Introduction
Eloquence - 1) oratorical gift, talent, art of speech, natural ability to speak and write convincingly and beautifully;
2) a set of texts, verbal works a certain sphere of communication (therefore, there is political, judicial, solemn, academic, church, military, diplomatic, social and domestic eloquence).
general characteristics period ancient Russian literature
Old Russian literature went through a long period of development, which is 7 centuries: from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Scientists associate the formation of ancient Russian literature with the adoption of Christianity in Russia in 988. This year is the starting point for the periodization of literature. It is authentically known that writing in Russia existed even before the adoption of Christianity. But very few monuments of pre-Christian writing have been found. According to the available monuments, it cannot be said that before the adoption of Christianity in Russia there was literature and books. Spreading Christian religion in Russia involved the study of Holy Scripture and Christian rites. In order to preach the Christian canons, it was necessary to translate religious books from ancient Greek and Latin into a language that the Slavs understood. This language became the Old Church Slavonic language. Scientists talk about the special status of the Old Church Slavonic language. Old Church Slavonic is literary language all Slavs. It was not spoken, but only written and read books. The Old Church Slavonic language was created by Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius on the basis of the Thessalonica dialect of the Old Bulgarian language specifically in order to make the canons of the Christian religion understandable to the Slavs and to preach these canons in the language of the Slavs. Books in the Old Slavonic language were copied in different territories inhabited by Slavs, where they spoke differently: in different dialects. Gradually, the features of the speech of the Slavs began to be reflected in the letter. So, on the basis of the Old Church Slavonic language, the Church Slavonic language arose, reflecting the features of speech Eastern Slavs and then ancient Russian man. Christian preachers arrived in Russia, who created schools. Schools taught reading, writing and canons Orthodox Christianity. Over time, a layer of people appeared in Russia who could read and write. They rewrote holy scripture, translated it into Old Slavonic. Over time, these people began to write down the historical events that took place in Russia, make generalizations, use images of oral folk art, evaluate the described events and facts. This is how the original ancient Russian literature gradually took shape. Old Russian literature was fundamentally different from what we are accustomed to understand as literature at the present time. Literature in Ancient Russia was closely connected with the spread of the Christian religion and served as an instrument for preaching and strengthening Christianity in Russia. This determined special treatment to the book as a sacred subject, but to reading as a sacred process of communion with God's Word.
In the XI-XII centuries there was a rise cultural development Kievan Rus. cultural centers there were large cities, many of which acquired the importance of European centers: Novgorod, Kyiv, Galich.
The excavations carried out by archaeologists suggest that high culture townspeople, many of whom were literate. This is evidenced by the preserved promissory notes, petitions, orders for economic affairs, arrival notices, letters that were written on birch bark, as well as preserved in different cities inscriptions on things, walls of churches. Schools were organized to teach literacy in the cities. The first schools for boys appeared in the 10th century, and in the 11th century a school for girls was opened in Kyiv.
It is known for certain that even before the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Russia knew writing. The first handwritten books that have come down to us are real works of art. Books are written on a very expensive material - parchment, which was made from sheep, calf or goat skin. They were decorated with amazingly beautiful colored miniatures.
Most of the books that have come down to us relating to this period of time are of religious content. Thus, out of 130 surviving books, 80 contain the foundations of Christian doctrine and morality. However, at this time there was also religious literature for reading. A well-preserved collection of stories about real-life and legendary animals, trees, stones - "Physiologist". This collection consists of several stories, at the end of each there is a small interpretation of what is described in the spirit of Christianity. So, for example, the natural property of a woodpecker to peck trees was correlated with the devil, who stubbornly looks for the weak points of a person.
Such outstanding monuments belong to the same period of time. church literature, as the "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, the sermons of Cyril of Turov. There were also religious books that unconventionally interpreted famous biblical stories. Such books were called apocrypha. The name came from Greek word"hidden". The most popular was the apocryphal "Walking of the Virgin through the torments."
AT in large numbers the lives of the saints were created, which described in detail the life, activities, exploits of people who were canonized by the church as saints. The plot of the life could be exciting, as, for example, "The Life of Alexei, the Man of God."
Literary monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal land are also known. Among them is the "Word" ("Prayer") by Daniil Zatochnik.
In the 11th century, the first works of a historical (documentary) nature also appeared. This period of time includes the oldest, preserved to this day, chronicle- "The Tale of Bygone Years". This document allows us to judge not only the political situation of that time, but also the life and customs of the ancient Russians.
AT major cities detailed chronicles were kept, in which the events that took place were recorded. Chronicles contained copies of original documents from the prince's archive, detailed descriptions battles, reports of diplomatic negotiations. However, one cannot speak of the objectivity of these chronicles, since their compilers were, first of all, children of their time, who tried to justify the actions of their prince and denigrate his opponents.
An outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature is "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh. It was intended for the children of the prince and contained instructions on how young princes, children of warriors, should behave. He ordered both his own and strangers not to offend the inhabitants in the villages, always help the one who asks, feed the guests, not pass by a person without a greeting, take care of the sick and infirm.
And finally, the most significant monument of ancient Russian literature is The Tale of Igor's Campaign. The work is based on the campaign undertaken by Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians. Unfortunately, the only surviving manuscript of the Lay burned down in a fire in Moscow in 1812.
With the advent of writing and the spread of literacy, ancient Russian literature developed.
Chronicles are monuments of historical writing and literature of Ancient Russia. The narration in them was carried out by years: the chroniclers consistently recorded the events that occurred in a particular year. The appearance of the first historical writings refers to the time of Yaroslav the Wise. Chronicles were created in Kyiv and Novgorod, on their basis, the monk Nestor in the 11th century compiled the annalistic code that has come down to us. "The Tale of Bygone Years"(Initial Chronicle), which contains an exposition ancient history Slavs, as well as the history of Russia until 1100.
The NIRO library invites you to familiarize yourself with the book " Old Russian chronicles”, in which you will find the text of the Primary Chronicle, as well as the Kyiv and Galicia-Volyn.
"The Tale of Bygone Years" became part of Laurentian Chronicle, which got its name from the monk Lawrence, who copied it in 1377. The chronicle, together with The Tale of Bygone Years, contains a description of the events that took place in the southern Russian principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Russia. Full text"Tales" according to the Laurentian list can be found in the book
Thanks to Lawrence, we have not only the most ancient list The Tale of Bygone Years, but also the only text of Vladimir Monomakh's Teachings to Children. "Instruction to Children" by Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh is addressed not only to children - heirs state power but also to everyone who reads it. You can get acquainted with the text of the "Instruction" and its translation by clicking on the link.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"- literary monument XII century, which is based on a historical event - the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Northern Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsians in 1185.
Edition spread
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
The only copy of the Lay has come down to us as part of a collection that was kept in the library of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery. The name of the author and the exact date of writing the "Lay" is unknown. Most researchers believe that it was created in late XII century.
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"Domostroy" is one of the most famous ancient Russian literary monuments. It reflects the ideals of the spiritual, social and family life, brightly shown pictures medieval life, rituals associated with centuries-old Russian traditions are described.
Old Russian literature patristics
The heyday of Kievan Rus, the time of the triumph of Christianity. about four hundred churches were built in Kyiv alone. A variety of genres is encouraged, and the influence of folklore on Old Russian literature does not dry out. The priority of the book tradition is affirmed.
The style of monumental historicism continues to develop, as in images and frescoes, the prince in the annals is always official, as if addressed to the viewer. Christian worldview when depicting people, it was put at the service of strengthening the feudal system. It appeared mainly where it came to legal crimes: murders, fraud.
With regard to negative characters the writer is less official than with respect to goodies of his narration.
One of the most negative characters Ipatiev Chronicle - Vladimir Galitsky. His main feature: greed; he does not act directly, not by war, but by bribery, by money. In this image of Vladimir, the hatred of the representatives of the poor principality of Kyiv for the richer one in the 12th century was reflected. Principality of Galicia. Literary portraits princes are also laconic, vigorously inscribed in space.
On the icon of the XII century Tretyakov Gallery from the Novgorod Yuriev Monastery, George the Victorious stands with a shield behind his back, with a spear and a sword in his hands. The authors strive to emphasize the courage of the princes not only in the description, but also in the commendable characterization of the heroes, but also in the description of the action. There are almost no characters here and there is no connection between the development of historical events and characteristic features participants. Each prince performs his life's work as a representative of a certain kind, princes.
Dependent chroniclers tried to portray their prince from the point of view of ideal behavior. It was said mainly about the activities of certain strata of society. XII is characterized by the awakening of thought, Klyuchevsky believes. The initial Russian chronicle, along with other monuments of Russian literature, is a significant indicator of the growth and self-consciousness of the people in Ancient Russia. The language of the annals, preserving in church narratives and in quotations from bible books vocabulary, a form of the Church Slavonic language in other cases, it is especially informative in the patericon that is part of the folk poetic living Russian language. New genres are partly formed at the intersection of folklore and literature.
The most outstanding monument of this era is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". “The word was created in the 12th century. It was first uttered at the congress in Lubechi. The author saw the essence of this event in conveying the idea of unity. Recovery theme genre system. The work has a unity of composition. "The Word..." is dedicated to Igor's campaign. In the "Word ..." naturally, often unexpected transitions, from one part to another. the text of the Word is artistically homogeneous, in mood, thanks to a single picture of the Russian land. The theme of love and care dominates. The connection between "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and oral folk poetry most clearly felt within two genres, most often mentioned in the word Lament and song glorification - "Glory": Yaroslavna's lamentation is mentioned at least 5 times, the lamentations of the same Russian soldiers, in Igor's campaign, the lamentation of Yaroslavna's mother Lamentation is meant by the author words when he speaks of the groans of Kyiv and Chernigov and the whole Russian land, after the campaign of Igor. Twice the author cites the laments themselves: the lament of Yaroslavna, the lament of Russian wives. Repeatedly distracted from the narrative, resorting to exclamations. The proximity of the Word to weeping is strong in Yaroslavna's lamentation. The author of the Lay on Igor's Campaign constantly resorts to images of the animal world, never introduces foreign animals into his work, resorting only to images of Russian nature.
Pagan elements in the word about Igor's regiment are exposed, as you know, strongly. The harmony of the composition is maintained by dividing the word into a number of songs, the picture ends with a refrain. The poem is divided into stanzas. The composition is determined by the intention and lyrical nature, the author gives an assessment in the network of the catholic unity of the past and the present. Russian women embody care, love for the dead son. I.P. Eremin rightly notes in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" many tricks oratory. Before us in the Word, as in many ancient Russian monuments the author more often feels himself speaking than writing, his readers - listeners, not readers, his topic - a lesson, not a story.
The victory of weapons was forged in a righteous age. Focus on people who don't call different forces. The word about Igor's Campaign is a lyrical revelation to nature. In this era, genre formation takes place. The work outside the traditional genres is characteristic, to which the aforementioned "Word" and "Daniel the Sharpener's Prayer" belong.
"Prayer" was opened and partially published by N.M. Karamzin. The prayer did not come down to us in lists XVI-XVIII not earlier, with traces of later insertions and interpolations. All famous lists Prayers are clearly divided into 2 editions. The prayer of Daniel the prisoner is a letter of petition, a petition, from which it follows that a certain Daniel, judging by the text of the Prayer, is in prison. Prayer names different princes. The first is composed as follows: "The word of Daniil the Sharpener was written to his prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich." The second edition belongs to the XII century. in some sources, others - XIII century.
The system of folklore genres was sufficiently adapted, mainly, to reflect the needs of the pagan tribal community. A cult of the brothers Boris and Gleb is being created, who meekly submitted to the hand of the murderer, the followers of Svyatopolk. Princes Boris and Gleb were the first saints canonized by the Russian Church. Boris and Gleb were the first chosen ones of the Russian Church to be crowned, the first recognized miracle workers, its recognized heavenly prayer books for the new Christian people. Boris and Gleb were not martyrs for Christ, but they fell victim to a political crime in the princely civil strife, like many before and after them.
Rus. X-XI centuries. Active construction of schools, high literacy of the common population, as a rule, the appearance of written literary and chronographic monuments. Speaking about the monuments of ancient Russian literature, one can "get lost" in these wilds - there are quite a lot of works - more than 1000. A thousand handwritten creations, as it was said then, are in the wild and backward outskirts of the European continent. It's just unthinkable!
What were the monuments of ancient Russian literature? Here it is necessary to divide the writing of the Slavs into two periods: pre-Christian and Christian. In the pre-Christian period, the writing of the ancient Slavs was a pictography - a pictorial writing that did not represent the transmission of sounds and the recording of letters - it was conceptual, that is, a certain drawing could mean something, but not always the same thing. For example, the drawn Sun could mean either sunny, clear weather, or one day (in quantitative terms). In addition to pictography, in the second half of the 1st millennium AD, the Slavs appeared different kinds writing, since the Slavs lived in clans and tribes, and not always united common roots and culture, then their writing could develop separately. At that time great importance had the form of writing "devils and cuts", which was written down by more than one traveler, but was never deciphered. With this type of writing, according to medieval travelers, the Slavs made inscriptions on wooden idols of their gods and when carving inscriptions on sarcophagi and coffins of the dead. By virtue of its geographical location, Russia bordered on various cultures that had a developed sound writing system - these are the Khazars and Armenians, Greeks and Romans. In the border regions of Russia with other states, the Russians sometimes adopted their type of writing, but it did not become a national one. At the same time, it should be noted that since the ninth century in Russia, a gradual transition to the Cyrillic script - Cyrillic alphabet - begins.
After the adoption of Christianity in Russia at the end of the 10th century, the state began to massively carry out activities to switch to single system letters. This system was the Cyrillic alphabet, which, more than any other type of writing, was adapted to specific sound forms. Slavic languages. This was the reason for the choice in the direction of writing, created by the Bulgarian monks Cyril and Methodius.
Thereafter historical event in Russia, the era of the rise of writing began. In this or that large and small city, written monuments of historical and cultural character. The main directions of writing are, of course, the annals of religious monuments, meaning Christian ones.
A chronicle is a written record of history in chronological order. It cannot be said that these works were exclusively objective, since they were written at the courts of the rulers and were aimed at glorifying him and humiliating his enemies. Speaking in Russian, even then there was censorship. With regards to the second direction of writing - religious monuments, we can say that these are the first truly literary monuments filled with deep meaning and beautiful style. Basically, these are descriptions of the life of large religious figures or martyrs of the Orthodox religion.
In those ancient times, such written samples appeared as "The Truth of Yaroslav", "Joachim's Chronicle", "The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Russia", "Readings about the Life of Boris and Gleb" and "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves" and many others literary works that have come down to our days.
To the most outstanding monuments Old Russian literature, we can include such masterpieces of writing as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Tale of Bygone Years".
"The Tale of Bygone Years" is the first historical work Slavs, a chronicle that covers not only the political development of the country, but also the internal situation, including domestic relations, traditions and customs ancient population Russian lands.
"Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh" is most likely the first moralizing work of the Russians. Contains whole list instructions directed to the young, rising generation. That is, to children, both to their relatives and to everyone else. It was prescribed not to pass by a person without greeting him, to give the one who asks, to take care of the sick and the weak, and other "teachings".
The most significant monument of ancient Russian literature is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This large-scale work tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor (Svyatoslavovich), directed against the eastern neighbor, the Polovtsian nomads. It so happened that the only manuscript of this remarkable literary monument burned down in a fire in Moscow, during Patriotic War 1812. Unfortunately, there was no book printing in Russia at that time, and literary monuments were almost always in a single copy, only sometimes they were copied, and the original work was distorted. Each scribe could add something or, conversely, it might seem to him that some sentence was superfluous and should be skipped.
Thus, not all monuments of ancient Russian literature have survived to this day, but even that part of the works that have come down to us allows us to judge the creative thought and literature of the ancient Slavs as achievements that are at a high cultural level.
