Culture of Kievan Rus table folklore. Culture of Kievan Rus: a brief description

Topic: Stages of study and periodization of Russian history

Type: Test | Size: 47.06K | Downloads: 23 | Added on 12/14/14 at 13:08 | Rating: 0 | More Examinations

Control theoretical question

Stages of study and periodization of Russian history.

Stages of studying Russian history. chronicle period. Nestor. The origin of historical science. V.N. Tatishchev. Norman theory and its criticism M.V. Lomonosov. The rise of history in the 19th century N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky. Soviet historical science and her distinguished names. Periodization of the history of Russia.

Stages of studying Russian history.

Historiography is divided into several periods. The first one is pre-scientific. In this period, it is worth studying medieval philosophy, a person's perception of time, traditions, and the functions of history. It should be noted that during this period, which lasted until the beginning of the 18th century, the main forms of historical narrative were formed, such as chronicles - keeping records by year. It was this source that became the main one, it was he who was studied by the historiography of national history. When studying chronicles, it is necessary to pay attention to the principles by which they were written, the forms and style in which the works were kept. The principle of chronography is especially important, which allows you to compare events, refer them to certain dates, link them in the concept of "earlier" - "later". The second source in this period, which historiographers dealt with, is the lives of the saints. It is important to note here that the lives of the saints have stronger subjective overtones than chronicles - they turn into a kind of legends and stories. Another form of expression of historical consciousness that scientists are interested in is folklore. It is from him that you can learn about the ideas of the people about their heroes and enemies.

The second period of the historiography of the history of Russia begins in the eighteenth century and lasts until the beginning of the twentieth century. This time was qualitatively reflected in the development of history as a science and the study of the source base. This includes such changes as the secularization of science and the development of secular rather than ecclesiastical education. For the first time, translated sources imported from Europe are being processed, historical studies as such stand out on their own, and at the same time, auxiliary disciplines are being formed that help to study history. A qualitatively new stage in this period is the beginning of the publication of primary sources, which in many respects turned the attitude towards the history of their country, and first of all for the Russian intelligentsia. It is she, the intelligentsia, who initiates historical expeditions and research. The third stage is the development of historiography in the second third of the nineteenth century. It deals with issues such as relationships Russian state and Western countries, the first concepts of the development of national history arise.

The fourth stage - the second half of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century. At this time, they form methodological foundations historiography. The historiography of Russian history feels both positivism, and materialism, and neo-Kantianism. The range of research is expanding, especially attention is paid to socio-economic problems in history. At the fourth stage, the question arises of the professional training of historical personnel.

The fifth stage is the Soviet historiography of national history, which is based on a class approach to the development of society, which, in turn, was reflected in the scientific approach.

chronicle period.

The most remarkable phenomenon ancient Russian literature were chronicles. The first weather records date back to the 9th century, they were extracted from later sources of the 16th century. They are very brief: notes in one or two lines.

As a phenomenon on a national scale, chronicle writing appeared in the 11th century. People of different ages became chroniclers, and not only monks. A very significant contribution to the restoration of the history of the annals was made by such researchers as A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) and A.N. Nasonov (1898 - 1965). The first major historical work was the Code, completed in 997. Its compilers described the events of the 9th-10th centuries, ancient legends. It even includes epic court poetry that praised Olga, Svyatoslav and especially Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, in whose reign this Code was created.

The figures of the European scale should include a monk Kievo-Pechersky Monastery Nestor, who by 1113 completed his work The Tale of Bygone Years and compiled an extensive historical introduction to it. Nestor knew Russian, Bulgarian and Greek literature very well, being a very educated person. He used in his work the earlier Codes of 997, 1073 and 1093, and the events of the turn of the XI-XII centuries. covered as an eyewitness. This chronicle gave the most complete picture of early Russian history and was copied over 500 years. It must be borne in mind that the ancient Russian annals covered not only the history of Rus', but also the history of other peoples.

Secular people were also engaged in writing chronicles. For example, Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. It was in the composition of the chronicle that such beautiful works of his as “Instruction to Children” (c. 1099; subsequently supplemented, preserved in the list of 1377) have come down to us. In particular, in the "Instruction" Vladimir Monomakh holds the idea of ​​the need to repulse external enemies. In total, there were 83 "paths" - campaigns in which he participated.

In the XII century. chronicles become very detailed, and since they are written by contemporaries, the class and political sympathies of the chroniclers are very clearly expressed in them. The social order of their patrons is traced. Among the largest chroniclers who wrote after Nestor, one can single out the Kyivian Peter Borislavich. The most mysterious author in the XII-XIII centuries. was Daniil the Sharpener. It is believed that he owns two works - "Word" and "Prayer".

The "hagiographic" literature is very interesting, since in it, in addition to describing the life of canonized persons, a true picture of life in monasteries was given. For example, cases of bribery for obtaining this or that church rank or place, etc., were described. Here one can single out the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, which is a collection of stories about the monks of this monastery.

The world-famous work of ancient Russian literature was "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", the date of writing of which is attributed to 1185. This poem was imitated by contemporaries, it was quoted by Pskovites already at the beginning of the 14th century, and after the victory at Kulikovo Field (1380) in imitation of the "Word. ..” was written “Zadonshchina”. "The Word..." was created in connection with the campaign of the Seversk prince Igor against the Polovtsian Khan Konchak. Igor, overwhelmed by ambitious plans, did not unite with the Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest and was defeated. The idea of ​​unification on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion runs through the entire work. And again, as in the epics, here we are talking about defense, and not about aggression and expansion.

From the second half of the XIV century. Moscow chronicle is becoming increasingly important. In 1392 and 1408 Moscow chronicles are being created, which are of an all-Russian character. And in the middle of the XV century. the Chronograph appears, representing, in fact, the first experience of writing world history by our ancestors, and in the Chronograph an attempt was made to show the place and role of Ancient Rus' in the world historical process.

Chronicle writing as the leading genre of historical literature existed in Russia until late XVII- early 18th century It could not but experience the influence of certain aspects of European social thought. In Russian annals of the XV - XVII centuries. increased attention to the human personality, the motives of people's activities, there are historical works that are not related to the form of presentation over the years. There are attempts to go beyond literary etiquette.

Nestor

The Monk Nestor the Chronicler was born in the 50s of the 11th century in Kyiv. As a young man he came to the Monk Theodosius and became a novice. The Monk Nestor was tonsured by the successor of the Monk Theodosius, hegumen Stefan. Under him, he was ordained a hierodeacon. His high spiritual life is evidenced by the fact that he, among other venerable fathers, participated in the exorcism of the demon from Nikita the hermit (later the Novgorod saint), deceived into Jewish sophistication.

The monk deeply appreciated true knowledge, combined with humility and repentance. “Great is the benefit of the teaching of the book,” said he - books they punish us and teach us the way to repentance, for from the words of the book we gain wisdom and temperance. These are the rivers that water the universe, from which comes wisdom. There is incalculable depth in books, they console us in sorrow, they are the bridle of abstinence. If you diligently seek wisdom in books, you will gain great benefit for your soul. For he who reads books converses with God or holy men."

In the monastery, the Monk Nestor carried out the obedience of a chronicler. In the 1980s he wrote "Reading on the Life and Destruction of the Blessed Passion-Bearers Boris and Gleb" in connection with the transfer of their holy relics to Vyshgorod in 1072 (Comm. 2 May). In the 80s, the Monk Nestor compiled the life of the Monk Theodosius of the Caves, and in 1091, on the eve of the patronal feast of the Caves monastery, hegumen John instructed him to dig from the ground for transferring to the church the holy relics of the Monk Theodosius (commemorated the acquisition of August 14).

The main feat of the life of the Monk Nestor was the compilation of the "Tale of Bygone Years" by 1112-1113.

"Behold the tales of bygone years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began before the prince and from where the Russian land came to be" - this is how the Monk Nestor defined the goal of his work from the first lines. An unusually wide range of sources (previous Russian chronicles and legends, monastic records, Byzantine chronicles of John Malala and George Amartol, various historical collections, stories of the elder boyar Jan Vyshatich, merchants, warriors, travelers), understood from a single, strictly ecclesiastical point of view, allowed the Monk Nestor to write the history of Rus' as an integral part of world history, the history of the salvation of the human race.

The monk-patriot sets out the history of the Russian Church in the main moments of its historical formation. He speaks of the first mention of the Russian people in church sources - in 866, under the holy Patriarch Photius of Constantinople; narrates about the creation of the Slavonic charter by the saints Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius, about the Baptism of Saint Equal-to-the-Apostles Olga in Constantinople.

The chronicle of St. Nestor has preserved for us the story of the first Orthodox church in Kyiv (under the year 945), about the confessional feat of the holy Varangian martyrs (under the year 983), about the "testing of the faith" by the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Vladimir (986) and the Baptism of Rus' (988). We are indebted to the first Russian church historian for information about the first metropolitans of the Russian Church, about the emergence of the Pechersk monastery, about its founders and ascetics. The time of the Monk Nestor was not easy for the Russian land and the Russian Church. Rus' was tormented by princely civil strife, the steppe nomadic Polovtsy ravaged cities and villages with predatory raids, drove Russian people into slavery, burned churches and monasteries.

The Monk Nestor died about the year 1114, having bequeathed to the chronicler monks of the Caves the continuation of his great work. Hegumen Sylvester, who gave the Tale of Bygone Years a modern look, hegumen Moses Vydubitsky, who extended it until 1200, and finally, Abbot Lavrenty, who wrote in 1377 the oldest of the lists that have come down to us that have preserved the "Tale" of St. Nestor ( "Laurentian Chronicle").

The Monk Nestor was buried in the Near Caves Saint Anthony Pechersky. The Church also honors his memory together with the Cathedral of the Fathers Resting in the Near Caves on September 28 and on the 2nd Week of Great Lent, when the Council of all the Kiev-Pechersk Fathers is celebrated.

The origin of historical science.

History as a science began to be born in Russia, as well as in Europe, in the 18th century. But in Russia, it got back on its feet in more difficult conditions: in the country for a very long time, compared with Europe, there were no secular higher educational institutions that would train scientific personnel. In Europe, the first secular university appeared in the 12th century, and in Russia the Academy of Sciences opened only in 1725, the first university (Moscow) in 1755. The first Russian researchers had to face the virtual absence of a source base, which is the foundation of historical science . When Peter 1 issued a decree on the need to write the history of Russia and ordered the Synod to collect manuscripts by dioceses, only 40 of them were submitted, and of these, only 8 of a historical nature.

The first attempt to write a systematic review did not belong to academicians, and not even to a historian by education. Its author was V. N. Tatishchev (1686--1750), who was a civil servant and a well-educated person. It was the first systematic work on national history. In addition, Tatishchev created instructions for collecting geographical and archaeological information about Russia, adopted by the Academy of Sciences. At the same time, assessing Tatishchev's contribution to the development of historical science, we note that he failed to comprehend collected material, connect it with a conceptual idea. His history of Russia was a collection of annalistic data. The lack of literary processing and heavy language made Tatishchev's work difficult to perceive even by his contemporaries.

Tatishchev V.N.

Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) was not a professional historian. He didn't get historical education, for such a thing did not yet exist in Russia. As V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote, "for himself he became a professor of history." Tatishchev was born into the family of a Pskov landowner. Among his relatives was Tsarina Praskovya, the wife of Ivan V. He graduated from the Engineering and Artillery School in Moscow. "The nestling of Petrov's nest", he was a participant in the Great Northern War, carried out a variety of orders from the emperor. He visited Germany and Sweden on his assignments, twice (1720-1722 and 1734-1737) managed state-owned factories in the Urals, founded Yekaterinburg there, actively participated in the palace struggle during the accession of Anna Ioannovna in 1730, was the governor of Astrakhan (1741-1745 ).

Tatishchev in 1719 received the task of Peter I to compile a geographical description of Russia. Since then, he began to collect materials on Russian history. He compiled the first encyclopedic dictionary - "Russian Lexicon", brought to the letter "k". Peru Tatishchev also owns the first scientific generalizing work on the history of our country - "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times." He began to write it in the 20s of the XVIII century. The presentation was brought up to 1577. Tatishchev stood on the positions of a rationalistic explanation of history. For the first time, he made an attempt to identify, from the point of view of science, the laws of Russian historical process. “Science is the main thing for a person to know himself,” Tatishchev wrote. He believed that knowledge, enlightenment determine the course of history.

Tatishchev was the first to propose a periodization of the history of Russia from the point of view of the development of the state: 1) "perfect autocracy" (862-1132); 2) "aristocracy, but disorderly" (1132-1462); 3) "restoration of autocracy" (since 1462).

Tatishchev's ideal was an absolute monarchy. He tried to explain the causes of events through the activities prominent people. Tatishchev's work in many ways still resembles a chronicle, the material in it is arranged in accordance with the reigns of the princes. Until now, Tatishchev's attempts to critically treat sources remain valuable, many of which, subsequently lost, were preserved only in the presentation of the historian. The debate about their authenticity continues today.

Norman theory and its criticism by M.V. Lomonosov

Norman theory (Normanism) is a trend in historiography that develops the concept that the people-tribe of Rus comes from Scandinavia during the expansion period of the Vikings, who were called Normans in Western Europe.

Supporters of Normanism attribute the Normans (Varangians of Scandinavian origin) to the founders of the first states of the Eastern Slavs: Novgorod, and then Kievan Rus. In fact, this is following the historiographic concept of the Tale of Bygone Years (early 12th century), supplemented by the identification of the chronicle Varangians as Scandinavian-Normans. The main disputes flared up around the ethnicity of the Varangians, at times intensified by political ideologization.

The Norman theory gained wide popularity in Russia in the first half of the 18th century thanks to the activities of German historians in Russian Academy Sciences Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738), later Gerard Friedrich Miller, Strube de Pyrmont and August Ludwig Schlozer.

Against the Norman theory, seeing in it the thesis of the backwardness of the Slavs and their unpreparedness for the formation of a state, M.V. Lomonosov actively spoke out, proposing a different, non-Scandinavian identification of the Varangians. Lomonosov, in particular, claimed that Rurik was from the Polabian Slavs, who had dynastic ties with the princes of the Ilmen Slovenes (this was the reason for his invitation to reign). One of the first Russian historians mid-eighteenth century V. N. Tatishchev, having studied the “Varangian question”, did not come to a definite conclusion regarding the ethnicity of the Varangians called to Rus', but made an attempt to unite opposing views. In his opinion, based on the "Joachim Chronicle", the Varangian Rurik descended from the Norman prince ruling in Finland, and the daughter of the Slavic elder Gostomysl.

The heyday of history in the 19th century N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) is rightfully recognized as the greatest Russian noble historian. The son of a landowner in the Simbirsk province, Karamzin studied at home, then in a private boarding school in Moscow, attended lectures at Moscow University. After traveling around Europe, he published the Moscow Journal (1791-1792), Vestnik Evropy (1802-1809), where he acted as a sentimentalist writer.

In 1801, he received an official order from Alexander 1 - to write the history of Russia and the position of a historiographer. Wonderful Writer for the rest of his life "to be tonsured as a historian." Caught on public service, Karamzin gained access to state archives, repositories of annals and other sources on Russian history. Based on the works of his predecessors (V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov, M.M. Shcherbatov and others), N.M. Karamzin created a 12-volume "History of the Russian State". The presentation in it was brought up to 1612.

“The appearance of the History of the Russian State...,” wrote A.S. Pushkin, “made a lot of noise and made a strong impression... Secular people rushed to read the history of their fatherland. Ancient Russia, it seemed, was found by Karamzin, like America by Columbus . They didn't talk about anything else for a while."

"History of the Russian State" was written for a wide range of readers. Karamzin assessed the actions and deeds of real historical figures from the standpoint of common sense, explaining them by the psychology and character of each character.

As a rule, the material in Karamzin's work is arranged according to princes and reigns. The periodization of Russian history was new. According to Karamzin, it was divided into the most ancient (from Rurik to Ivan III), a characteristic feature of which was the system of destinies. Middle (from Ivan 111 to Peter I) with autocracy and New (from Peter I to Alexander I), when civil customs changed dramatically.

This periodization is largely due to the concept of the historian. the main idea permeating labor is the need for a wise autocracy for Russia. “Russia was based on victories and unity of command, perished from discord, and was saved by the wise autocracy,” Karamzin wrote in his other essay, “A Note on the Ancient and new Russia"It should be noted that not all autocracy Karamzin considered a boon for Russia. The people, in his opinion, had the right to revolt against princes and tsars who violated the principles of wise autocratic power. Karamzin condemned the tyranny of Ivan the Terrible, the activities of Anna Ioannovna, Paul I.

"History of the Russian State" became for many years a reference book on national history. Karamzin's work was written at the level of world historical knowledge of that era.

S.M. Soloviev

Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820-1879) is rightfully recognized as the most outstanding Russian historian of the 19th century. He was formed as a researcher in an era when the question of the abolition of serfdom was being decided. At the same time, a controversy unfolded between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways of Russia's development.

According to his convictions and views, S. M. Solovyov belonged to the number of Westerners. He was born in Moscow in the family of a priest. His whole life was connected with Moscow University, where he went from student to rector. Academician S. M. Solovyov was also the director of the Armory, chaired the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, was a history teacher of the future Emperor Alexander III.

According to his convictions, S. M. Solovyov was a moderate liberal. As a scientist, he was formed under the influence of Hegelian dialectics and the idea of ​​"organic", i.e. objective and regular nature of the development of the historical process. He believed that the historian should "understand ... the gradual course of history, the succession of phenomena, the natural, legitimate emergence of some phenomena from others, subsequent from the previous ones."

The main work of the whole life of S.M. Solovyov is "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes.

Based on the ideas of Hegelian dialectics, S. M. Solovyov saw the reasons for the movement of Russian history in the interaction of three objectively existing factors. As such, he put forward the "nature of the country", "the nature of the tribe" and "the course of external events." Adhering to the comparative historical method, S. M. Soloviev saw the originality of the history of Russia and Western Europe, but not their opposite. In his opinion, nature for the West was a mother, for Russia - a stepmother. In the east of Europe there are no natural boundaries in the form of mountain ranges and sea coasts, there is little population, the threat of nomadic invasions is constantly felt, the climate is sharply continental. On the territory of Eastern Europe, there was a centuries-old struggle between "forests" and "steppes", the process of development (colonization) of new territories, the transition from tribal to state principles was underway.

According to S.M. Solov'sva, the state, "the highest incarnation of the people," played a huge role in the history of Russia. Objectively acting geographical and ethnic factors led to the emergence of Eastern Europe the largest power. "The vast plain predetermined the formation of this state," Solovyov wrote. The course of external events was thus dictated by real objective tasks.

The most important milestone in the history of Russia S.M.Solov'sv considered Peter's reforms. It was with Peter I that he began a new Russian history. The scientist showed the organic connection, vital necessity, regularity and continuity of Peter's transformations with the previous course of the country's development.

S. M. Solovyov, from the position of his time, created an expressive, integral and most complete picture of the history of Russia. Until now, "History of Russia since ancient times" retains its value as a generally recognized encyclopedia of Russian history.

V.O.Klyuchevsky

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) came from a family of a priest in the Penza province.

His whole life, like the life of S.M. Solovyov, was connected with Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1865. Klyuchevsky became Solovyov's successor in the department of Russian history. His brilliant, full of wit, bright in form and imagery lectures won him immense popularity.

By his convictions, Klyuchevsky was a moderate liberal. He did not accept revolutionary views and put science in the first place, "which abides forever and never falls."

Along with lectures, V.O. Klyuchevsky became famous and famous for his historical works, among which the result of his research and lecture activities is the “Course of Russian History”, which was very popular during the author’s lifetime and has not lost its significance even today. The presentation in it is brought to the peasant and zemstvo reforms of the 1860s.

According to his philosophical views, V.O. Klyuchsvskiy stood on the positions of positivism. Positivism (from the Latin positivus - "positive") sought to reveal the totality of specific knowledge, facts, internal and external factors, the combination of which determines the course of the historical process.

Klyuchevsky believed that world history develops within the framework of " general laws structure of human society". At the same time, each country, each "local history" is characterized by features due to a combination of geographical, ethnic, economic, social, political factors. Moreover, for each period of history, the combination of factors generates a certain amount of ideas. The change of these ideas and worldviews is the driving force of history.The starting point in the history of each country is the natural-geographical factor.V.O.Klyuchsvsky believed that the development (colonization) of the territory played a decisive role in the history of Russia.

V. O. Klyuchevsky created a new general concept of Russian history, dividing it into periods, each of which represented a certain stage in the life of the country. VIII - XIII centuries. V.O. Klyuchevsky characterized Dnieper, urban, commercial Rus as Rus'. XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. - as Rus' of the Upper Volga, specific princely, free-agricultural. Second half of the 15th - early 17th centuries - this is Rus' the Great, Moscow, tsarist-boyar, military-agricultural. The time after the turmoil and before the great reforms, V.O. Klyuchsvsky called the "new period of Russian history", the all-Russian, imperial-noble period of serfdom, agriculture and factory production.

VO Klyuchevsky and his colleagues gave a vivid and multifaceted picture of Russian history. Subsequently, they will be reproached for not understanding the patterns of Russia's development. And the last stage in the development of pre-revolutionary historiography (the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries) will be called the era of the crisis of bourgeois science, which failed to see in the history of the country the laws of its socialist transformation.

Soviet historical science and its outstanding names.

Soviet historiography

Soviet historical science, in the difficult conditions for the development of historiography in post-revolutionary Russia, as a whole, successfully performed its social functions. New historical materials were identified and collected, attempts were made to reread the past, and discussions were held. New archives, museums, scientific centers were created. Socio-economic problems and the movements of the masses were especially successfully studied.

However, the dominance in the theoretical sphere of only one concept significantly fettered the creativity of scientists. It was easier for those who dealt with the more ancient stages of the country's development. As for Soviet history, then the assessments decreed from above could not but triumph here. Historical materialism has become the only philosophy of history.

The materialist understanding of history is based on the doctrine of socio-economic formations. The class struggle was recognized as the driving force of history.

Society in its development goes through a consistent, natural change of certain stages and phases, which are formed on the basis of a certain level of economic development. K.Marx and F.Engls called these stages socio-economic formations. A socio-economic formation is a historically defined type of society, representing a special stage in its development (primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist). The economic basis of each formation is determined by the dominant mode of production of material goods. However, there are no absolutely pure formations. In each of them, along with the dominant mode of production relations, remnants of the old ones are preserved and the beginnings of new production relations arise. They are usually called structures. For example, under the dominance of feudal production relations, primitive communal and slave-owning relations (ways) are preserved, and at a certain stage a capitalist way of economy is born. Socio-economic formations make it possible to trace the progressive development of mankind from stage to stage as a whole.

Periodization of the history of Russia.

1. Old Russian state (IX-XIII centuries)

2. Specific Rus' (XII-XVI centuries)

Novgorod Republic (1136-1478)

Vladimir principality (1157-1389)

Principality of Lithuania and Russia (1236-1795)

Moscow principality (1263-1547)

3. Russian kingdom (1547-1721)

4. Russian Empire (1721-1917)

5. Russian republic (1917)

6. RSFSR (1917-1922)

7. USSR (1922-1991)

8. the Russian Federation(since 1991)

Control test tasks

1. Match the names of Russian historians with their main works:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. Russian History

2. M.V. Lomonosov B. Ancient Russian history

3. N.M. Karamzin V. History of the Russian State

4. S.M. Solovyov G. History of Russia since ancient times

1. Leadership in collection and critical analysis historical sources in Russia belongs to historians:

1. V.N. Tatishchev.
2. G.F. Miller.
3. M.V. Lomonosov.
4. N.M. Karamzin.

3. Match the historians and the era in which they lived:

1. V.N. Tatishchev A. The era of revolutionary upheavals

2. S.M. Solovyov B. The era of Peter the Great

3. M.V. Lomonosov V. The era of "palace coups"

4. M.N. Pokrovsky G. The era of bourgeois reforms

Control analytical task

Comment on the main idea of ​​the text belonging to G. V. Plekhanov:

“When people begin to think about their own social system, you can say with confidence that this system has outlived its time and is preparing to give way to a new order, true character which will again become clear to people only after it has played its historical role. The owl of Minerva will fly out again only at night.

The main idea of ​​the text is that society will know all the advantages and disadvantages of the social system only when it is replaced by another system and that there is no point in looking for ideal legislation or social system which will be applicable at all times and for all peoples. Everything has an expiration date. Everything changes and everything is good in its place in its time.

Literature

1. Vernadsky V. I. Proceedings on the history of science in Russia. M.: Nauka, 1988. 464 p.

2. Vladimirova O.V. History: a complete reference book / O.V. Vladimirova.- M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2012.-318

3. Ziborov V.K. Russian chronicle of the XI-XVIII centuries. - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University, 2002.

4. Kireeva R.A. The study of Patriotic historiography in pre-revolutionary Russia since the middle. 19th century to 1917. M., 1983

5. Merkulov V. I. Where are the Varangian guests from? - M., 2005. - S. 33-40. — 119 p.

6. Tikhomirov M. N. Russian chronicle. — M.: Nauka, 1979.

7. Yukht A. I. State activity of V. N. Tatishchev in the 20s-early 30s of the XVIII century / Ed. ed. doc. ist. Sciences A. A. Preobrazhensky .. - M .: Nauka, 1985. - 368 p.

« Who is good to live in Rus'? "(N. Nekrasov, prod. "Who is it good to live in Rus'?")

« Rus', where are you going? ? (N.V. Gogol, prod. "Dead Souls")

- « Who's guilty? "(A. I. Herzen, prod. "Who is to blame?")

- « What to do? "(I. G. Chernyshevsky, prod. "What to do")

« Who to be? » (V.V. Mayakovsky, prod. “Who to be?”)

Periodization of the history of Russia

Traditionally, Russian history is counted from 862 when the Varangians from Scandinavia came to Rus' and became princes of the Russian lands. Russian civilization is relatively young.

The history of Russia can be divided into 5 cycles:

9th-13th centuries

The heyday was reached under Yaroslav the Wise in the 12th century, when Kievan Rus became one of the leaders of medieval society. The cycle ended as a result of the feudal fragmentation of the state and the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

14th c. - early 17th century

The center of the country was moved to Moscow, formed Moscow State. The cycle reached its peak under Ivan III and ended in a national catastrophe in Time of Troubles.

Early 17th century - early 20th century

The third cycle began with the accession of the Romanov dynasty and reached its peak in the reign of Peter I and Catherine II. the Russian Empire became a world power. However, then conservative tendencies prevailed, there was a delay in the transition to an industrial society (almost a century compared to Europe). The completion of this cycle is a series of national catastrophes: defeat in the war with Japan, in the First World War, the collapse of Russian Empire and civil war.

20 20 c. – 1991

The Russian Bolsheviks, with labor and violence, reassembled most of the disintegrated empire under the rule of a single center. A local civilization is reborn again, but for the first time not under the flag of Orthodoxy, but of socialism. Soviet Union became a superpower. This cycle ended with economic and geopolitical weakening, internal national issues and then the collapse of the USSR.

Many people think that in the 20th century. the natural course of Russian history was interrupted by a catastrophe. Tens of millions of people died at the hands of fellow citizens and with their consent. There was a sharp degradation of morals and culture. Sometimes this situation is compared with the death of classical ancient culture.

Since 1991

Rejecting the socialist ideology and overcoming the economic crisis of the 1990s, the Russian Federation looking for a way to a better future.

(Based on the book by Kononenko, B.I.: Culture. Civilization. Russia.)

Features of Russian history

Several times in the thousand-year history of Russia, a radical socio-political and economic transformation took place (the era of the reign of Peter I, socialism, the reforms of the 90s of the 20th century).
Several times the country entered a dead end (Time of Troubles, socialism). The population often had to experience disasters. There were wars and famines.

However, against the tragic background of the history of Russia, a high culture arose, stages of upsurges of spirituality were observed, and world successes in science were achieved.

East-West

In Russian history, the eastern and western phases alternate. Russians see their country as largely Asian, which needs to be civilized along the European path.
Western historians see in Russia rather a type of Eastern society (the person rules, not the law; power is concentrated in the hands of one person; there is no understanding of the individual as an absolute value).
However, Russian civilization can generally be considered hybrid: it includes elements of Europeanism and Asianism.

Eastern Slavs and Kievan Rus

East Slavs

In the 6th-8th centuries. in the process of the final stage Great Migration different tribes Eastern Slavs (for example, Vyatichi, Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) settled in a vast area from the Middle Dnieper in the south to Lake Ladoga in the north, from the Western Bug in the west to the Volga in the east.
Although the conditions for effective development Because of the harsh climate, agriculture in these areas was unsuitable (the fertile southern steppe regions were occupied by nomadic tribes - Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Turks, Khazars, etc.), the Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture, as well as hunting, fishing and cattle breeding. Traded in honey, wax, furs.
At the head of the East Slavic communities were princes with retinues. Their residences were fortified settlements - castles.

The religion of the Eastern Slavs was paganism - they revered natural gods (Perun - the main god, the god of thunder and lightning, Radegast - the god of the sun).

Rus and Kievan Rus

The north-south water trade route passed along the rivers Dnieper and Volkhov "from the Varangians to the Greeks". This route was chosen by the Varangians, the northern tribe of Scandinavians (Vikings) for trade with Byzantium. Large cities arose on it - Novgorod and Kyiv.

In 862, the Varangians created the earliest union of East Slavic lands in Novgorod - Rus, later called Kievan Rus.
The Varangians left traces in the Russian language - for example, the name Vladimir = Waldemar, Olga = Helga. The word "Rus" probably comes from the Finnish "Ruotsi", which, according to one hypothesis, was the name of the tribes of the Eastern Slavs.

The first ruler of Rus' is the Varangian prince (Hrörekr, Roderick) who came to Novgorod. The founder of the first dynasty of Russian rulers - Rurikovich. Under Rurik's heir, prince Oleg, Kyiv was annexed to his lands, which became the capital of the principality.

In 988 under the prince Vladimir Orthodox Christianity was adopted, borrowed from Byzantium. A sculpture of the pagan god Perun was thrown into the Dnieper River in Kyiv.
After baptism, Slavic writing, created in the 9th century, penetrates into Rus'. Cyril and Methodius.

Kievan Rus developed intensive trade and cultural ties with Byzantium. Byzantine civilization left many traces in Russian society.

Peaks reach Kievan Rus in the middle of the 11th century. at Yaroslav the Wise. At that time, it was part of the advanced European states, and its rich diplomatic and trade ties with Europe were strengthened. Yaroslav's sons married European princesses, daughters married European kings.
Under Yaroslav, the first set of laws of Ancient Rus' was adopted - Russian Truth .
In 1125, with the end of the reign Vladimir Monomakh, Kievan Rus broke up into separate principalities.

The first written monument testifying to the early history of Russia is the chronicle Tale of Bygone Years , created by monks in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.

At the initial stage of the development of Rus' played an important role geographical position at the crossroads of Eurasian trade and migration routes. The history of that time is an almost continuous struggle between settled (mainly Slavic) and nomadic (mainly Asian) peoples. Kievan Rus blocked the way to the west for the hordes of nomads. There is a myth about Russia as a "shield of Europe".

Period of feudal fragmentation

After the collapse of Kievan Rus, a system of separate, actually independent principalities was formed. They developed around the large cities of Kievan Rus. The most significant: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov, later Tverskoe.

Novgorod land

Novgorod was the most developed, the largest trading center. He had his own money, laws, army, management system ("boyar republic"). The most valuable architectural monuments arose here.
The famous prince was from Novgorod Alexander Nevskiy, who twice defended the land from enemies - from the Swedes (battle on the Neva River, 1240) and the Teutonic Knights (Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipsi, 1242).

Mongol-Tatar yoke

At the beginning of the 13th c. a large army of new nomads led by Genghis Khan approached the southeastern borders of Rus'.
In 1237, in the lower reaches of the Volga River, an alliance of Mongol tribes was founded Golden Horde. From here the Mongols invaded Russian lands, took Ryazan, Vladimir, Moscow, and ravaged Kyiv. From Rus', the Mongol troops began a campaign in Central Europe.
For 240 years, the Russian lands were practically a protectorate of the Mongol Empire and paid an annual tribute to it.
In 1380 the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Tatars battle on the Kulikovo field and marked the beginning of liberation.

Consequences of the invasion

Many cities were destroyed, crafts were forgotten, construction was stopped. The invasion caused a deep decline in culture, a long lag of Russia from Western Europe.

An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar. (Russian folk proverb)

Moscow State

The Moscow princes took advantage of Moscow's advantageous position in the center of the Russian principalities and, with the help of the Golden Horde, eliminated their rivals (the princes of the cities of Vladimir, Ryazan and Tver). Moscow began to claim the role of the center in the process of "gathering Russian lands."
In the middle of the 15th century The Horde broke up into the Crimean, Astrakhan, Kazan and Siberian khanates.

Ivan III

In 1462, Ivan III, "the Grand Duke of Moscow and All Rus'" came to the throne. The era of his reign is associated with the centralization of the country and calm on its eastern borders. Ivan III annexed specific principalities: suppressed separatism in Novgorod, conquered Yaroslavl, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan. During the reign of the heirs of Ivan III, the borders of the Moscow State continued to expand further.

The ideological platform of the Moscow State

• the ancient origin of the power of the rulers from the Rurik dynasty
• the power of the sovereign is from God himself, the ruler is a fighter for the true faith
• Moscow is the "third Rome" (Moscow is the spiritual center of world Christianity)

After overcoming the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a huge rise of culture. Stone Kremlin cathedrals grew up, the most valuable monuments of painting (icons and frescoes by Andrei Rublev) and literature (chronicles, hagiographies) arose.

Under Ivan III, the first central authorities(“orders” and institutions that decide matters of state affairs - for example, the Posolsky order, the predecessor of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
Was written Sudebnik , a new set of laws.
A merchant class is being formed (for example, the famous old Stroganov family), crafts and construction are developing. However, in the economic field, the life of people (the population numbered about 6.5 million) in the Moscow state developed unevenly - ups and downs were replaced by stagnation, crop failures and plague epidemics were frequent.

Ivan IV the Terrible

In 1533, the three-year-old Ivan IV (later nicknamed the Terrible) came to the Moscow throne. All his childhood and youth, when he could not actually rule, there was a struggle of boyar groups at the court.
In 1547, 16-year-old Ivan, as the first Russian Grand Duke, was officially crowned king.

Personality of Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV grew up in an atmosphere of conspiracies and murders, without a mother, which greatly influenced his psyche. After the death of his beloved wife, he lost the last signs of humanity. The king, in a fit of anger, even killed his son.

Public Administration Reforms

The young tsar, with his boyar assistants, carried out a series of reforms.
Created the first Russian parliament - Zemsky Sobor. A system of orders central authorities governing different areas of the state.
The population paid taxes in cash and in kind.

Development of trade

In Russia, Ivan the Terrible developed industry and trade relations with other countries, mainly with Persia and England. English and Dutch merchants and entrepreneurs often arrived in Russia at that time.

Foreign policy and wars

A semi-regular army arises, and the tsar fights the enemies of Russia by military means. He manages to conquer the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (their lands turn into almost deserted spaces); later the Siberian Khanate was also defeated. Lands along the entire course of the Volga were annexed to Russia, and the occupied territories were colonized. Russia for the first time turned into a multinational state (non-Slavic and non-Orthodox peoples lived in the newly annexed territories).

At the end of the 50s. 16th century started Livonian Wars(Livonia - today's Latvia and Estonia), which ended in the actual defeat of Russia.

Repression

Gradually, the sole power of the monarch was strengthened, his suspicion deepened; the policy of repression affected all segments of the population.
The king divided the state in two: into the so-called. "oprichnina", to which those whom he trusted were ranked (the territory of the "oprichnina" occupied a third of the country). Here the boyars, who became the executors of the policy of tsarist terror, managed in their own way, not constraining themselves with any laws. It was forbidden to talk about the "oprichnina" in the presence of foreigners. The rest of Russia was called "zemshchina".
During the terror killed many thousands of people. The most terrible evil was the defeat and depopulation of Novgorod.

Consequences of the reign of Ivan IV

Muscovite Rus', headed by the first tsar, expanded significantly, turned into a multinational state and began to be called Russia. A rigidly centralized monarchy was created.

Time of Troubles

(vague = strange, obscure; turmoil - excitement, rebellion)
The Time of Troubles or Troubles is the name of the stage in the history of Russia, when dynasties changed in difficult and unclear conditions.
After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible in 1584, his weak-minded son became the heir to the throne. Fedor I who entrusted the conduct of public affairs to his brother-in-law, guardsman Boris Godunov. The second son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitriy died unexpectedly at the age of eight; Godunov was unofficially accused of his murder. After the death of Tsar Fyodor, the Zemsky Sobor elected Godunov as Tsar. The Rurik dynasty was cut short.

Reign of Boris Godunov

The reign of Boris Godunov was plagued by failures - a terrible crop failure and famine, epidemics, invasions, uprisings, in which the people saw signs of God's wrath.
At the end of the 16th century measures were taken to establish serfdom in Russia.

Impostors

In an atmosphere of general discontent and chaos, impostors appear who act under the guise of the heirs of Ivan IV.
In Poland (at that time the Commonwealth), a young man declared himself miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry. Boris Godunov was killed as a result of a conspiracy, and after the capture of Moscow by the Poles in 1605, an impostor was elevated to the throne in Russia. He entered the history of Russia under the name False Dmitry I. The Russians learned that this was not a real Russian tsar, as various legends convey, for example, by the fact that he did not sleep after dinner, as was customary in Russia, and did not go to the bathhouse. The conspirators soon got rid of the new king.

Then the royal throne passed from hand to hand, for some time it was again at the disposal of the Poles.
Only in 1613, with the help of the people's patriotic movement (led by Novgorodians Minin and Pozharsky), the Russian throne was liberated from the power of foreigners. Zemsky Sobor elected to reign Mikhail Romanov. The reign of the Romanov dynasty begins.

The reign of Mikhail Romanov

The tightening of serfdom is connected with the first decades of the Romanovs' power. Peasant resistance culminated in Revolt of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1667–1671).
Cossacks are former serfs who ran away from their owners, free people living on the outskirts of Russia.

Introduction

Folklore of Kievan Rus

Theater of Russian civilization in the Kievan period

Literature of ancient Rus'

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (X - XVII centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted the traditions of ancient, primarily Greek, culture.

It is important to note that Russian art period of the Middle Ages was formedin the struggle of two ways - patriarchal and feudal, and two religions - paganism and Christianity. And just as traces of the patriarchal way of life can be traced for a long time in the art of feudal Rus', so paganism reminded of itself in almost all its forms. The process of getting rid of paganism was spontaneous, but still attempts were made to strengthen the new religion, to make it close and accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; elements of folk deification of nature penetrated into it, and some saints began to be attributed the role of old gods.

Having adopted Christianity from Byzantium, Rus' naturally adopted certain foundations of the language of culture. But these foundations were reworked and acquired in Rus' their specific, deeply national forms. “We took the Byzantine Gospel and tradition from Byzantium,” wrote A.S. Pushkin. Of course, like any art of the Middle Ages, the art of Ancient Rus' follows a certain canon, traceable in architectural forms, and in iconography - in painting. Even samples were created - "cuts," "originals," facial and sensible (in the first it was shown how to write, in the second it was "interpreted," it was told), but following the canon, and contrary to them, the artist's rich creative personality skillfully manifested itself. Based on the age-old traditions of Eastern European art, Russian masters managed to create their own national art, enrich European culture new, inherent only in Rus' forms of temples, original wall paintings and iconography, which cannot be confused with Byzantine, despite the commonality of iconography and the apparent closeness of the pictorial language.

In pre-Mongolian times, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities," as its contemporaries called it in antiquity, comparing its beauty and significance with Constantinople. The growth of Kiev's power was facilitated by its geographical position at the crossroads of trade routes from the Scandinavian countries to the south, to Tsar-grad, from the west, from Germany, to Khorezm. Under Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, Kievan Rus became a strong state, previously unknown to the Eastern Slavs. The Russian army kept both the Byzantines and the Khazars in fear. The Western Slavs sought friendship with Russia, the German emperors entered into alliances. Russian princes gave their daughters in marriage to foreign sovereigns. Thus, the international position of Kievan Rus was strengthened.

This work reflects the main areas of art of Kievan Rus: folklore, music, theater, architecture, fine arts (icon painting), literature.

For this, the literature of such authors as Barskaya N.A., Lebedeva Yu.L., Muravyov A.V. was used. other.

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. It connects a person with a social group: and with the immediate environment - a family or a friend, and a wider social group - a clan, a tribe, a nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. At the stage of "literary language" it becomes an instrument of education, science, and literature.

Before reaching this final cultural stage, the language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression of individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition were preserved mainly among the peasantry, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" became almost synonymous with the concept of "folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In the ancient period, the situation was different, since the development of creative abilities in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kyiv period, after the introduction of Christianity in Russia and the appearance of written texts, a kind of dualism was formed in literary art. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

“For many centuries, Russian written literature remained almost entirely the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the Old Russian literary heritage almost all consists of the biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and annals in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition.

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: “You can’t throw out a word from a song.” It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and only at the very recent times the sources of folklore began to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still in high esteem.

Apart from The Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator belonging to the aristocracy class, the first written text of a Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known Russian manuscript folk ballads, apparently created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as chaplain to English merchants in Russia. The Englishman, therefore, has the honor of being a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of us famous works Russian folklore, including folk prose, such as fairy tales, recorded in writing or, more recently, in sound during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials, other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. So, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, to try to select from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is indeed an extremely difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much beyond the Kyiv period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Traces of pagan beliefs, worship of the Sun and Earth, are visible in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Russian Christianity, the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the enemy of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the variant readings of the surviving texts is a Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly combatants of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble, generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes is Churilo Plenkovic, whom no girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with the Byzantine Empire. The famous poem "Sadko" , an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different city. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream, not in a choh."

Returning to the “steppe epics”, it should be emphasized that some of them have parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. For example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in separate Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor (“prince of the holy mountains”). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. /> The fairy tale has been unusually popular among the Russian people throughout the entire history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy-tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.

Music

The study of ancient Russian folklore is just as important for understanding the historical basis of Russian music as it is for an adequate approach to Russian poetry.

Russian song has its own melodic, harmonic and rhythmic features. Some ancient Russian songs are composed in the so-called pentatonic scale, for the shortest interval in which a “tone” or “full interval” is adopted. As Prince N.S. Trubetskoy, a similar sound range is found in the folk music of the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins - the Bashkirs, Siberian Tatars, Turks of Central Asia, as well as among the natives of Siam, Burma and Indochina.

In this sense, the music of at least one group of ancient Russian folk songs can be called Eurasian rather than European. In Ukraine, the pentatonic scale is found only in a small number of very ancient songs, among other Slavs its use is even more rare. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that the pentatonic scale was also preserved in the Celtic folk song, among the Scots, the Irish and in Britain. Other Russian songs seem to follow the traditions of ancient Greek music.

It can be added that the Russian folk song is predominantly diatonic, elements of chromaticism are very rare. Most Russian songs are polyphonic. Each party is independent and beautiful in its own way, but all serve the whole. The song begins with a singer who sings the theme. Other singers modulate and embellish it, creating an original counterpoint. In this respect, Russian folk song differs markedly from the folk songs of the Eastern peoples, most of which sing in unison.

The rhythm of a Russian song is partly determined by the nature of the living language, but also largely depends on the artistic intuition of the creator and performer. Typical time signatures are 5/4 and 7/4.

In addition to choral singing, Kievan Rus also loved solo singing, especially at princely feasts, where they performed heroic ballads, such as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In most cases, the singer himself accompanied himself on the harp. In the Lay there is a poetic description of such a performance: “It was not Boyan who sent ten falcons to a flock of swans, but he laid his skillful fingers on live strings. And those strings, as if themselves, sang glory to the princes.

Apparently there were many professional singers. They moved from one national holiday to another, performing not only in the prince's mansions, but also at city market squares and rural fairs. They were mostly known as buffoons. The buffoons worked in groups, and, as a class, they must be given credit for preserving the traditions of ancient folk art in Russia through the centuries.

In addition to the harp, in ancient Rus' they used other different musical instruments: snuffles, tambourines. The latter were also an indispensable part of military bands, along with boar and trumpets. Undoubtedly, some oriental instruments were well known, such as the marmot (zurna) and domra. In addition to military bands, the princes kept special ensembles for palace feasts and festivities.

Concerning religious music, then we know little about pagan rites. Masudi mentions musical melodies that the traveler could hear when approaching certain pagan temples in the land of the Slavs. It is known that the pagan priests of the Baltic Slavs used pipes. Perhaps the pagan ritual also included some kind of singing and music.

After the baptism of Rus', church singing became an essential element of Russian musical culture. In accordance with the Byzantine tradition, the Russian Church avoided instrumental music, except for such church bells. On the other hand, vocal music- and specifically, choral singing - reached a high level early. The Byzantine system of chants served as the basis for Orthodox church singing. This system contains eight tones, four main (“authentic”) and four additional (“plagal”). The system was built for church music by St. John of Damascus (d. 760) on the basis of ancient Greek harmony.

At first, Russian church singing was in unison. His notations have been preserved in a small number of manuscripts, the oldest of which is the Novgorod church book of the eleventh century. It contains the famous notation. In addition to it, in the Rusiv period from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, there was another notation system known as kondakar. Unfortunately, it has not yet been fully deciphered, but from what has already been read, it is clear that this is a recording of polyphonic singing.

/>Theater of Russian civilization in the Kievan period

Theater is one of the most important types of modern Russian art, and it is even said that Russians have an innate talent for the stage. However, the theater, in the modern sense, appeared in Russia only at the end of the seventeenth century. In the Moscow period - the era of Shakespeare - there was no theater in Russia.

The situation of the Kyiv period is not entirely clear. First of all, we must consider folklore foundations. The ritual of folk holidays, with its dances, rhythmic dialogue, etc., contained a significant element of theatrical art. The same can be said about the wedding ceremony and funeral rites.

The complex cycle of the ancient Russian wedding ceremony was an action in which not only the bride and groom, but also their relatives and friends - all had their own role. The performance consisted of several acts and began with the arrival of the groom's relatives at the house of the bride's father, usually at night, as required by the ancient ritual. The performance took place for several days in the homes of relatives of each side in turn. As already noted, various songs were an essential part of the ceremonies, each day and each scene had its own song.

It is noteworthy that Russian peasants even now, when talking about a wedding, use the verb “play” (play a wedding). The funeral was also performed according to the established ritual, an important role in which belonged to professional mourners. In The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the mourner Karna mourns the fate of all of Rus', tormented by the steppe nomads.

It is against this folklore background that the activities of wandering artists - buffoons should be considered. It is assumed that most of the buffoons were public actors and musicians, such as jugglers and jesters. However, it should be borne in mind that information about them comes mainly from church sources.

The Russian clergy considered the performances of buffoons to be a manifestation of paganism and unsuccessfully tried to prevent them. In this, the clergy were guided by the decision of the Church Council of Constantinople in 692, which condemned all types of theatrical performances. But herself Byzantine Church abandoned her rigorism during the iconoclasm (eighth century) and went even further in this during the period of the Macedonian dynasty (ninth to eleventh centuries). Byzantine theater, which grew out of Roman pantomime, lasted until last day Empire. By the way, Byzantine pantomime gave birth to Turkish folk theater orta oyunu, Karagyoz and Meddakhov.

Taking into account the close cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium, it can be assumed that Byzantine artists visited Rus' and introduced the local buffoons to the beginnings of theatrical art. As we shall see, on the frescoes of the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, Byzantine actors are depicted against the background of the hippodrome, but the pantomimes were different in content and, in addition to the square performances, more serious performances were played in Constantinople.

Byzantine artists, in some cases, wore masks />, buffoons also had masks. It is with the performances of buffoons that one must associate the appearance of a puppet theater in medieval Rus'. The first known mention of it is in a fifteenth-century manuscript.

In addition to the secular theater in Byzantium, as in Western Europe of the Middle Ages, a religious drama (mystery) developed. In a certain sense, the Byzantine service is itself a spiritual drama, and the complex ceremony in St. Sophia Cathedral was carried out with theatrical effects. It was the theatrical moment of the Byzantine rite that attracted Vladimir's ambassadors to Christianity more than anything else. According to the chronicle, during the service in the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople, they did not know where they were, on earth or in heaven. Later, a similar feeling must have been experienced by the rural inhabitants of Rus', attending services in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and other large churches in Russian cities. The wall paintings, mosaics and icons placed throughout the church created the necessary setting for the spiritual drama of the church service, the deep symbolism of which would otherwise not be perceived by the parishioners.

In Byzantium from the very early period her stories were developed special solemn services with complex rituals to celebrate the main church events: Palm Sunday, Easter, the Nativity of the Virgin. Gradually, church processions and mysteries were built around each of these services, and, in the end, the Byzantine religious drama grew out of them. It is significant that on receiving the honor of the Russian princess Olga (957), a religious play was played in the imperial palace.

Thus, we can be sure that even before the official introduction of Christianity in Rus', the Russians were familiar with the theatrical parts of the Byzantine church service. There is no evidence that the religious drama as such existed in Russia before the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, but special services on solemn days and on Holy Week were already carried out in the Kyiv period, although, perhaps, not as magnificently as later.

Architecture and fine arts

Most of the monuments of ancient Russian architecture and painting known to us represent church art. Since the Russian Church was part of the Byzantine one, Russian church art, of course, had to follow the Byzantine canons, at least in the initial period of the spread of Christianity in Rus'. Therefore, it is often said that from the point of view of art history, Kievan Rus was part of Byzantium.

It is impossible to deny the strong Byzantine influence in ancient Russian architecture and painting. But, however, the real process of Russian artistic development was too complex to be described within the framework of the theory of "Byzantinization" of Rus' or any other strict doctrine of this kind. First, our knowledge of ancient Russian art is incomplete. If some church buildings have been preserved, then the monuments secular architecture- no, since most of the dwellings were built of wood and therefore were less durable than church buildings. Moreover, with the exception of a few foundations, buildings from the pre-Christian period have not come down to us, and thus we have no way to trace the connection between pagan and Christian architecture. In addition, the very concept of “Byzantine art” requires interpretation. There were several schools in it and it is necessary to divide, for example, between the architectural style of Constantinople and the Byzantine provinces, such as Thrace and Macedonia, on the one hand, and Anatolia, on the other.

Let's start with the problem of pre-Christian architecture in Rus'. Approximately 1908 in Kyiv, archaeologists discovered an oval foundation of a building, which they considered to be the remains of a pagan temple, although there is no direct evidence for this. On this basis, it was suggested that the pagan temples in Rus' had an oval shape. There is no specific evidence for such a general conclusion. If we consider the parallel of other Slavic countries, we will see that, for example, the temple of Svyatovit on the island of Rugen is square.

Obviously the first christian churches were built for the Russians not by themselves, shortly after their first baptism in 866. Probably one was in Tmutarakan. In 1022, Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky erected another church there, which served as a model for the cathedral in Chernigov, founded by the same prince. By the time of his death, in 1036, the cathedral was not yet completed, but later it was completed.

Although the Chernihiv Cathedral was rebuilt several times, its original architectural features were preserved. It is organized according to the Byzantine plan - a basilica with five naves; it also shows a certain influence of the architectural style of the Transcaucasian temples.

The first of the luxurious Kyiv churches was the so-called “Tithing” church, founded by St. Vladimir and completed in 1039. According to K.J. five separate volumes intended for the construction of a vault, but not twenty-five domes, as some believe.

Even earlier, around 989, Vladimir ordered the construction of a cathedral in Novgorod. From the annals we learn that the first St. Sophia of Novgorod, built of wood, was about thirteen tops. Some archaeologists are ready to see in this term domes, but it seems more plausible that the "tops" can be explained simply as elements of the roof.

According to Conant, one of the architects of this cathedral was apparently from Asia. This style undoubtedly influenced the style of other early Russian churches, in Novgorod and Kyiv.

The two most impressive monuments of Russian architecture of the eleventh century are the St. Sophia Cathedral, built in Kyiv in 1037-1100, and the second Novgorod cathedral of the same name, founded in 1045. The Kyiv Cathedral has come down to us in poor condition, distorted by fires and rebuilding. Novgorodsky was somewhat better preserved before the German invasion, but was terribly damaged by the Germans before the retreat in 1944.

Apparently, St. Sophia of Kyiv in its original form was a majestic cathedral. In plan, it was a square, the inner volume was divided by columns into naves. The cathedral had five apses - all on the east side - and thirteen domes; a huge one in the center and twelve smaller ones around it. The cathedral was magnificently decorated inside with wall paintings, mosaics and icons.

As a whole, St. Sophia of Kyiv is an outstanding work of Byzantine style, but it was not a simple copy of any temple that existed then in Byzantium. It is believed that the so-called "New Church" (Nea Ecclesia) in Constantinople, completed in 881, served as the initial model for the creators of Sophia and some other Kyiv churches built under Yaroslav the Wise. However, Kiev St. Sophia is much more complex in its architecture than its prototype. The artistic motifs of the Byzantine provinces (in this case, Anatolia) are also noticeable in it. In addition, the possibility of a certain influence of Novgorod wooden architecture is not ruled out, especially if we take into account the number of domes, which coincides with the number of Novgorod "tops".

The second St. Sophia of Novgorod was erected on the site of the first wooden one, destroyed by fire in 1045. Novgorod St. Sophia is more strict and less luxurious than Kyiv, but beautiful in its own way. Its proportions are completely different, the apses are elongated, and although the main volume of the temple is rectangular, it is not square. The cathedral has six domes.

According to A.I. Nekrasov, some architectural features This temple belongs to the Romanesque style. During the twelfth century, with the growth of local cultural centers, most of the capitals of the principal principalities were decorated with churches, each of which, if smaller than the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral, had its own special style.

It is significant that in art style The churches of both western Ukraine (Galicia and Volyn) and eastern Rus' (Suzdal and Ryazan) intertwine and Romanesque and Transcaucasian (Georgian and Armenian) stylistic influences. As recent archaeological research shows, the Ryazan church of the early twelfth century had the shape of the so-called "Armenian cross".

The second half of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century were the heyday of Suzdal architecture.

/> As we know, at this time the Vladimir-Suzdal principality came to the fore, led by such gifted rulers as Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod III. Both were keen builders. It is known from chronicles that Andrey invited architects from different countries to Suzdal. Historian V.N. Tatishchev claims that once Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sent Andrei master builders from Germany. Tatishchev does not indicate the source of this message, but his information is usually reliable. We know that the Suzdal princes maintained friendly relations with both Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. Perhaps Andrei Bogolyubsky hired some Georgian and Armenian architects, as well as builders from Western Rus' (Galicia).

The presence of such a large number of foreign architects in the fifties and sixties of the twelfth century, apparently, stimulated the artistic activity of local Suzdal masters, and in 1194 the chronicler notes that Vsevolod invited only Russian masters to renovate the cathedrals of Suzdal and Vladimir.

Two outstanding architectural monuments of the reign of Andrei - the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (built in 1158-1161, restored in 1185-1189, rebuilt in 1194) and the amazing miniature Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the banks of the Nerl River near Bogolyubov (1165 .). During the reign of Vsevolod, the Demetrius Cathedral (1194 - 1197) was erected in Vladimir, famous for the decorative decoration of the outer walls. No less remarkable is St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, built by the son of Vsevolod Svyatoslav (1230 - 1234). Its facades are also decorated with carvings, even more spectacular than those on Dimitrievsky.

Although each of these churches differs in individuality, they all belong to one common architectural style, "Suzdal", which is characterized by a harmonious composition and elegance of lines and decoration. Striking parallels can be traced in architectural and decorative details between Suzdal, Armenian and Georgian churches, Suzdal and Western Romanesque. However, it would hardly be correct to call the Suzdal style and churches Romanesque without reservations, as is often done. According to the fair remark of N.P. Kondakov, Romanesque art itself developed under the influence of Byzantium, and in Byzantine art of the eleventh and twelfth centuries many "Romanesque" elements can be found. The art of some Eastern European countries, such as Western Ukraine, Serbia and Hungary, belongs to this Romano-Byzantine type and, from the point of view of Kondakov, we should turn to Western Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia) in an attempt to discover the sources of Suzdal art.

In any case, if there are Romanesque elements in the Suzdal churches, they themselves look completely different from the Romanesque churches of Bohemia, Germany and France. In general, it is difficult to deny that by combining various elements of Byzantine, Transcaucasian and Romanesque art, architects - both foreign and Russian, invited by the Suzdal princes, created a new and perfect style in Russian art. K.Conant calls it "truly classical" and "worthy of the Hellenistic spirit, along with a sense of purity and peace, which are always present in the greatest works of art." Subsequently, the Suzdal churches, in turn, served as a model for fifteenth-century Moscow churches built by Italian masters.

In addition to churches, both Andrei and Vsevolod built luxurious palaces for themselves. According to the chronicler, both foreigners and Russians came to Bogolyubovo to admire Andrei's chambers. Nothing remains of this palace on earth, but its foundations, recently uncovered by archaeologists, give some idea of ​​this grandiose architectural ensemble, which included chambers, several towers and a cathedral, all connected by galleries.

While both the church and the princes financed the development of architecture, the church opposed sculpture, considering it to be pagan art. The prejudice against sculpture in ancient Rus' was so great that not only in the church, but also in secular art there was no room for her. As a result, sculpture in Kievan Rus did not develop independently, and even bas-reliefs were used mainly for decorative purposes. Among the few examples of Russian sculpture of this period, we can mention the marble sarcophagi in St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of them - the sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise - is richly decorated. Of the stone bas-reliefs of saints, one can name the bas-reliefs of St. George and St. Michael on the wall of the monastery of St. Michael, dating back to the twelfth century, although they are of rough work, they are not without a certain expressiveness. Stone carvings and decorative decorations on the walls of the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir and St. George's Church in Yuryev-Polsky are exceptionally diverse and decorative. In addition to various images of Christ and saints, they contain figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, including centaurs and griffins.

Painting, like architecture, enjoyed the support of the Church, and its development was not artificially limited, as was the case with sculpture. On the other hand, there are not as many works of Russian painting of the Kyiv period as examples of architecture have survived, so our knowledge about it inevitably suffers from incompleteness.

The first painters who worked in Rus' were the "Greeks", that is, the Byzantines. Most of them probably came from Anatolia. Fortunately, at least part of the wall paintings of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev have been preserved. These frescoes illustrate the life of the Mother of God, Christ, St. George - the patron saint of Yaroslav the Wise.

On the walls of the stairs leading to the choirs, scenes from the life of Constantinople are depicted. Of these, images of drivers and chariots on hippodrome races have come down to us. Circus scenes with acrobats, hunters, musicians and jugglers have also been preserved. In the work on frescoes of the twelfth century (such as murals in the churches of two Kyiv monasteries - St. Michael and St. Cyril, as well as in the so-called church on Nereditsa near Novgorod), Russian painters, along with the Greeks, certainly took part. It is possible that Armenian artists also worked on Nereditsa. The Church on Nereditsa became one of the most painful losses suffered during the German invasion.

The history of icon painting is similar to the history of fresco painting. At first, icons were either brought ready-made from Byzantium, or painted in Rus' by Greek masters. Later, their own artists were trained. The first to become famous among his contemporaries was a certain Alympius, mentioned in the "Paterik" of the Caves Monastery. Byzantine icons exceptional beauty was brought in from time to time throughout the twelfth century. Apparently, it was Yuri Dolgoruky who brought from Constantinople the famous icon of the Mother of God, which his son Andrei placed in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir and which, under the name of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, became one of the sacred symbols of Ancient Rus'.

Mosaics were used in the decoration of St. Sophia Cathedral and some other churches in Kyiv and Chernigov+48a. The art of enamel has become extremely popular - Russians artists of the Kyiv period reached the highest technical level in the production of cloisonne enamel. Hoards such as those found in Ryazan in 1822 and Kyiv in 1889 contain some remarkable gold and enamel jewelry dating back to the twelfth century. The flourishing of this type of applied art testifies to the artistic maturity of the Kievan civilization.

There is no doubt that the art of embroidery of Kievan Rus was also highly developed, although very few samples of it have come down to us. Skillful embroiderers were trained both in monasteries and in princely palaces, and the princesses especially patronized this art, the spread of which, however, was by no means limited to the princely chambers. Almost every housewife, both in cities and in villages, was obviously familiar with at least the basics of embroidery, which, therefore, can be considered a type of folk art in the broadest sense of the word. The roots of the art of embroidery go back centuries. It is noteworthy that the main motifs of Russian peasant embroidery date back to the Scythian and Sarmatian periods.

In this regard, a few words must be said about the role of ornament in Russian art. Both "plant" and "animal" styles were popular. The first, apparently, came to Rus' from Byzantium. The latter, as we know, was characteristic of Scythian and Sarmatian art. In the early Middle Ages, it spread throughout Europe. Apparently, the spread of animal ornamentation in medieval Russian art was the result of both the traditions of the Sarmatian period and the influence of Western designs, which in fact were a variant of the same traditions. Apparently, one should also recognize the significant influence on Russian art of the decorative art of the Islamic Middle East. A variety of ornamental forms is characteristic of all manifestations of the Russian artistic spirit, especially in applied arts. It is manifested in the decoration of manuscripts, embroidery, enamels, wood carvings and so on. It influences not only the art of the upper classes, but also folk art; the same traditions are preserved in Russian peasant art of more modern periods.

Literature of ancient Rus'

Fiction, especially fiction, had not yet emerged as an independent genus in the Middle Ages. The medieval reader was attracted to books not so much by their artistic merit, if they mattered at all, as by the opportunity to extract moral instruction and education from the narrative. The Church, in turn, encouraged the moralistic tendency to use it for dissemination Christian worldview, and therefore supported all types of didactic poetry and prose of the corresponding direction.

art ancient Rus'

In connection with these circumstances, speaking of Russian literature of the Kievan period, we must consider not only fiction directly, but also transitional types, such as didactic literature, and even religious works, if they are of artistic value.

The Bible in Kievan Rus, as in medieval Europe, was the main source of both religious and aesthetic inspiration. The influence of the Bible in Russia was even more significant than in the West, since Russians could read it in a language close to their native language.

From the point of view of the development of literature, the impact of the Old Testament proved to be stronger than the New. The Russians of that time read the Old Testament, mainly in an abbreviated version (Palea), the compiler of which did not separate the canonical texts from the apocrypha. This, however, made the book even more attractive to the reader. In addition to the Bible, readers had at their disposal translations of various works of religious literature and Byzantine literature at all. From the point of view of the history of literature, church hymns, the lives of saints and didactic legends of various kinds were the most important among the samples of Byzantine religious and semi-religious literature that became available to Russians.

It should be noted that not a single work of Greek literature, either classical or Byzantine, with the exception of the only Byzantine epic poem written in "vulgar" Greek, was translated into Russian in the Middle Ages. Apparently, this is the result of the leading role of the Church, if not directly its censorship.

Could the average Russian of the Kyiv period appreciate Sophocles and Euripides is another question. But he most likely would have enjoyed Homer, as, no doubt, Metropolitan Clement, who read Homer in Greek. An erotic novella of the late Hellenistic and early Byzantine periods would perhaps have resonated, at least with the fate of Russian readers, and we can well imagine the author of Daniil the Sharpener reading Daphnis and Chloe with pleasure, although he stigmatized "devilish women."

Turning now to the apocrypha, it should be pointed out that some of them were born in the East - in Syria, Egypt and even India. Byzantium served as their repository, from where they were subsequently borrowed by Russia and Western Europe. Only with reservations can Christian and pseudo-Christian legends of the apocryphal type be called Byzantine, with the exception of very few. Of the Christian apocrypha, the most popular in Russia, as I said, was the “Walking of the Virgin through Torment”.

An example of non-Christian apocrypha is the "Legend of Solomon Kitovras". This is one of the legends about the construction of Solomon's tower. The stones for the tower had to be hewn without the help of iron tools, and in order to do this work, Solomon tamed a magician named Kitovras (centaur) by cunning. The latter is portrayed as a soothsayer of the future and interpreter of dreams. In the West, the same theme appears in the legend of Merlin and the legend of Solomon and Morolf.

Of the didactic biographical legends, The Tale of Barlaamey Josaph met with the warmest response from some Russian readers. Born in India, she represents a variant of the life of the Buddha. In the eighth century, this legend was reinterpreted in Christian tradition and transcribed in Greek by John of Damascus, according to the generally accepted opinion, which, however, is not reliably substantiated. Its central theme is the futility of earthly life, the hero is a prince who leaves his throne to become a hermit.

The Tale of Akira the Wise, also beloved by Russians, belongs to the same genre of didactic literature. Apparently, her homeland is Babylon of the seventh century BC, the legend was remade to the Byzantine taste at about the same time as the Tale of Barlaam and Josaph. The hero, Akir, is portrayed as a nobleman who was accused of theft by a slanderer - his own nephew. The king orders the execution of Akira, an old friend saves him from this terrible fate. Subsequently, the kingdom is threatened by enemies, and it is Akir who saves everyone with his wisdom; he does not hold a grudge against the king, but punishes his nephew. Moral: Don't dig a hole for someone else, you'll fall into it yourself. Completely different nature of the fictitious biography of Alexander the Great, one of the most popular stories of the late Hellenistic and early medieval periods. The Russian translation of "Alexandria" appears to have appeared in the eleventh or twelfth century; the complete manuscript did not reach us, but parts of the story were included in the ancient Russian compilation of world history, known as the Greco-Roman Chronicles.

Quite apart from the literary Byzantine tradition stands the Greek folk poem Digenis Akritas, an epic about a Byzantine warrior from Anatolia defending Christianity from Islam. The poem was created in the tenth century, in the Russian translation it appeared in the twelfth under the title "Deed of Devgen." .

As Slavic translations show, the original Russian literature, in to a large extent, followed the Byzantine model. However, it would be a mistake to conclude from this that Russian authors did not show their own creative power. On the contrary, some of them reached the very heights of literary art.

Bishop Cyril of Turovsky was one of the most popular authors in the genre of didactic church literature and hymnography. In both his hymns and his teachings, he showed remarkable literary skill, despite his disdain for traditional rhetoric. In the hagiographical genre, the story of the sufferings of St. Boris and Gleb, perhaps the best in terms of literary technique.

But Metropolitan Hilarion rises above everyone not only in the content of his works, but also in their form. In his Discourse on Law and Grace, he showed himself to be one of the truly great masters of the art of rhetoric. The “Word” is magnificent in composition, and every detail in it is a precious stone of high dignity. Hilarion uses a wide variety of means of artistic expression: symbolic parallelism, metaphors, antitheses, rhetorical questions, etc., all this with an excellent sense of proportion. In secular literature, Russians have shown a penchant for the historical genre. "The Tale of Bygone Years" is both a historical scientific work and a collection of historical stories. Each of these stories is intended to be a detailed account of the event described, and many of them, of course, are so. But at the same time, many stories have a high artistic value, and in some, fiction, no doubt, prevails over fact. Among the historical and pseudo-historical messages included in the "Tale", we find, for example: narratives of Oleg's campaign in Byzantium; about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband; the so-called "Korsun legend" about the baptism of Vladimir; the story of the blinding of Prince Vasilko; the story of the disastrous campaign of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky against the Polovtsy and many others.

Some of these stories, apparently, are based on various epic poems that were created among princely combatants; others are true statements of fact, such as the story of Vasilko - it is obviously written by a priest who consoled the unfortunate prince after inflicting severe mutilation. Some of the stories, apparently, were recorded by the chronicler from the words of eyewitnesses, other interpretations of the same event could be distributed independently of first. This happened in the case of the campaign of Prince Igor: two entries were included in different versions of the annals, and at the same time a heroic poem was written about this, the famous "Word"

The Word is very dynamic; it is based on the glorification of military prowess. However, there are also lyrical episodes in the poem, such as, for example, the passionate infatuation of a captive Russian youth with a Polovtsian princess, which is only hinted at, or the weeping of Igor's wife.

Behind the personal drama of the defeated Igor rises the national tragedy of Russia, which at that time was suffering from princely strife and constant raids by steppe nomads. The portraits of Russian princes mentioned in history are full of life and convincing. The steppe through which the Russians march to their defeat, the life of animals around the moving army, weapons, armor (both Russian and Polovtsian) - everything is described not only with the true spirit of poetry, but also with a wonderful knowledge of details.

The "Word" is imbued with a pagan worldview. It is difficult to say whether the names of the Slavic deities that he mentions mean anything to the author, or whether he calls them only according to poetic tradition. In any case, the spirit of the poem is non-Christian, in a religious sense, and if the author was a member of the Church, then obviously bad. He probably belonged to the squad of the prince of Chernigov, was well acquainted with Russian folklore and well-read in historical and epic literature, including Flavius' History of the Jewish War and Devgen's Deed.

In the introductory stanzas, the author refers, as an ideal, to the ancient singer Bayan, although he will not follow Bayan's style, but asserts the freedom to write in his own way. This Bayan, apparently, was a contemporary of Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky, also mentioned in the "Word"; None of his works have survived to this day. The only known manuscript of The Tale of Igor's Campaign was a copy made in Pskov in the 15th century. It was discovered by Musin-Pushkin in 1795, at the same time a copy was made for Empress Catherine II. The Lay was published in 1800, and in 1812 Musin-Pushkin's manuscript perished in the Moscow fire of the Napoleonic invasion. Catherine's copy and the first edition (for which Musin-Pushkin's manuscript was used) are all that have survived from documentary evidence. Since both are full of scribal errors and typographical errors, interpreting the Lay is an extremely difficult task.

However, despite the fact that only one manuscript has survived to 1812 - or at least only one has been discovered - we know that the "Word" was read and admired in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A passage from it was quoted at the beginning thirteenth century in the version of "Daniel the Sharpener's Prayer", and at the end of the fourteenth century "The Word" served as a model for "Zadonshchina", a historical poem glorifying the victory of the Russians over the Mongols in 1380.

"The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" is another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature. As in the case of the Lay, the authors are unknown. Judging by the content of the work, he, apparently, was a poor nobleman - perhaps a former slave - of one of the Suzdal princes. A sharpener in Old Russian means a prisoner, and therefore it has been suggested that the "Prayer" was written by a disgraced servant whom the prince imprisoned. Such an explanation of the circumstances in which the work was written is very vulnerable. "Supplication" is not a biographical document, but a satire. In a pretentious rhetorical style, the author implores the prince to use his (the author's) talents. He presents himself as a persecuted poor man and admits his aversion to military service, but boasts of his intelligence and education, and offers himself to the position of princely adviser. As evidence of his own wisdom, he includes in his prayer a huge number of quotations from the "Bible", "Physiologist", "Bees", "The Tale of Akira the Wise" and so on. His tone is sometimes humble to the point of servility, sometimes arrogant or even revolutionary. At times he craves wealth, then ridicules those who are seduced by beautiful clothes and rich food. He hates the possibility of a princely proposal to marry a rich girl, and, on this occasion, excels in insulting speeches against women. But presenting himself as a misogynist, he also refuses to become a monk and finds words expressive enough to explain his disgust with monasticism; Indeed, in one of the versions of the Prayer, the author's ardent statements against the "black clergy" and the boyars acquire political significance.

In a certain sense, "Prayer" is a document protesting against human stupidity and social inequality, a vivid apology for wisdom. The author was, of course, a well-educated person with a sharp mind.

No less remarkable secular document, although absolutely different in content and tone, is the autobiography of Vladimir Monomakh, which constitutes the main part of his Teachings. Whereas the author of "Daniel's Prayer" is one of the few scribes of that time, Vladimir Monomakh is a soldier statesman, which simply describes its affairs. But he makes the ethos certain literary talent, which he apparently developed by intensive reading. His autobiography is not only imbued with high ideas, but also reveals his taste healthy life with her simple pleasures and admiration for the beauty of nature.

In concluding this section, it should be said that our knowledge of Russian literature of the Kievan period is only fragmentary. So many manuscripts of that time perished (both during the Mongol invasion and afterwards) that we will probably never know what we lost with them. In addition, most of what has come down to us was found in church archives, and the clergy were little concerned about the preservation of works of secular literature - especially with pagan "deviations", such as in the "Word". Perhaps this explains the fact that only a copy of this work has survived.

Apparently, not only the number of works, but also the variety of styles in the literature of the Kievan period was much greater than we are usually ready to admit.

Determining the main content and direction of the historical and cultural process of medieval Russia, we can say with good reason that this culture was rooted in folk art and had in it the main nutrient medium of its development. Under the conditions of feudal society, serfdom, and the centuries-old struggle against the devastating invasions of external enemies, the culture of Russia revealed remarkable wealth of the creative forces of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the ruling classes, who used it in a modified form for their own class purposes. The culture of the people is imbued with a bright sense of optimism, it is life-affirming in its spirit. A.M. Gorky noted that "the most profound and vivid, artistic types of heroes were created by folklore, the oral art of the working people" and the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard and painfully - their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal life was powerless and defenseless. earth, the beauty of labor and military feat, high moral nobility, firm faith in the victory of good over evil, justice over untruth and deceit, and at the same time deep poetry, inexhaustible humor, apt selection of typical life phenomena, soundness and accuracy of their assessments - all this is characteristic of the works folk art of the feudal era. different forms these remarkable qualities of folk art made their way not only in the literature of medieval Russia, but also in architecture and painting.

The development of Russian culture in the Middle Ages reflected the peculiarities and contradictions inherent in this era. They were determined, ultimately, by the socio-political and economic processes that took place in Rus'. The feudal mode of production, with its inherent conservatism in the development of productive forces, the dominance of a closed subsistence economy, underdeveloped exchange, traditions to preserve the political system of feudal fragmentation, slowed down the pace of cultural development, the formation of local traditions and characteristics. The development of Russian medieval material and spiritual culture was unquestionably influenced by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. needs to the point of having to start all over again.”

Undoubtedly, the development of Russian culture was greatly influenced by the dominance of the religious worldview. The church, especially in the early Middle Ages, played a certain role both in the spread of literacy and in the development of architecture and painting. But at the same time, the church jealously guarded its dogmas and was hostile, treated new phenomena in culture, was a brake on the development of sciences, technical knowledge, literature, and art. The church directed all the enormous power of its material power and spiritual influence on the complete and unconditional adherence of the entire culture to the narrow framework of religious-scholastic thinking, and fettered the desire of the human mind to free creativity. From this it becomes clear why the spiritual life at that time proceeded mainly within the framework of a religious and theological shell, why the struggle of class tendencies of different content was, as a rule, clothed in the form of religious disagreements and disputes. The binding influence of the church and in the interaction of Russian culture with the cultures of the West and East. Nevertheless, Russian culture did not develop in isolation from world culture, being enriched by its achievements and contributing to its development.

Having withstood so many difficult historical trials in the Middle Ages, the people created an excellent spiritual and material culture that embodied the high qualities of the people rich in their creative forces.

1. Barskaya N.A. Plots and images of ancient Russian painting, - M .: "Enlightenment", 2003. - 325s.

2. Grabar A.N. Secular fine art of pre-Mongolian Rus' and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - TODRL, M.; L., 2004 - 351s.

3. Lazarev V.N. The art of medieval Rus' and the West (XI-XV centuries). M., 2005 - 278s.

4. Lebedeva Yu.L. Ancient Russian art of the 10th - 17th centuries. - M.: Felix, 2005s. - 320s.

5. Muravyov A.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture, - M .: UNITI, 2004. - 198s.

6. Rybakov B.A. Rus' in the era of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". - In the book: History of Russia: From ancient times to the present day. M., 2006, v.1, p.573-639

Fig. 1 Birch bark letter (Zhiznemir's letter to Mikula). 11th c.

Fig. 2 Plans of St. Sophia Cathedrals: 1 - in Kyiv (1037), 2 - in Novgorod (1045-50), 3 - in Polotsk (1044-66).

Fig. 3 "Hercules (?) fighting a lion." Relief from the Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Kiev-Pechersk Historical and Art Museum-Reserve.

Fig. 4 "Evangelist Mark". Miniature of the Ostromir Gospel. 1056-57. Public Library. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Leningrad.

Fig. 5 “St. Nestor and Dmitry. Relief from the facade of the Cathedral of the Mikhailovsky Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Fig. 6 "Mary" from the "Annunciation" (fragment of a fresco from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig.7 Kievan Rus. "Job's Wife" (fragment of a fresco). Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 8 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig. 9 "The Prophet Solomon" (fragment of a fresco). 1st half of the 12th century. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 10 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment). Mid-11th century. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig. 11 "Archideacon Lavrenty" (fragment of a fresco). Mid 11th century Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig.12 Church of the Savior on Berestove in Kyiv. Between 1113 and 1125. South facade.

Fig.13 Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod. Laid down in 1113. East facade.

Fig.14 St. Michael's Church in Ostra.1098. Apse.

Fig.15 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Interior. Started before 1036.

Fig.16 Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.1045-50. East facade.

Fig.17 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Western façade. Started before 1036.

Fig. 18 "Daughters of Yaroslav the Wise." Fresco in the central nave of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Rice. 19 Old Russian coins of the 11th-12th centuries.

Fig. 20 Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv (circa 1108; not preserved). East facade.

Fig. 21 Gold colt with cloisonne enamel. 11-12 centuries. Historical Museum of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv.

Fig. 22 "Musicians and buffoons." Fresco in the southern tower of the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Fig. 23 Archdeacon Stefan. Mosaic from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv. Early 12th century Sofia Museum-Reserve. Kyiv

Fig. 24 Our Lady of Oranta

The culture of Kievan Rus is the totality of all material and spiritual values ​​accumulated in the process of development of the Russian principalities from the moment the state was born in the 10th century to the 13th century inclusive.

The culture and life of Kievan Rus are made up of pre-Christian traditions and paganism, which were transformed after the baptism of Rus.

Writing

One of the main indicators of the presence of one's own culture is writing. In Rus', writing in its modern sense appeared in the 10th century, but back in the 9th century, the monks Cyril and Mifodiy created an alphabet, which was then transformed into Cyrillic (which is still used today). The active development of the culture of Kievan Rus, including writing, began after the adoption of Christianity.

The first evidence of the presence of writing was birch bark letters - pieces of birch bark with squeezed out or inscribed notes about everyday life. The first books were the annals of the state, as well as the Bible. Before the advent of printing technology, books were copied by hand by monks, who often added their own comments and remarks to the text, as a result of which the copied books could differ greatly from the original.

The development of writing led to the emergence of the first educational institutions, as well as the birth of literature. An important stage in the formation of the culture of Kievan Rus was the writing and adoption of the first set of laws - "Russkaya Pravda".

Architecture

A feature of the culture of Kievan Rus was its religious orientation. Wooden architecture was replaced by stone construction. Stone temples began to be actively erected instead of wooden churches. The architectural traditions of stone construction in Rus' were formed under the influence of Byzantine architecture, because it was on the basis of the projects of Byzantine architects that the first stone churches were built.

989 - the first stone church was built in Kyiv.

1037 - the foundation of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of the brightest representatives of the stone architecture of Kievan Rus.

Painting

The development of painting was greatly influenced by the Baptism of Rus, which gave impetus to the development of the spiritual and material culture of Kievan Rus. There were such types of fine arts as fresco and mosaic, which began to decorate churches. Also in Rus', iconography appeared, which began to occupy one of the most prominent places in culture.

The standard of icon painting came from Byzantium, and the first icon painters in Rus' were visiting Greeks, from whom the Russian masters adopted their skills. The Greeks also brought with them the art of painting, which decorated the walls of temples. The frescoes, depending on their location, depicted biblical scenes or scenes from everyday life.

By the end of the 12th century, painting had developed so much that several picturesque centers in Rus', each of which had its own traditions and characteristics.

Arts and Crafts

In addition to painting, arts and crafts were highly developed in Rus' - unique things were created from enamel, clay toys with a special painting, jewelry and much more. Many of the styles of painting and handicraft that existed then have remained to this day. The main subjects for painting DPI were epics, legends and stories from folklore.

Folklore

Folklore in Rus' was very developed and was of great importance for the culture of Kievan Rus. Since ancient times, various stories and legends have been passed from mouth to mouth. A special place was occupied by ritual poetry - incantations, songs, spells. Ditties, proverbs, pestles and much more were actively developing.

In the middle of the ninth century, a new genre appeared - the epic, which told about the adventures of great heroes, about battles and conquests. Much later, folk oral epos and epics formed the basis of the first literary works, including the famous Tale of Igor's Campaign.

With the development of writing and literature, folklore not only did not disappear, but continued to develop actively.

In general, the following events had a huge impact on the culture of Kievan Rus:

• The emergence of writing
• The birth of statehood;
• The formation of Christianity.

Culture of Ancient Rus'(or Culture of Medieval Rus') - the culture of Rus' during the period of the Old Russian state from the moment of its formation to the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Writing and education

The existence of writing among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. Cyril in the second half of the 9th century created the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic), in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, on the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which had long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, an alphabet arose, later called Cyrillic. In the future, this easier and more convenient alphabet replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. It was essential that Christianity was adopted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in the native language.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian Church from the very beginning did not become a monopoly in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among the strata of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological sites in Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Torzhka, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Staraya Ryazan, etc. These are letters, memos, study exercises, etc. The letter, therefore, was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Often there are inscriptions on handicraft products. Ordinary citizens left numerous records on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities. The oldest surviving book in Rus' is the so-called. "Novgorod Psalter" of the first quarter of the 11th century: wooden, wax-covered tablets with texts of 75 and 76 psalms.

Most of the written monuments before the Mongol period perished during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them survived. The oldest of them are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of 1073 and 1076. High level professional excellence, with which these books were made, testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the skills of “book construction” that had been established by that time.

Correspondence of books was carried out mainly in monasteries. The situation changed in the 12th century, when the craft of "book describers" also arose in large cities. This speaks of the growing literacy of the population and the increased need for books, which the monastic scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept copyists of books, and some of them copied books on their own.

At the same time, the main centers of literacy continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, where there were special workshops with permanent teams of scribes. They were engaged not only in the correspondence of books, but also kept chronicles, created original literary works, and translated foreign books. One of the leading centers of this activity was the Kiev Caves Monastery, which developed a special literary trend that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Rus'. As chronicles testify, already in the 11th century in Rus', libraries with up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Needing literate people, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich organized the first schools. Literacy was not only the privilege of the ruling class, it also penetrated into the environment of the townspeople. Letters found in a significant number in Novgorod, written on birch bark (from the 11th century), contain the correspondence of ordinary citizens; inscriptions were also made on handicrafts.

Education was highly valued in ancient Russian society. In the literature of that time, one can find many panegyrics on the book, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching”.

Literature

With the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Rus' was attached to book culture. The development of Russian writing gradually became the basis for the emergence of literature and was closely connected with Christianity. Despite the fact that writing was known in the Russian lands before, only after the baptism of Rus' did it become widespread. It also received a basis in the form of a developed cultural tradition Eastern Christianity. An extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of a non-own tradition.

The original literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by great ideological richness and high artistic perfection. Its prominent representative was Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous "Sermon on Law and Grace", dating from the middle of the 11th century. In this work, the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Rus' is clearly manifested. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting "grace" (Christianity) with "law" (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God's chosen people inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​transferring heavenly attention and disposition from one chosen people to all mankind, the equality of all peoples.

An outstanding writer and historian was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. His “Reading” about the princes Boris and Gleb and the “Life of Theodosius”, valuable for the history of life, have been preserved. "Reading" is written in a somewhat abstract style, instructive and ecclesiastical elements are reinforced in it. Approximately 1113 is an outstanding monument of ancient Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years", preserved as part of later chronicles XIV-XV centuries. This work is compiled on the basis of earlier chronicles - historical works dedicated to the past of the Russian land. The author of the Tale, the monk Nestor, managed to vividly and figuratively tell about the emergence of Rus' and connect its history with the history of other countries. The main attention in the "Tale" is given to the events of political history, the deeds of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and life of the people are described in less detail. The religious worldview of its compiler was clearly manifested in the annals: he sees the ultimate cause of all events and actions of people in the action of divine forces, “providence”. However, religious differences and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, the desire to identify real causal relationships between events.

In turn, Theodosius, hegumen of the Pechersk Monastery, about whom Nestor also wrote, wrote several teachings and letters to Prince Izyaslav.

Vladimir Monomakh was an outstanding writer. His "Instruction" drew perfect image prince - a just feudal ruler, touched upon the pressing issues of our time: the need for a strong princely power, unity in repelling nomadic raids, etc. "Instruction" is a work of a secular nature. It is imbued with the immediacy of human experiences, alien to abstraction and filled with real images and examples taken from life.

The question of princely power in the life of the state, its duties and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for a successful struggle against external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. These reflections are embodied in one of the most talented works of the 12th-13th centuries, which has come down to us in two main editions of the “Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniel writes with humor and sarcasm about the sad reality surrounding him.

A special place in the literature of Ancient Rus' is occupied by the Tale of Igor's Campaign, dated the end of XII century. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The description of this campaign only serves as an occasion for the author to reflect on the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the struggle against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Rus' in the princely civil strife, in the egoistic policy of the princes, thirsting for personal glory. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The author belonged to the milieu. He constantly used the concepts of “honor” and “glory” characteristic of her, but filled them with a broader, patriotic content. The Tale of Igor's Campaign embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of that time: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism.

The Batu invasion had a great influence on Russian culture. The first work devoted to the invasion - "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land." This word has not come down to us completely. Also Batu's invasion is dedicated to "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu" - an integral part of the cycle of stories about the "miraculous" icon of Nikola Zaraisky.

Architecture

Until the end of the tenth century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. Significant skills in the field of wooden architecture led to the rapid development of stone architecture and its originality. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone temples begins, the principles of construction of which were borrowed from Byzantium. The Byzantine architects called to Kyiv passed on to the Russian masters the extensive experience of the building culture of Byzantium.

The large churches of Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the Eastern Slavic lands. Architectural style Kievan Rus established itself under the influence of the Byzantine. Early Orthodox churches were mostly made of wood.

The first stone church of Kievan Rus was the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv, the construction of which dates back to 989. The church was built as a cathedral not far from the prince's tower. In the first half of the XII century. The church has undergone significant renovations. At this time, the southwestern corner of the temple was completely rebuilt, a powerful pylon appeared in front of the western facade, supporting the wall. These events, most likely, were the restoration of the temple after a partial collapse due to an earthquake.

Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in the XI century, is one of the most significant architectural structures of this period. Initially, St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 domes. On three sides, it was surrounded by a two-tier gallery, and from the outside - an even wider single-tier one. The cathedral was built by the builders of Constantinople, with the participation of Kyiv masters. At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, it was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian baroque style. Temple is listed world heritage UNESCO.

Painting

After the baptism of Rus', new types of monumental painting came from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Also, the iconographic canon was adopted from Byzantium, the invariability of which was strictly guarded by the church. This predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who added to the existing iconography a system for arranging plots in the interior of the temple, as well as a manner of planar painting. The mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral are known for their special beauty. They are made in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of shades of smalt, skillfully combined the mosaic with the fresco. Of the mosaic works, the images of Christ the Almighty in the central dome are especially significant. All images are imbued with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

Another unique monument of the secular painting of Ancient Rus' is the wall paintings of the two towers of the Kyiv Sophia. They depict scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds, which somewhat distinguishes them from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes in Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

In the XII-XIII centuries, local features began to appear in the painting of individual cultural centers. This is typical for the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Since the XII century, a specific Novgorod style of monumental painting has been formed, which reaches a fuller expression in the paintings of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and especially the Savior-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, in contrast to the Kyiv cycles, there is a noticeable desire to simplify artistic techniques, to an expressive interpretation of iconographic types. In easel painting, Novgorod features were less pronounced.

In Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', fragments of frescoes of the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, have been preserved until the Mongol period. Based on this material, the researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The best preserved fresco of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral depicting doomsday. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. The Vladimir-Suzdal school includes several large icons XII - early XIII centuries. The earliest of them is the "Bogolyubskaya Mother of God", dating from the middle of the XII century, stylistically close to the famous "Vladimir Mother of God", which is of Byzantine origin.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Ancient Rus'. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, incantations, songs, which were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included pre-wedding songs, funeral laments, songs at feasts and feasts. Mythological tales, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs, also became widespread. For many years, the church, in an effort to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against "vile" customs, "demonic games" and "blasphemers". However, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, having lost their initial religious meaning over time, while the rites turned into folk games.

There were also such forms of folklore that were not associated with a pagan cult. These include proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs. The authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Written monuments have preserved numerous traditions and legends about the founders of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the struggle against foreigners. So, folk tales about the events of the II-VI centuries were reflected in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign".

In the 9th century, a new epic genre arose - the heroic epic epic, which became the pinnacle of oral folk art and the result of the growth of national consciousness. Epics - oral poetic works about the past. Epics are based on real historical events, the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. So, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the ancient Russian chronicles.

In turn, in the military estate, in the princely retinue environment, there was their own oral poetry. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. The princely squads had their own "songwriters" - professionals who composed songs - "glory" in honor of the princes and their soldiers.

Folklore continued to develop after the spread written literature, remaining an important element of ancient Russian culture. In the following centuries, many writers and poets used the plots of oral poetry and the arsenal of its artistic means and techniques. Also in Rus', the art of playing the harp was widespread, of which it is the birthplace.

Decorative and applied crafts

Kievan Rus was famous for its masters in applied and decorative arts, who were fluent in various techniques: filigree, enamel, granulation, niello, as evidenced by jewelry. It is no coincidence that the admiration of foreigners was great. artistic creativity our craftsmen. L. Lyubimov in his book “The Art of Ancient Rus'” gives a description of star-shaped silver kolts from the Tver treasure of the 11th–12th centuries: “Six silver cones with balls are soldered to a ring with a semicircular shield. 5000 tiny rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm from wire 0.02 cm thick are soldered onto each cone! Only microphotography made it possible to establish these dimensions. But that's not all. The rings serve only as a pedestal for grains, so each one has another silver grain with a diameter of 0.04 cm! Jewelry was decorated with cloisonné enamel. Masters used bright colors, skillfully selected colors. In the drawings, mythological pagan plots and images were traced, which were especially often used in applied art. They can be seen on carved wooden furniture, household utensils, fabrics embroidered with gold, in carved bone products, known in Western Europe under the name "carving of the Taurus", "carving of the Rus".

Cloth

Modern researchers have numerous evidence of how princes and boyars dressed. Verbal descriptions, images on icons, frescoes and miniatures, as well as fragments of fabrics from sarcophagi have been preserved. Various researchers compared these materials in their works with references to clothing in written documentary and narrative sources - chronicles, lives and various acts.