature appeared in North-Eastern Russia," The Word of Daniel the Sharpener ". It is written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, a native of the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince's favor again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. "The Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the 13th century, a second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener". It is addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time to Prince Pereyaslavl Zalesky.The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. characteristic feature"Prayer" is a negative attitude towards the highest nobility - the boyars.
Another outstanding work ancient Russian literature - "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu hordes into it and about death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City brother Yaroslav - Yuri.
This work (left unfinished) contains an unparalleled medieval literature a hymn-glorification of the native land, a recollection of its former power (under the princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion of the "illness" - strife that undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the author of The Tale of Perdition refers to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the causes of its current troubles.
In the genre of the epic, the middle of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. - the time of appearance of such epic stories as "Saur Levanidovich", "Sukhman", Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temple construction, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. there is a combination local traditions, borrowed from Byzantium forms and elements of Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, St. George's Cathedral of the St. George's Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (end of the 12th century) near Novgorod, in North-Eastern Russia - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation. Cultuga of the Galicia-Volyn principality.
The development of culture took place in difficult conditions of fragmentation of Russian lands. At the same time, despite the constant strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, there were achievements and successes in the ancient Russian culture of this period. The Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, new strata of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, the customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, ideas.
There were changes in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and, under the influence of local conditions, began to look for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their characteristics. Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia, they began to build smaller temples of a simplified design. The internal and external decoration of the temples has changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, semi-columns, arcade belts and the so-called curb.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.
The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podil, the Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.
The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied arts. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often served as amulets-amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used to decorate many of their products by master jewelers and artisans who created household items. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New centers of chronicle writing appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment.
New original forms of historical works appeared; family and tribal princely annals, biographies of princes, etc.
Hosted on ref.rf
Unfortunately, most of these works have not survived.
The masterpiece of ancient Russian fiction is ʼʼThe Tale of Igor's Campaignʼʼ. This work was written in a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the Polovtsy raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight the enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the ʼʼSlovʼʼ sought to show what disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.
The Galicia-Volyn land became the center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities during the period of fragmentation. So, as elsewhere at that time, the church played an important role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular nature.
Hosted on ref.rf
The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A clear evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the region. They were built mainly of wood, for a long time temples remained stone structures, in some cases chambers.
Temples were built mainly of white stone with carved ornaments. Archaeologists have established that there were about 30 monumental stone structures in Galicia in the 12th century, but only a small part of them have been studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments of the Galician land are the prince's palace and the church of Panteleimon in Galicia.
Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality, in the second half of the XII century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they reached significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galicia-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land was politically weakening and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galician-Volhynian literacy, which developed on the basis of the Kievan literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively, stood at a considerable height. A number of copies of the gospel text have come down to us, incl. Galician Four Gospels 1144 ᴦ., Dobrilov Gospel 1164 ᴦ. and others, the lives of Nifont and Theodore the Studite in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandekty of Antioch 1307 ᴦ. and other handwritten books of the 12th-13th centuries. The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which was not on the whole earth. In one of the monasteries, he donated the gospel, transcribed by his hand, as well as the ʼʼGreat Cathedralʼʼ, which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, incl. in Chernihiv, the Aprakos Gospel, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the full life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot Book and, probably, the Conversations of Grigory Dvoeslov were written off. He had collaborators, just like him, bibliophiles who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical and fourth books. Among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time, Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned.
In the second half of the XIII century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archival collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which included biblical books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title ʼʼRussian chroniclerʼʼ - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection of the Izbornik Svyatoslav type 1073 ᴦ.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translated and Russian historical literature of the Kievan period.
Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not so intensively, even after the loss of its political independence.
There should be no doubt that many monuments of literature perished in that restless historical situation that befell the Galicia-Volyn principality.
Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, which, undoubtedly, were included from the Galician Chronicle in ʼʼThe Tale of Bygone Yearsʼʼ and in the Kiev Chronicle (a description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100 ᴦ., set out under 1097 ᴦ.). The Galician-Volyn chronicle of the 13th century, preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that also entered Russian use. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that retinue poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's regiment,
Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the XII-XIII centuries. cannot be divided by the edge of the Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, the strong defensive walls of the city centers made it difficult for the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniil of Galicia softened the hardships of the Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of public life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct defeat of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.
The origins of the art of Galicia-Volyn Rus are connected with the common treasury of artistic culture for all the ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kievan land. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which, moreover, are poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by the archaeologically unearthed ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. a foundation was laid for solving a number of new tasks - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble of the princely or generally feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersky monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestovo - Monomakh's country palace, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is essential to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volhynia and Galicia. The monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of the temple located in the ʼʼOld Cathedraʼʼ tract, apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.
Volyn in art, as well as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.
The art of Galich followed a slightly different path and more critically perceived the artistic heritage and canonical examples. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated direct connection with Western Europe and the direct impact of Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities for decorative processing of buildings - carving, playing with different tones of facing stone, etc. (Even in the middle of the 12th century) a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir of Galicia depicts this building for us in the form of a combination of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "senei" and the palace temple, united by a system of passages; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing - ʼʼkhoromʼʼ, which has received significant development here, which was established even in the conditions of life of the princely retinues of Kievan Rus. composition of the Bogolyubovsky castle of the XII century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galich with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is reshaped in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a peculiar look of architecture.
It has received especially magnificent development since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the circumstance noted above that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life was not interrupted. Undoubtedly, all cultural forces that escaped captivity and death rushed here; Chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, draws a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince ʼʼparishioner of the Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs go day and day and hunots and masters of all bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and tulnitsy and forge iron and copper and silver, and be life, and fill the yards around the city, field and selaʼʼ.
It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in the Hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of his contemporaries.
The church of Ivan deserved special attention and admiration of the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. ʼʼsculpted from some tricksterʼʼ, ʼʼRoman glassʼʼ, that is, colored stained-glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre illumination of its interior space; in the altar above the throne, a beautiful canopy rose on two columns of solid stone. A ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.
Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and size to other temples. For this church, a beautiful water-blessing cup was made of red marble, it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The bowl was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done at the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholmsk buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and peculiar composition of its constituent elements. The appearance of the Kholmsky temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques of Romanesque art. The same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir principality; moreover, individual details of the decoration and decoration of the buildings of the Bogolyubov castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in the Hill that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other masters who built and decorated the Kholmsky temples.
The Galician-Volyn culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion to the ʼʼLatinʼʼ world, and this feature of it also contributed to the enrichment of art by acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir of the 12th century. and for Galician Rus' of the XIII century, since this art more fully than Byzantine, expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the XII century. were Vladimir ʼʼautocratsʼʼ, and in the XIII century. - Galician-Volynian ʼʼKingʼʼ Daniel.
On the other hand, turning to Western culture was a peculiar form of asserting one's own ways of artistic and cultural development in general and moving away from traditions.
This also explains the significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpture was significantly developed, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church when applied to religious subjects. It was expressed here not only in the decorative sculpture of the Kholmsky temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature.
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The chronicle tells of an interesting statue erected by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.
The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can only be judged by a few miniatures.
They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color range and in the very construction of the picturesque image.
So, the Galician-Volyn art of the XIII century. is one of the brightest and most significant pages in the history of ancient Russian art. Having started its journey along with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kievan-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of Western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by the Galician masters, who created quite original and high-quality monuments of art of Galicia-Volyn Rus.
The principality became the successor of K. Rus, fought for the reunification and consolidation of lands, contributed to the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongols-Tatars; raised the prestige of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in the context of feudal fragmentation.
After the fall of Kyiv, the Galicia-Volyn principality continued the existence of a state entity in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center of the future Ukraine.
The word ʼʼUkrainianʼʼ was first used in the ʼʼHomilyʼʼ of theologian Gregory as early as the middle of the 11th century. The term ʼʼUkraineʼʼ is mentioned in the Kyiv Chronicle in 1187 ᴦ. as a synonym for the concept of ʼʼkrashaʼʼ, that is, the land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. in Serbo-Croatian - Serbska Krasha). Since 1335, for Galicia, the concept of ʼʼLittle Russiaʼʼ, borrowed from the Greeks, began to be used, which later turned into the concept of ʼʼLittle Russiaʼʼ. At the same time, in different periods it denoted different regions of Ukraine.
The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation. Cultuga of the Galicia-Volyn principality. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation. Cult of the Galicia-Volyn principality." 2017, 2018.
Invasions of invaders and natural disasters have led to the destruction of many precious works of architecture, painting, applied art and literature. Almost no names survived. ordinary people, who created for secular and spiritual feudal lords "worn out by various cunning" masterpieces of wall painting and stone carving, the finest silver chasing and monumental architecture. Only a few of the Russian masters are mentioned in the chronicles that have come down to us.
The Russian language and culture were enriched as a result of interaction with the culture of a number of peoples. This interaction is reflected in Suzdal architecture(which traces links with Georgian and Armenian architecture ), in Novgorod painting(in which there are common motifs with the Armenian fresco painting), V folklore and literature, where there are numerous references to other peoples, their culture and way of life.
Despite the dominance of theology, with the growth of experience accumulated in production and the development of enlightenment (although it affected only an insignificant part of society), the rudiments of knowledge in the field of studying nature and history. noticeably literacy grew among the feudal nobility, nobility and townspeople. The development of historical knowledge was vividly reflected in chronicles. In all large cities, from Novgorod to Kholm, from Novgorod to Ryazan, historical chronicles were kept and chronicles were compiled (holistic historical works, representing the processing of annalistic records). Until our time, only the annals of Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn and Novgorod have been partially preserved.
In Rus', as well as in other countries, there was a close connection between the development crafts, applied folk art and architecture. Since religious ideology dominated society, the best examples of architecture were associated with the church, which was also a rich customer. With the transition to feudal fragmentation, architectural monuments became characterized by reduced sizes of temples, the simplification of their interior decoration, and the gradual replacement of mosaics by frescoes. The "cubic" temple with a heavy dome became the dominant type of church architecture. These changes were also associated with the rapid spread of stone architecture.
IN fine arts stylistic diversity increased, and local folk art often came into conflict with the dominant church ideology.
applied arts and sculpture, less than painting associated with church canons, often reflected in their subjects folk games and dances, scenes of struggle, etc. The art of minting coins, seals, and stone carving (decoration of cathedrals, stone icons, etc.) reached a significant rise. The motifs of folk art are richly reflected in embroidery, as well as in book decorations - headpieces, endings, capital letters etc., where, along with floral and colored ornaments, scenes are often presented folk life and labor.
In monuments literature period of feudal fragmentation carried out the ideas of the ruling class. In her best creations, calling on the princes for peace and the defense of the independence of the motherland, the aspirations of the broad masses of the people are also reflected.
Church preaching literature, ideological orientation which consisted in calling the population to obedience to the authorities of heaven and earth, is represented by the works of Kliment Smolyatich, Kirill Turovsky and others.
As part of chronicles preserved stories about princes (about Andrei Bogolyubsky, Izyaslav Mstislavich Volynsky, etc.), about large historical events- about the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, etc. There are many details in these stories that indicate an increase in interest in human personality to the actions and experiences of individuals.
the greatest monument Russian Culture XII V. is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
The development of Russian culture in the XII-XIII centuries. took place in close connection with the further development of the Russian nationality.
In the Russian land and during the period of feudal fragmentation, mutual language(in the presence of different dialects) and the general civil and church legal norms were in force. The people were alien to feudal strife and kept the memory of the former unity of Rus'. This was reflected primarily in epics.
After the collapse of Kievan Rus, certain changes took place in its culture associated with the development of individual Russian principalities. This was primarily reflected in Russian chronicle writing, since already from the 11th century local chronicle appeared along with the all-Russian chronicle. The Novgorod chronicle was especially striking. Its creators were only interested in local Novgorod events, but they are captured with amazing observation and immediacy, which we will not find in The Tale of Bygone Years.
A monument of the church literature of the city of Kyiv is the “Kiev-Pechersk Patericon”, written at the beginning of the 13th century, which A.S. was so fond of reading. Pushkin! It was compiled in the form of a correspondence between Bishop Simon of Suzdal and the Pechersk monarch Polycarp. This correspondence contains fascinating and instructive stories (there are 24 of them in total). Some of them belong to the early stages of the history of the monastery (mid-11th c.)
Along with church literature significant development in the XII century. received oratory- preaching. The famous preacher of this time was Cyril of Turov (2nd half of the 12th century). Cyril's teachings are mainly devoted to church holidays and parables.
It would be completely wrong to limit literary centers only to the ecclesiastical environment. Ancient Rus'. The annals contain many purely secular writings. The Ipatiev Chronicle, compiled within the boundaries of Galicia-Volyn Rus, is especially replete with them. Characteristics of the princes, their military campaigns, descriptions of the course of state affairs - all this in its spirit betrays secular, sometimes simply "knightly" (military), sources of its origin.
The pinnacle of ancient Russian literature is the epic poem "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It is dedicated to the campaign of Russian troops led by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in April - May 1185. This campaign itself was not some kind of exceptional event, but the brilliant author, who remained unknown, saw in it and in its consequences, what so worried Russian society of that time: the need to fight the Polovtsy, but certainly by common, and not by scattered efforts. Igor's campaign became, as it were, a harsh lesson and a warning to other princes. Such is the socio-political meaning of the Lay. The author of the Lay contrasts the power and unity of Rus' in the past with the time of strife.
"The Word" is a monument of national and at the same time world culture. The emergence of professional literature occurred in Rus' no later than in France, Germany and England.
During the period of fragmentation, other aspects of culture also acquire new features, in particular architecture. Chernihiv architects were filled with creative pursuits and at the very end of the twelfth century. They created a fundamentally new architectural form, embodying it in the temple of Friday at the auction.
The white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus has gone through a special path of development. On early stage at the beginning of the twelfth century it was closely connected with Kievan traditions. But the buildings of the middle of the XII century. (Yuri Dolgorukov's time) already have an independent character. During these years of development of the Zalesky land, first of all, fortresses were built - strong points princely power, an example of which is the powerful ramparts of Pereyaslavl Zalessky. Features of the Romanesque style fully flourish in the Vladimir architecture of the second half of the 12th century (the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest). At this time, the Assumption Cathedral was being built, originally built in 1158-1161 and significantly expanded in 1185-1189.
Visual arts also underwent certain changes. So, in the XII century. in Rus', the art of mosaic ceased to exist, but the fresco at that time was most widely developed. The features of this art made it possible to more flexibly reflect the needs and ideals of the schools that were being formed at that time. The severity and inner tension of squat figures with a sharp look is an example of Novgorod frescoes of the 12th century. In Vladimir frescoes, as well as in the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, there is more sublime and spiritual aristocracy and sophistication.
In the second half of the XII century. appears in Vladimir own school icon painting, whose works are characterized by a departure from the Byzantine canons. The Savior Not Made by Hands can serve as a model here, striking in its expressiveness, expressed in the unusual construction of the face and in huge expressive eyes. At the beginning of the XIII century. the Yaroslavl school of icon painting became famous. Many icons-masterpieces were painted in the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl.
Applied art of Rus' in the XII century. reached a high level. His products were valued and were in great demand not only in Rus', but also abroad. Russian products made of filigree, cloisonne enamel, and granulation were also distinguished by the finest craftsmanship.
Analyzing the results of the development of culture XII - early XIII century. we can say that she managed to catch up at that time with Byzantium - the most cultured country of that time. The national identity of Russian culture is becoming more and more noticeable. The beginning of the specific period was marked by the creation of the first local specific art schools.
Art critics and philologists point out that the spiritual life of various Russian lands, with all its diversity, retained common features and unity of style. Political fragmentation and even the Mongol-Tatar invasion did not interrupt the cultural development of the people and did not lead to its decline. On the contrary, those who lived in the XII-XII centuries. artists, architects, writers left us many masterpieces of literature and art. This was the second "golden age" of Russian culture.
So, summing up, it should be emphasized that feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the XII-XIV centuries. was a natural phenomenon associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the feudal system. For all the progressiveness of this process, feudal fragmentation had a significant negative point, such as the weakening of the military potential of Rus', but at the same time it contributed to the improvement of the management system, created favorable conditions for the development of the economy and culture in regional centers.
