If earlier linguists, historians and ethnographers were mainly involved in the collection and analysis of family names, now Russian geneticists. Currently, in the laboratory of human population genetics of the State Medical Genetic scientific center The Russian Academy of Medical Sciences is actively engaged in the collection and genogeographic analysis of Russian surnames. First of all, geneticists are interested in the history of the formation of the Russian gene pool, and therefore they studied the distribution of tens of thousands of Russian surnames. This work has not yet been completed, but some results have already been summed up.
Since geneticists are interested in the past of the Russian gene pool, they explore the names of the indigenous inhabitants of the "original" Russian area, that is, the territory on which the formation of the Russian people took place: Central Russia and the Russian North. In this area, they identified eight regions grouped into five regions: Northern (Arkhangelsk region), Eastern (Kostroma region), Central (Kashinsky district of Tver region), Western (Smolensk region) and Southern (Belgorod, Kursk and Voronezh region). In each region, several rural areas were selected and the names of all their adult residents were examined. In total, the names of almost a million rural residents were taken into account and 67 thousand different surnames were found. But this list was curtailed, due to the removal of surnames, presumably brought into the "original" area by migrants. This was done as follows: those surnames were left out of sight, the number of carriers of which was less than three. Here I would like to note that if geneticists consulted with local linguists-dialectologists, then it would be possible to leave at least those surnames in the bases of which the words of local dialects can be traced. But be that as it may, after the elimination of the "stray" surnames, 14,428 remained. About 700 thousand out of a million wear them. These names are considered by geneticists as genetic markers in their population studies.
Study of the geography of Russian surnames
During the study of genetics, they made common list all surnames, arranged in descending order of frequency for each of the five regions, as well as a general list. Then we added material for the additionally surveyed Siberian region (Kemerovo region). As it turned out, 250 surnames are used everywhere. Below is just that list. Surnames are listed in descending order of frequency.
However, it should first be noted that Russian geneticists are not pioneers in the study of the geography of Russian surnames. Priority in this area belongs to the prominent Soviet onomatologist V.A. Nikonov (1904-1988). It was he who first discovered that the most frequent surnames of Russians are Smirnov, Ivanov, Popov, Kuznetsov, and outlined the main areas in which these surnames predominate. Of course, V.A. Nikonov studied geographical distribution and many other names of more than 3 million people (he collected materials from the funds of 52 archives). You can read more about this in the book by V.A. Nikonov "Geography of Surnames" (Moscow, 1988).
The top lists of Russian surnames are also not new. The first such list was compiled by B.O. Unbegaun based on the St. Petersburg address book for 1910 ("All Petersburg"), containing almost 200 thousand names. He singled out in a separate list the 100 most frequent, the carriers of which were 31,503 people. This list reflects a mixed ethnic composition former Russian capital. In particular, the surname Schmidt is in 87th place, and Miller is in 75th. The list can be found in the Supplement to B.O. Unbegaun "Russian surnames" (Moscow, 1989).
There are two more frequency lists of Russian surnames, made on extensive material, and on the same one. First, V.A. Nikonov, and then V.A. Mitrofanov identified the frequency of surnames in the telephone directory of Moscow. Both released a list of the 100 most common surnames.
The results of V.A. Nikonov can be found in his article: Nikonov V.A. Russian surnames: Moscow XVI-XX centuries. // ethnic groups in the cities of the European part of the USSR (formation, settlement, dynamics of culture), Moscow, 1987, pp. 5-15.
The results of V. A. Mitrofanov are contained in a much less accessible source, in his Ph.D. thesis: Modern Russian surnames as an object of linguistics, onomastics and lexicography, Moscow, 1995.
So, the list of surnames compiled by Russian geneticists:
1. Smirnov
2. Ivanov
3. Kuznetsov
4. Popov
5. Sokolov
6. Lebedev
7. Kozlov
8. Novikov
9. Morozov
10. Petrov
11. Volkov
12. Solovyov
13. Vasiliev
14. Zaitsev
15. Pavlov
16. Semenov
17. Golubev
18. Vinogradov
19. Bogdanov
20. Sparrows
21. Fedorov
22. Mikhailov 
23. Belyaev
24. Tarasov
25. Belov
26. Mosquitoes
27. Orlov
28. Kiselev
29. Makarov
30. Andreev
31. Kovalev
32. Gusev
33. Titov
34. Kuzmin
35. Kudryavtsev
36. Baranov
37. Kulikov
38. Alekseev
39. Stepanov
40. Yakovlev
41. Sorokin
42. Sergeev
43. Romanov
44. Zakharov 
45. Borisov
46. Queens
47. Gerasimov
48. Ponomarev
49. Grigoriev
50. Lazarev
51. Medvedev
52. Ershov
53. Nikitin
54. Sobolev
55. Ryabov
56. Polyakov
57. Flowers
58. Danilov
59. Zhukov
60. Frolov
61. Zhuravlev
62. Nikolaev
63. Krylov
64. Maksimov
65. Sidorov
66. Osipov
67. Belousov
68. Fedotov
69. Dorofeev
70. Egorov
71. Matveev
72. Bobrov
73. Dmitriev
74. Kalinin
75. Anisimov
76. Roosters
77. Antonov
78. Timofeev
79. Nikiforov
80. Veselov
81. Filippov
82. Markov
83. Bolshakov
84. Sukhanov
85. Mironov
86. Shiryaev
87. Alexandrov
88. Konovalov
89. Shestakov
90. Kazakov
91. Efimov
92. Denisov
93. Gromov
94. Fomin
95. Davydov
96. Melnikov
97. Shcherbakov
98. Pancakes
99. Kolesnikov
100. Karpov
101. Afanasiev
102. Vlasov
103. Maslov
104. Isakov
105. Tikhonov
106. Aksenov
107. Gavrilov
108. Rodionov
109. Cats
110. Gorbunov
111. Kudryashov
112. Bulls
113. Zuev
114. Tretyakov
115. Saveliev
116. Panov
117. Rybakov
118. Suvorov
119. Abramov
120. Ravens
121. Mukhin
122. Arkhipov
123. Trofimov
124. Martynov
125. Emelyanov
126. Gorshkov
127. Chernov
128. Ovchinnikov
129. Seleznev
130. Panfilov
131. Kopylov
132. Mikheev
133. Galkin
134. Nazarov
135. Lobanov
136. Lukin
137. Belyakov
138. Potapov
139. Nekrasov
140. Khokhlov
141. Zhdanov
142. Naumov
143. Shilov
144. Vorontsov
145. Ermakov
146. Drozdov
147. Ignatiev
148. Savin
149. Logins
150. Safonov
151. Kapustin
152. Kirillov
153. Moiseev
154. Eliseev
155. Koshelev
156. Costin
157. Gorbachev
158. Nuts
159. Efremov
160. Isaev
161. Evdokimov
162. Kalashnikov
163. Kabanov
164. Socks
165. Yudin
166. Kulagin
167. Lapin
168. Prokhorov
169. Nesterov
170. Kharitonov
171. Agafonov
172. Ants
173. Larionov
174. Fedoseev
175. Zimin
176. Pakhomov
177. Shubin
178. Ignatov
179. Filatov
180. Kryukov
181. Horns
182. Fists
183. Terentyev
184. Molchanov
185. Vladimirov
186. Artemiev
187. Guryev
188. Zinoviev
189. Grishin
190. Kononov
191. Dementiev
192. Sitnikov
193. Simonov
194. Mishin
195. Fadeev
196. Komissarov
197. Mammoths
198. Nosov
199. Gulyaev
200. Balls
201. Ustinov
202. Vishnyakov
203. Evseev
204. Lavrentiev
205. Bragin
206. Konstantinov
207. Kornilov
208. Avdeev
209. Zykov
210. Biryukov
211. Sharapov
212. Nikonov
213. Schukin
214. Dyachkov
215. Odintsov
216. Sazonov
217. Yakushev
218. Krasilnikov
219. Gordeev
220. Samoilov
221. Knyazev
222. Bespalov
223. Uvarov
224. Checkers
225. Bobylev
226. Doronin
227. Belozerov
228. Rozhkov
229. Samsonov
230. Butchers
231. Likhachev
232. Burov
233. Sysoev
234. Fomichev
235. Rusakov
236. Strelkov
237. Gushchin
238. Teterin
239. Kolobov
240. Subbotin
241. Fokin
242. Blokhin
243. Seliverstov
244. Pestov
245. Kondratiev
246. Silin
247. Merkushev
248. Lytkin
249. Turov
Since ancient times, the surname could change a person's life, it carried the whole history of the family and gave many privileges. People spent a lot of effort and money to have a good title, and sometimes they sacrificed their lives for this. It was almost impossible for a common resident to get on the list of nobles.
Types of titles
titles in tsarist Russia there were many, each of them had its own history and carried its own capabilities. All noble families followed the family tree and very carefully selected couples for their family members. marriage of two noble families was more of a calculated calculation than love relationship. Russian noble families kept together and did not allow members without a title into their families.
Such genera could include:
- Princes.
- Counts.
- Barons.
- Tsars.
- Dukes.
- Marquises.
Each of these genera had its own history and maintained its own family tree. It was strictly forbidden for a nobleman to create a family with a commoner. Thus, it was almost impossible for an ordinary ordinary resident of tsarist Russia to become a nobleman, except perhaps for very great achievements in front of the country.
Princes Rurikovich
Princes is one of the highest titles of nobility. Members of such a family always had a lot of land, finance and slaves. It was a great honor for a family member to be at court and help the ruler. Having shown himself, a member of the princely family could become a trusted special ruler. The famous noble families of Russia in most cases had a princely title. But the titles could be divided according to the methods of obtaining them.
One of the most famous princely families of Russia were the Rurikovichs. The list of noble families begins with her. Rurikovichs are immigrants from Ukraine and descendants of Igor's great Rus'. The roots of many European rulers come from This is a strong dynasty that brought many famous rulers to the world, for a long time in power throughout Europe. But a number historical events, which took place in those days, divided the family into many branches. Russian noble families such as Pototsky, Przemyslsky, Chernigov, Ryazan, Galician, Smolensky, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Belozersky, Suzdal, Smolensky, Moscow, Tver, Starodubsky belong specifically to the Rurik family.
Other princely titles
In addition to the descendants of the Rurik family, the noble families of Russia can be such as the Otyaevs. This genus received its title from good warrior Khvostov, who had the nickname Otyai in the army, and has been going on since 1543.
Ofrosmos is an example strong will and a strong desire to achieve the goal. The founder of the clan was a strong and courageous warrior.
The Pogozhevs are from Lithuania. It helped the founder of the family to get a princely title oratory and the ability to conduct military negotiations.
The list of noble families also includes Pozharsky, Field, Pronchishchev, Protopopov, Tolstoy, Uvarov.
Count's titles
But the surnames noble origin It's not just princes. Also high title and powers at court had count dynasties. This title was also considered very high and gave many powers.
To receive the title of count was a great achievement for any member of the royal society. Such a title, first of all, made it possible to have power and be closer to ruling dynasty. The noble families of Russia for the most part consist of counts. The easiest way to achieve this title was when conducting successful military operations.
One of these surnames is Sheremetev. This is a county family that still exists in our time. Army General received this title for his achievements in the conduct of military operations and service royal family.
Ivan Golovkin is the ancestor of another surname of noble origin. According to many sources, this is a count who appeared in Russia after the wedding of his only daughter. One of the few count families that ended with a single representative of the dynasty.
The noble surname Minich had many branches, and the main reason for this was in large numbers women in this family. At the marriage of a woman, Milich took double surname and mixed titles.
A lot of county titles received by the courtiers during the reign of Catherine Petrovna. She was a very generous queen and awarded titles to many of her military leaders. Thanks to her, such names as Efimovsky, Gendrikov, Chernyshev, Razumovsky, Ushakov and many others appeared in the list of nobles.
Barons at court
Famous noble families also had many holders of the titles of baron. Among them are ancestral families and granted barons. This, like all other titles, could be obtained with good service And, of course, the simplest and most in an efficient way was the conduct of hostilities for the homeland.
This title was very popular in the Middle Ages. The family title could be received by wealthy families who sponsored royal family. This title appeared in the fifteenth century in Germany and, like everything new, gained great popularity. The royal family practically sold it to all wealthy families who had the opportunity to help and sponsor all royal undertakings.
In order to bring wealthy families closer to him, he introduced a new title - baron. One of the first owners of this title was the banker de Smith. Thanks to banking and business this family earned its finances and was elevated by Peter to the rank of barons.
Russian noble families with the title of baron also replenished with the surname Fridriks. Like de Smith, Yuri Fridriks was a good banker who lived and worked at the royal court for a long time. Born into a titled family, Yuri also received a title under Tsarist Russia.
In addition to them, there were a number of surnames with the title of baron, information about which was stored in military documents. These are warriors who have earned their titles by actively participating in hostilities. Thus, the noble families of Russia were replenished with such members as: Baron Plotto, Baron von Rummel, Baron von Malama, Baron Ustinov and the family of the brothers of the barons Schmidt. Most of them were from European countries and came to Russia on business.
royal families
But not only titled families are included in the list of noble families. Russian noble families headed the royal families for many years.
One of the oldest royal families in Russia was the Godunovs. This is the royal family, which has been in power for many years. The first of this family was Tsarina Godunova, who formally ruled the country for only a few days. She renounced the throne, and decided to spend her life in a monastery.
The next, no less famous surname of the royal Russian family is the Shuiskys. This dynasty spent a little time in power, but entered the list of noble families in Russia.
The Great Queen of Skavron, better known as Catherine the First, also became the founder of the royal family dynasty. Do not forget about such a royal dynasty as Biron.
Dukes at Court
The noble families of Russia also have the title of dukes. Getting the title of duke was not so easy. Basically, these clans included very rich and ancient families of tsarist Russia.
The owners of the title duke in Russia were the Chertozhansky family. The clan existed for many centuries and was engaged in agriculture. It was very rich family which had a lot of land.
The Duke of Nesvizh is the founder of the town of the same name Nesvizh. There are many versions of the origin of this family. The Duke was a great connoisseur of art. His castles were the most remarkable and beautiful buildings of that time. owning big lands, the duke had the opportunity to help tsarist Russia.
Menshikov is another of the famous ducal families in Russia. Menshikov was not just a duke, he was a famous military leader, army general and governor of St. Petersburg. He received his title for the achievement and service to the royal crown.
Marquis title
The title of marquis in tsarist Russia was mainly received by wealthy families with foreign origin. It was an opportunity to attract foreign capital into the country. One of the most famous families was Traversi. This is an ancient French family, whose representatives were at the royal court.
Among the Italian marquises was the Paulluchi family. Having received the title of marquis, the family remained in Russia. Another Italian family received the title of marquis at the royal court of Russia - Albizzi. This is one of the richest Tuscan families. They earned all their income from entrepreneurial activity for the manufacture of fabrics.
The meaning and privileges of the title
For the courtiers, having a title gave many opportunities and wealth. Upon receiving the title, it often carried lavish gifts from the crown. Often such gifts were land and wealth. The royal family gave such gifts for special achievements.
For wealthy families who earned their wealth on the generous Russian land, it was very important to have a good title, for this they financed royal undertakings, which bought their family a high title and good attitude. In addition, only titled families could be close to the royal family and participate in the government of the country.
It is not so easy to answer the question of when Russians got surnames. The fact is that surnames in Rus' were formed mainly from patronymics, nicknames or generic names, and this process was gradual.
Novgorod surnames
It is believed that the first in Rus' to bear the names of citizens of Veliky Novgorod, which was then a republic, as well as residents of the Novgorod possessions, stretching across the north from the Baltic to the Urals. It happened presumably in the XIII century.
So, in the annals for 1240, the names of the Novgorodians who fell in the Battle of the Neva are mentioned: “Kostyantin Lugotinits, Guryata Pineshchinich”. In the annals of 1268, there are the names of "Tverdislav Chermny, Nikifor Radiatinich, Tverdislav Moisievich, Mikhail Krivtsevich, Boris Ildyatinich ... Vasil Voiborzovich, Zhiroslav Dorogomilovich, Poroman Podvoisky." In 1270, according to the chronicler, Prince Vasily Yaroslavich went on a campaign against the Tatars, taking with him "Petril Lever and Mikhail Pineshchinich."
As you can see, these surnames had little resemblance to modern ones and were formed, most likely, by patronymics, family or baptismal names, nicknames or place of residence.
Come from the North
Perhaps the most ancient surnames should still be considered surnames ending in the suffixes -ih and -ih. According to experts, they appeared at the turn of I-II millennia and originated mainly from family nicknames. For example, members of the same family could be given nicknames such as Short, White, Red, Black, and their descendants were called in the genitive or prepositional: "Whose will you be?" “Short, White, Red, Black.” Doctor philological sciences A.V. Superanskaya writes: “The head of the family is called Golden, the whole family is Golden. A native or native of the family in the next generation - Golden.
Historians suggest that these surnames were born in the north, and subsequently spread to central regions Rus' and the Urals. Many such surnames are found among Siberians: this was associated with the beginning of the conquest of Siberia in the second half of XVI century. By the way, according to the rules of the Russian language, such surnames are not inclined.
Surnames from Slavic names and nicknames
There were also surnames that arose from ancient Russian secular names. For example, the surnames Zhdanov and Lyubimov later came from the Slavic proper names Zhdan and Lyubim. Many surnames are formed from the so-called "security" names: it was believed that if you give a baby a name with a negative connotation, it will scare him away dark forces and failure. So from the names-nicknames Nekras, Dur, Chertan, Malice, Neustroy, Hunger came the names Nekrasov, Durov, Chertanov, Zlobin, Neustroev, Golodov.
Noble families
Only later, in the XIV-XV centuries, surnames began to appear among princes and boyars. Most often they were formed from the name of the inheritance owned by the prince or boyar, and subsequently passed on to his descendants: Shuisky, Vorotynsky, Obolensky, Vyazemsky. Some of the noble families came from nicknames: Gagarins, Humpbacked, Eyed, Lykovs, Scriabins. Sometimes the surname combined the name of the inheritance with the nickname, such as Lobanov-Rostovsky. One of the most ancient noble families - Golitsyn - originates from old word"galitsy" ("galitsy"), which meant leather mittens used in various works. Another ancient noble family- Morozov. The first to wear it was Misha Prushanin, who distinguished himself in 1240 in the battle with the Swedes: his name was glorified in the Life of Alexander Nevsky. This clan also became known thanks to the famous schismatic - boyar Fedosya Morozova.
Merchant surnames
In the XVIII-XIX centuries, service people, clergy and merchants began to bear surnames. However, the richest merchants acquired surnames even earlier, in XV-XVI centuries. They were mostly residents northern regions Russia - say, the Kalinnikovs, the Stroganovs, the Perminovs, the Ryazantsevs. Kuzma Minin, the son of the salt-worker Mina Ankudinov from Balakhna, received his own surname already at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Often, merchant surnames reflected the occupation of their owner. So, the Rybnikovs traded fish.
Peasant surnames
The peasants did not have surnames for a long time, with the exception of the population of the northern part of Russia, which once belonged to Novgorod, since there was no serfdom there. Take, for example, the "Arkhangelsk peasant" Mikhail Lomonosov or Pushkin's nanny, the Novgorod peasant woman Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva.
They had surnames and Cossacks, as well as the population of the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth: the territory of present-day Belarus to Smolensk and Vyazma, Little Russia. Most of the indigenous inhabitants of the black earth provinces had surnames.
Massively assigning surnames to peasants began only after the abolition of serfdom. And some even received surnames only during the years of Soviet power.
The first surnames were mentioned in the Novgorod chronicles as early as the 13th century. Along with the names, they indicate the nicknames and patronymics of the inhabitants of Veliky Novgorod, which at that time served as surnames.
Surnames of the nobility
Russian princes acquired one of the first surnames. And there was a good reason for that - material. The princes sought to fix their possessions as accurately as possible in the relevant documents and to secure the right of their descendants to them. That is why princely surnames mainly originate from the names of the localities that were under their jurisdiction. So the surnames Shuisky, Vyazemsky, Obolensky, etc. appeared.
Middle name instead of last name
Most ordinary peasants did not have surnames until the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, in order to clarify the identity of this or that peasant, the patronymic was often used in documents, which, of course, was individual for each generation. For example, Ivan's son Peter was born, in the metric they wrote: "Peter Ivanov." When Peter's son Nikolai was born, he was already called: "Nikolai Petrov." Therefore, the most ancient surnames can be safely considered those that come from the names: Ivanov, Petrov, Sidorov, Nikolaev and so on.
Surnames-nicknames
Often the function of surnames was taken over by nicknames, which could be unchanged even for several generations of the same family. However, members of the same family could have different nicknames. In the royal decrees concerning the census, it is written: to indicate everyone "by name from the father and from the nickname." After the abolition of serfdom, nicknames were assigned to their owners as surnames: Koshka became Koshkin, Kobyla became Kobylin, etc.
The nickname was awarded to a person not only by neighbors or friends, but also by parents. More often this peculiar middle name had a negative connotation. It was believed that such a nickname would repel evil spirits and cause a reaction opposite to its meaning. So, for example, the child was called Nekras so that he would grow up beautiful, and the nickname Dur was given in the hope that he would become smart. Later, surnames were also formed from these amulets: Nekrasov, Durnev, Zlobin.
Surnames-professions
Often, surnames were also formed due to the type of activity in which its owner was engaged. So the name Rybnikov definitely used to be carried by a merchant who sold fish, and Kuznetsov obviously worked in a forge.
Surnames of representatives of the clergy
Representatives of the clergy also did not have surnames before. The priests were addressed simply: Father Alexander, Father Nicholas, and so on. And the children of the ministers of the church were called "priest's son" or "priest's daughter." So the name Popov appeared. It can also be considered one of the most ancient Russian surnames.
Also, priests, if necessary, formed surnames from the names of their parishes. So there were such surnames as Troitsky, Uspensky, Nikolsky.
Later, the clergy began to receive surnames upon graduation from the seminary. Often these surnames were formed from Latin words and ended with "y". Distinguished students were given especially beautiful surnames. For example, the surname Speransky. "Sparance" in Latin means "one who hopes."
Absolutely all the inhabitants of our country acquired surnames relatively recently, only in the 30s of the last century, when every citizen became required to have a passport.
