Romanesque art and the established style were replaced by Gothic art ( Gothic; from Italian gotico - Gothic, after the name of the German tribe Goths). Term Gothic as a synonym for barbarism was first used by the people of the Renaissance to characterize medieval art(as opposed to Roman art), which did not follow the traditions and stylistic features of antiquity and therefore was of no interest to contemporaries.

Increased exaltation and interest in feelings distinguish this art from Romanesque. Between Romanesque And gothic style it is difficult to draw a chronological boundary.

The heyday of the Romanesque style, which occurred in the 12th century, simultaneously served as an impetus for the emergence of another style with other characteristic aesthetic ideals and principles of composition of forms. In the history of art, it is customary to distinguish early, mature (high) and late (the so-called flaming) Gothic. High Gothic reached its peak in the 13th century, late Gothic in the 14th-15th centuries. Gothic art, developing in countries where the Christian Church dominated, remained predominantly cultic in purpose and religious in theme. It is characterized by a symbolic-allegorical type of thinking and a conventional artistic language. From the Romanesque style, Gothic inherited the primacy of architecture in the system of arts and traditional types buildings. The cathedral occupied a special place in Gothic art - the highest example of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting.

Gothic style in architecture

Cathedral in Strasbourg. The end of the XII-XV centuries. France - Strasbourg Cathedral

Reims Cathedral, western façade. Construction began in 1211, completed in the 15th century.

Salisbury Cathedral, pointed arches. England - Salisbury Cathedral

Lincoln Cathedral of the Virgin Mary. 1185-1311 England - The Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln

Cathedral in Cologne. Construction began in 1248, completed in 1842-1880. Germany - Cologne Cathedral

Notre Dame Cathedral, west façade. 1163 AD XIV century France - Notre Dame Cathedral

Chartres Cathedral, north portal. Construction began in 1194, consecrated in 1260. France - Chartres Cathedral

Exeter Cathedral. 1112-1400 England - Cathedral Church of St. Peter in Exeter

...western (royal) portal, completed in 1150. The sculptures are a visible transition from Romanesque to Gothic style

The gigantic space of the cathedral, directed upward, the subordination of sculpture to the rhythms of architectural divisions, stone carvings decorative ornaments, stained glass painting had a strong emotional impact on believers.

City architectural ensembles included religious and secular buildings, fortifications, bridges, etc. Home Town Square often built up residential buildings with arcades, in the lower floors of which there were retail and warehouse premises. Along the streets radiating from the square and along the embankments, two- and three-story houses were built, often with high gables.

The cities were surrounded by powerful walls with travel towers. Castles gradually turned into complex complexes of fortresses, palaces and cultural buildings.

Usually a cathedral was built in the city center, which was the cultural center of the entire city. Divine services were held there, theological debates were held, mysteries were played, and meetings of townspeople were held. In that era, construction was carried out not only by the church, but also by the community through professional workshops of artisans.

The most significant buildings and, above all, cathedrals, were erected at the expense of the townspeople. Often many generations worked on the creation of one temple. Grandiose Gothic cathedrals differed sharply from Romanesque monastery churches. They are tall, richly decorated and very roomy.

The dynamism and picturesqueness of cathedrals began to determine the character of the city landscape. Following the cathedral, city houses also rushed upward. The entire composition of the cathedral, with the increasing rhythm of all its main elements from bottom to top, was generated by the religious, idealistic aspiration of the soul to heaven. The Gothic cathedral developed the basilica type of building, in which all its elements began to obey a single style system. The main difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque cathedral is a stable frame system, in which the main role is played by cross-rib lancet vaults made of stone and lancet arches, which largely determine the internal and external appearance of the cathedral.

Frame arches formed at the intersection of cross vaults, the so-called ribs (from the French nervure - rib, fold) in mature Gothic, connected the supports of the spans of the central and side naves, where for each rectangular span of the main nave there were two square spans of the side ones naves

The forms of architecture began to express the Christian idea of ​​spirituality, ascension, aspiration upward, to the sky. A feature of the Gothic style is the dematerialization of form. The design and properties of the material no longer determine the visual image. Entering the temple, a person saw a row of thin columns going up, which ended with a bunch of even thinner ribs of the vaults (ribs) as if floating in height. In fact, these huge vaults pressed on special support pillars hidden in a bunch of thin columns. The lateral thrust of the arches of the main nave was suppressed not by the walls, which were a solid stone lace, but through the flying buttresses by massive pillars-buttresses, carried out and supported by the frame of the buildings and therefore invisible to a person inside the cathedral. Here the visual image did not coincide with the operation of the actual structure. If the design worked for compression, then the visual image expressed the idea of ​​​​ascension, the aspiration of the soul to heaven.

The complex frame structure of the Gothic cathedral, the highest manifestation of the architectural and construction art of that time, made it possible to overcome the massiveness of Romanesque buildings, lighten the walls and vaults, and ensure the unity and interconnection of all elements of its object-spatial environment.

Gothic originated in the northern part of France (Ile-de-France) in the middle of the 12th century and reached its peak in the first half of the 13th century. and existed until the mid-20s. XVI century Stone Gothic cathedrals received their classical form in France. As a rule, these are 3-5-nave basilicas with a transverse nave-transept and a semicircular choir (deambulatorium), to which radial chapels (crown of chapels) are adjacent. The impression of movement upward and towards the altar is created by rows of slender columns and the rise of pointed pointed arches, the accelerated rhythm of the arcades of the upper gallery (triforium). The picturesqueness of the interior space of the cathedral is determined primarily by the contrast of illumination of the main and dimly lit side naves and the colored stained glass windows.

The facades of cathedrals are decorated with pointed arches and such compositional and figurative-plastic elements of architectural decor as patterned wimperg, vial, crabb, etc. The statues on the consoles in front of the columns of the portals and in the upper arched gallery, the reliefs on the capitals of the columns, socles and tympanums of the portals form a kind of multi-story picture, which seems to show various episodes of the Holy Scriptures, allegorical images, real characters, etc.

Town halls begin to be built in the main squares of cities, which are usually decorated. Castles are converted into palaces (for example, the papal palace in Avignon, 1334-1352). In the 15th century a type of rich city mansion house arose, the so-called. hotel (for example, Jacques Keurre's hotel in Bourges, 1453, Cluny hotel in Paris, late 14th century, etc.).

At this time, an enrichment and complication of the synthesis of arts took place, which began in the Romanics, which reflected the medieval idea of ​​​​the real and the afterlife. The main type of fine art was sculpture, which received a new plastic interpretation in the Gothic style. Static Romanesque sculpture was replaced by dynamic Gothic sculpture, where the depicted figures seem to address each other and the viewer.

Mature Gothic is marked by a further increase in the verticalism of lines and a dynamic upward thrust. Reims Cathedral - the place of coronation of the French kings - is one of the most integral works of Gothic, a wonderful synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

The plot begins to occupy an important place in Gothic art, including sculpture. The role of secular plots is increasing, but the Last Judgment remains the most common plot in Gothic. Iconographic subjects begin to gradually expand. Interest in man, in his spiritual and worldly life, was expressed in the depiction of scenes from the lives of saints. An outstanding example of the depiction of legends about saints is dating from the last quarter of the 13th century. tympanum History of St. Stephen on the portal of the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris.

The inclusion of real motifs is also typical for many small reliefs. As in Romanesque churches, a large place in Gothic cathedrals is occupied by images of monsters and fantastic creatures- the so-called chimeras.

It is believed that the first work of Gothic architecture appeared during the reconstruction of the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis in 1137-1144. Early Gothic also includes cathedrals in Lanie, Chartres and Paris. The greatest achievement of early Gothic art is the Notre Dame Cathedral (Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral), founded in 1163, and was completed until the middle of the 14th century. Cathedral in Chartres, founded in the 12th century. and consecrated in 1260, remains one of the most beautiful in Europe.

The grandiose mature Gothic cathedrals in Reims (1211-15th century) - the largest cathedral in France (150 m long with a tower height of 80 m) and in Amiens (1220-1269) - are distinguished by the perfection of architectural composition and the richness of sculptural and pictorial decoration. , where the cathedral has a length of 145 m and a height of the main nave of 42.5 m, as well as the Sainte-Chapelle church in Paris (1243-1248), built as a royal palace chapel, with its many stained glass windows. From about the middle of the XIII-XIV centuries. majestic Gothic cathedrals were built in other European countries: in Italy (in Venice, Siena, Milan), Germany (in Marburg, Naumburg, Ulm, Cologne), England (in London, Salisbury), Spain (in Barcelona, ​​Burgos, Lona, Toledo), Austria (in Vienna), Flanders (in Brussels), the Czech Republic (in Prague), etc., where Gothic received a unique local interpretation. As a result of the Crusades, the architects of Rhodes, Cyprus and Syria became acquainted with Gothic building principles.

In the Gothic era, true masterpieces of sculpture were created: reliefs and statues of the northern portal of the cathedral in Chartres, a deeply humane image of Christ blessing on the western facade of the cathedral in Amiens, images of the group of Mary's Visit to Elizabeth on the western portal of the cathedral in Reims. These works had a great influence on the development of all Western European sculpture.

The sculpture of cathedrals in Germany (in Bamberg, Magdeburg, Naumburg) is distinguished by expression, vital concreteness and monumentality of images. Temples were decorated with reliefs, statues, stained glass windows, floral patterns, and images of fantastic animals. In the decoration of churches, in addition to religious ones, there were already many secular motifs.

In Gothic painting, stained glass became the main element of interior color design. The stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle chapel and the cathedral in Chartres stand out especially. Fresco painting, which, along with canonical scenes, included secular subjects and portraits, adorned the walls of palaces and castles (papal palace paintings in Avignon). In Gothic miniatures, the desire for a reliable reproduction of nature intensified, the range of illustrated manuscripts expanded, and their themes were enriched. Under the influence of Dutch and Italian art, easel paintings and portraits appeared.

The French Gothic style manifested itself, in addition to cathedrals, in the creation of comfortable and, at the same time, ceremonial buildings, palaces of kings and the highest nobility, and elegantly decorated urban private houses. For example, in the castles of Amboise (1492-1498), in Gayon (1501-1510), in the Palace of Justice in Rouen (1499-mid-XVI century), etc.

In late (flaming) Gothic, especially in France, sculptural altars in interiors became widespread, combining painted and gilded wooden sculpture and tempera painting on wooden boards. The best examples of French Gothic art include small ivory sculpture, silver reliquaries, Limoges enamel, tapestries and carved furniture. Late Gothic is characterized by abundant decoration that hides architectural divisions, the appearance of curved lines, and a whimsical pattern of window openings reminiscent of flames (the Church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen, 1434-1470, the completion of construction was delayed until the 1580s). In miniatures there has been a desire to convey space and volume. The number of secular buildings being constructed (city gates, town halls, workshops and warehouse buildings, etc.) is increasing.

Gothic style furniture

The interiors of early Gothic are still quite modest, and their elements still bear traces of Romanesque style. This period was characterized by wooden or tiled floors covered with carpets. The walls are lined with plank panels and decorated with bright wall paintings or carpets. The windows are glazed, but there are no curtains yet. Paintings are rarely used to decorate rooms; instead, wall paintings and wood engravings are performed; ceilings are made, as a rule, of wooden beam construction with rafters open to the outside, although well decorated. There are also false ceilings, lined with smooth boards or divided by frequent slats and decorated with decorative paintings. In countries such as France and England, the center of the interior was a fireplace, very richly decorated. In Germany since the middle of the 15th century. Tiled stoves are beginning to play a major role in the interior. All furnishings have heavy proportions, an excessive supply of material, are awkward and are usually placed along the walls. At first, almost every furniture (and not only) early Gothic product has ecclesiastical origin. Later, with the development of furniture technology, well-made church furniture was created for sacristies, choir rooms, etc., which greatly influenced the further development of furniture in urban homes. This was facilitated by the introduction into the design of furniture objects of the technique of frame-panel knitting wood and almost all other carpentry techniques for joining parts, as well as the invention of a two-handed saw, forgotten since antiquity. The saw was only re-invented at the beginning of the 14th century. in Germany, and from that time on, it became possible to obtain thin and even sawn boards instead of hewn thick, roughly axed boards. Already by the beginning of the 15th century. All the techniques known to us for box corner knitting of boards were developed.

Gradually, the houses of the medieval aristocracy were increasingly decorated, this is especially noticeable in the interiors of reception halls and guest rooms, furnished with well-decorated furniture. The residential buildings of wealthy citizens follow the example of the nobility, but retain a certain restraint and simplicity of decoration and furnishings. The entire design corresponds to the architectural decor of stone buildings, especially temple buildings. Only by the 15th century, during the period of Flamboyant Gothic, when Gothic architecture began to be especially actively saturated with sculptural decor, Gothic ornament began to abundantly decorate previously established stable furniture forms, in which constructive techniques related to the building principles of Gothic architecture appeared. In addition to the borrowed architectural forms of window frames, portals, pointed turrets with phials (spires), columns, pointed vaults, niches, etc., furniture is also decorated on the frame and panels with carved ornaments, in which four main types can be distinguished. These are an openwork geometric ornament, a floral (leafy) ornament, a ribbon weaving ornament and a so-called ornament. linen folds or napkins. In addition, in the late Gothic period, furniture, in addition to carvings, was decorated with painting, gilding and richly decorated metal parts of frames, locks, hinges, rowlocks, as well as sculptural images of human faces and figures.

Based on Gothic openwork geometric ornament lie simple geometric figures: circle, triangle, square, which are easily drawn using a ruler and compass. The openwork ornament represents the so-called. maswerk (from German maßwerk - literally work according to the applied dimensions) in the form of a complex intersection of parts of a circle and straight lines, resulting in a complex pattern with pointed arches and interlacing, reminiscent of the ribs of Gothic structures.

The famous Gothic trefoil, rosette, quadrifolium, and the design of the central window of the cathedral were built in a similar way - big rose. Masverk ornamentation in late Gothic was very common throughout Europe and in England. As a rule, the walls of chests, cabinet doors, and the backs of chairs were decorated with such ornaments. Masking is performed using deep carving techniques, when the background is deepened relative to the ornament, due to which the elements of the ornament are finely profiled, their outlines are smoothed and rounded. This is a bit reminiscent of relief carving, although the relief here is cut entirely in the plane of the board (panel), without rising above its surface. The plant ornament is made in the form of stylized sharp leaves and curls, gradually acquiring naturalistic forms.

Since the end of the 15th century. On panels, a flat ornament is especially common in the form of a piece of parchment or linen with patterned edges laid in double-sided byte folds. The ornament is made in flat relief. This type of ornament is found in large quantities on furniture objects in France, Germany and England. It was especially widely used on wardrobes and chests manufactured in Cologne and Ghent.

Gothic furniture in the north and west of Europe (in France, the Netherlands, northwestern Germany and England) was made mainly from oak; in the south and east (in Tyrol, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary) pine and spruce wood was used, as well as larch and juniper .

The main type of furniture for storing things, as well as sitting and lying in the houses of the nobility and ordinary townspeople is a chest, from the forms of which, over time, new types of furniture objects were formed such as a chair-chest, a dresser, a credenza and a buffet. In size, Gothic chests are wider and taller than Italian cassone chests of the Renaissance. As a rule, chests have overhead iron hinges with which the lid was attached. These loops, as well as large applied iron locks with openwork ornaments, are decorative elements of the chest.

Since the 15th century The side walls of the chests are covered with rich carvings in the form of masverk ornaments, floral ornaments, stone frames of Gothic windows and other architectural elements of building decoration. The front wall is also richly decorated; a special place is reserved for the coat of arms of the owner of the chest and a patterned, well-chased lock. Sometimes, in addition to architectural motifs, entire sculptural scenes on religious and secular themes are performed. The painter and gilder also participate in the final finishing of the chest.

In medieval houses, regardless of the status of the owner, it was cold and even damp, so furniture had to be raised above floor level. Therefore, some chests not only had a massive shaped and highly profiled base, but were also made with legs that were a continuation of the side posts of the frame or flat side walls with a figured cutout at the bottom. In the south of Germany, pine chests with engraving and flower painting became widespread. This decor was complemented by an incised ornament on a painted background. The openwork pattern undoubtedly comes from deep carving, but the process of creating it is less labor-intensive. With the advent of thin sawn boards, end-to-end ornaments began to be used, superimposed on the main painted board that made up the background. With significantly less labor, the same impression of decor was created in two planes. This technique became very widespread and lingered for a long time not only in German, but also in Swiss folk art.

The types of containers characteristic of Gothic style were, in addition to chests, supplies (dresses). The prototype of such a cabinet is a chest placed on four high legs, which are connected at the bottom by a horizontal frame, the upper part of which is sewn up with a board. Thanks to this, the bottom shelf was created, right next to the floor. Subsequently, the legs of the cabinet on three sides (the back and two sides) also began to be tightly sewn up with boards - a kind of niche was obtained. The upper part of the supply had shelves that were closed with hinged or hinged doors.

Such suppliers were, as a rule, intended for storing dishes and drinks. The most valuable metal utensils, including silver, and glassware were placed in the upper compartment, and polished copper utensils were placed on the lower shelf, located in the basement. The set was borrowed from church use, where it was purely altar furniture, and only then penetrated into secular life. Such containers were called credenza there and sometimes had the shape of a tall chest with a horizontal upper surface. And only over time was such a chest raised and placed on high legs. In the earliest French suppliers, the upper parts were made in the form of a rectangular box, the plank walls of which were connected by simple box knitting. The back and two side walls of the box continued to the floor and were connected at the bottom by another plane for rigidity and strength, thanks to which the supplier stood high above the floor. Two, and sometimes three, front doors, made of solid thick boards, were attached to openwork iron hinges. The doors themselves were decorated with ornaments made using deep carving techniques. A wooden canopy was placed on top of the supply to protect from the ash and soot of still smoking fireplaces. Dishes were placed under the canopy and on the lower surface.

Later, with the mastery of the frame-panel design, suppliers begin to make more complex hexagonal shapes, in which the desire of the craftsmen to simplify the proportions and develop the shape vertically, including through the upper turned decorative elements in the form of phials or spiers, is clearly visible. In later and richly decorated stavkas, its side walls rest on thin twisted columns, which are connected in the upper part by pointed arches. The front three wall faces of the supplier have the same arches, but without supports, ending with weights hanging in the air. The ribs formed at the intersection of the edges of the walls are decorated with carved pointed Gothic turrets, or vials. The walls of the supplier are made up of several frames with panels. The frames are heavily profiled on the sides and top, which creates the impression of niches in which panels with carvings of religious subjects are deeply placed. In other cases, the panels are filled with either a Gothic floral ornament, or a mask, or a linen fold pattern, which would be very actively used along with Renaissance ornaments on furniture objects in the 16th century.

In the 15th century Large and very bulky cabinets with two or four doors (in the form of two-tier cabinets) appear, the panels of which, as a rule, are decorated with a pattern of linen folds.

Seating furniture gradually became more varied, but was still reluctant to be separated from the walls, although some of such furniture was already beginning to be freely placed in the room. Long time benches and chests attached to the walls remained the most common furniture for sitting and lying.

The seats of stools and chairs take on a variety of shapes - square, round, rectangular, multifaceted.

A characteristic type of Gothic chair is a chest, to which a very high blank back with blank elbows was attached. The seat was usually arranged with a lift, and the back was decorated with floral ornaments or masverk and ended with an openwork Gothic comb, phials, French lilies, etc. The front and side panels of the drawer (chest) of such a chair were usually processed with linen folds. Chairs were usually placed near the bed and therefore received the name bedside chairs. They also served as a home closet. The seat was made of wood, hard, the bottom drawer interfered with the legs when sitting, because... they could not be pulled back, and the carved vertical back did not contribute to the comfort of a sitting person. These chairs were very common in France, and in the countries lying to the north of it they were of little use.

In addition to armchairs, the most widespread seating furniture was stools, benches and chairs.

In poor houses the only type of seating was probably stools, the construction of which consisted of a round or triangular board with three or four cylindrical or rectangular legs. Stools were also made over complex shape with a rectangular seat standing on side supports, which were sometimes decorated with Gothic pointed arches. Benches were often made in the form of elongated stools with a rectangular seat for several people, or they resembled ordinary chests, the top cover of which was adapted for sitting. Such benches had a high back and, as a rule, were placed against the wall. There were also benches with a folding back (with a crossbar), which were freely placed in the room or installed near the fireplace. A fairly primitive type of cylindrical chair is also known, which was made on the basis of an ordinary barrel, to which several additional back parts were attached. Other types of chairs were also used, for example, a swivel chair (the so-called Lutheran), chairs (armchairs) on three or four legs of turning work, reminiscent of the seating areas of the Romanesque era. The rest of the seating furniture was much more advanced and better adapted for humans. These were stools and chairs made on the basis of ancient X-shaped stools, chairs and curule chairs. Such seating areas with intersecting support parts have the oldest pedigree, dating back to Ancient Egypt and antiquity.

Such furniture spoke of the power possessed by the owner of the chair or armchair, which was further emphasized by the special elevation on which they stood, and in some cases, also by the canopy.

The earliest known X-shaped stools could be folded. The supporting parts were fastened with crossbars, the top of which were fastened with brightly decorated straps, forming a seat. In other cases, in order to create a chair, the back support was made higher than the seat and turned into a back support. Additional comfort of such a chair was achieved with the help of felt upholstery, a pillow and a footstool.

Appearing in the late Gothic period, especially in Italy and Spain, X-shaped chairs and armchairs only imitate the folding shape and represent, in fact, Renaissance furniture, the so-called. curule chairs, in which their side parts rise above the seat and act as a kind of elbows, sometimes connected to the back. Such chairs were richly decorated with flat carvings, painted and gilded.

Very few beds have survived from Gothic times, mainly due to the dilapidation of the lush draperies. The beds were playing important role in expressing the social status of the owner, which is evident, at least, from the numerous surviving paintings that era. During this period, state beds in the homes of noble nobles were considered one of the most expensive and prestigious pieces of furniture and were often intended more for display than for sleeping.

Like chests, beds in Western European countries had to be raised to elevated heights to protect them from drafts and cold, damp floors. Beds in the Gothic era, unless they were built into the wall, had a half-canopy, a full canopy, or a large wardrobe-like wooden canopy box decorated with carvings and paintings. Warm draperies appeared that could be detached and packed into chests during moves.

The design of Gothic tables is similar to the tables of the Romanesque period, although their range has increased. Most characteristic type The table is a rectangular dining table with a strongly protruding tabletop on two wooden rectangular side support boards. These shields had flat carvings with Gothic ornaments, and the middle part had openings made in the form of a single or double Gothic temple window with its characteristic shape, including the binding grid. Sometimes deep drawers were made in the underframe boxes. The side panels at the bottom near the floor were pulled together with a special bar or plank.

On the basis of this type of table, an early form of desk was subsequently formed with a massive liftable tabletop, under which there were many compartments and small drawers in the base box, and below there was a container hidden from prying eyes. These types of tables, characteristic, for example, of southern Germany and Switzerland, were used by merchants and money changers until the 16th century.

Traditional ribbon weave or floral Gothic patterns made with in-depth oak carvings fill the tops of these tables. An additional decorative effect is achieved by the contrast of this wide, flat, wax-rubbed carving with the slightly recessed flat background. The side support panels are connected by a horizontal bar, the outer ends of which are usually locked with wedges. Tables are also known that stand on four obliquely set legs connected by legs. Such legs, as a rule, had a flat thread. In the late Gothic period, extendable tables were also known. Tables with rectangular and round tops, standing on one central support, began to appear. Table tops are starting to be covered with veneer. Attempts at still primitive inlay are known.

Tables borrowed from Romanesque continued to exist in the form of a simple wooden shield, which was mounted on trestles or on two hollow rectangular frames that folded together.

Gothic style in furniture characterized by significant local differences. The greatest elegance of proportions, decorations, as well as the proportionality of parts was distinguished by French furniture, which is characterized by a large number of types of chests, chairs with drawers and high backs, chairs, benches, stands, cabinets, etc. True, in Northern France, furniture was strongly influenced by the Dutch furniture and had very heavy shapes, but was still beautifully decorated. This influence was due to the work of many visiting Dutch woodcarvers. In other countries, the furniture range was much poorer, and the shapes of the products were somewhat uniform. However, in Spain, the development of furniture art went in line with the French Gothic style, but the decor of furniture objects, as well as architecture, was strongly influenced by the Arab-Moorish style - a peculiar mixture of geometric motifs, as well as motifs of climbing plants with already intricate lines of openwork ornament of late, flaming, Gothic. Spanish furniture is characterized by an extremely complex and rich flat surface finish. Unfortunately, apart from church pews and chairs for the choir, we do not know any other Spanish furniture for sitting from the Middle Ages. Wood carving flourished in medieval Spain, but other types of decoration were also used. For example, chests were covered with colored or embossed leather, rich metal (iron and bronze) fittings, stalactite motifs, and turned bars were used.

During the Gothic period, the furniture art of Germany and the Netherlands was highly developed and also had much in common with the art of France. Artistically and structurally, the furniture was beautifully executed. The material was hard wood. Furniture, as a rule, had a frame structure with thin panels. Beautiful carved plant elements, free openwork and folded patterns were used as decorations. Typical furniture products are tall double-door wardrobes with four, six or even nine panels, as well as sideboards with a ladder with a canopy and high legs. The carpentry work was carried out very carefully, with great precision. The carvings were distinguished by their subtlety and grace. In Northern Germany, on the Rhine, high-quality Gothic furniture with a tenon joint was used. Large cabinets are similar in design to Flemish ones. Noteworthy is the tall cabinet on legs, decorated with folded patterns, and later with floral patterns on the panels. Such cabinets were in most cases decorated with decorative forging. Typical bench chests were also made. The South German style would be common in the Alpine countries (Switzerland, Southern Bavaria, Tyrol, Upper Austria). South German furniture was made primarily of soft and semi-hard wood, had a plank construction and was decorated with flat carvings.

Such furniture was more varied in both form and decor than northern furniture. The furniture was decorated with openwork ornaments based on plant motifs with curls and ribbons using the technique of flat carving, made on a colored base and enriched with animal figures and coat of arms. The interior was clad in wood with profiled slats.

This technology of decorating residential premises, including furniture, with shallow flat carved ornaments (Flachschnitt) painted, as a rule, in red and green colors, was called Tyrolean Carpenter Gothic (Tiroler Zimmergotik). Fine Gothic furniture has been preserved in Tyrolean castles. These are various types of tables, canopy beds, decorated richly carved, chests, chairs, benches, narrow cabinets for washing supplies built into the wall and other furniture objects. Here we see the first attempts at veneering and primitive inlay.

The southern Gothic movement also captured Upper Hungary, where beautiful furniture was made. First of all, church furnishings have reached us: chairs for the choir, libraries, tables, etc., having simple shapes, flat openwork carvings, painting and gilding.

Gothic style on Italian architecture and furniture art had a very superficial influence, which can be explained by differences in living conditions and climate.

In Italy, where the influence of ancient traditions was still extremely strong, the Gothic style was considered barbaric; Already in its very name there was an expression of disdain for the art of the northern countries, alien in spirit. The Gothic style in Italy brought its own ornamentation, but all the sharp Gothic corners were blunted. The flat carving of southern German furniture influenced the ornamentation of northern Italian cabinets. In the 15th century in Venice and Verona, wooden chests were decorated with beautiful openwork carvings with rosettes and Gothic foliage patterns. Chests from Central Italy (Tuscany and Siena, c. 1400) had figured stucco, which was painted and covered with gilding (stucco).

The Gothic style in England lasted for a very long time. It is customary to divide English Gothic into three periods: early Gothic (1189-1307), decorative Gothic (1307-1377) and late, so-called. vertical, rectilinear Gothic (1377-1590). This was precisely the time when the Renaissance was already in full bloom in Italy, and England was still experiencing the Gothic style of the third period, which the British call the perpendicular style, which received this name due to the predominance of vertical straight lines of structural and decorative elements. At this time, it was customary to cover the walls of rooms with wooden panels of a frame-panel design. The panels were decorated with carved ornaments. The interior wooden ceilings of the rooms were also decorated with carvings. In the early period of English Gothic, the furniture was heavy, its profiles were simple and rough. The main decorative element is a folded ornament. Later, the influence of architecture begins to be felt in the divisions of furniture.

English furniture, even late Gothic, is characterized by simplicity of design and a small amount of decoration.

The main universal furniture object continues to be the chest. As throughout Western Europe, the frame of the chest consists of thick bars, between which panels with flat carvings of decorations are inserted. The frame of the chest is also bound with iron strips for strength, and locks are attached above the panels. The prototype of the English wardrobe, as elsewhere in Europe, is two chests placed one on top of the other. The front part of such a cabinet is divided by frame bars into six frame cells into which panels are inserted. Moreover, the central panels are wider, and the side panels are narrow. The narrow side panels are decorated with an ornament with linen folds. The frames of the wide panels resemble cabinet doors, hung on massive and well-decorated metal hinges.

English late Gothic furniture is characterized by massive armchairs, the frame of which is made of thick rectangular bars, between which thin panel boards decorated with flat carvings are inserted into the tongue. The panels of the backrest are decorated with a masverk ornament, and the panels of the armrests and the lower part of the chair are decorated with a folded ornament.

The side posts of the backrest and elbows are additionally decorated with vertical posts and spiers. In addition to cabinets, low and wide suppliers - coupe boards - have become widespread in England. Tables at this time, as a rule, have a rectangular tabletop and a massive base, which is attached to the side panels instead of legs. These shields and the base are primitively decorated with figured sawn edges and shallow carvings of a simple floral pattern. The side support panels of tables are often fastened with legs, into the outer ends of which wedges are inserted.

The beds have a canopy, which is attached to four posts, which are a kind of continuation of the legs. At the bottom, the legs have a tetrahedral cross-section, and above the bed frame, the posts are carved with plant motifs in the form of polyhedrons, interceptions of various shapes, etc. The headboard of the bed is made high, and its five panels are decorated with low relief carvings.

In general, English Gothic furniture had a simple design, the elements of which were never disguised and were used as well as decorative elements. All nodes and joints are clearly visible and understandable. All furniture was made exclusively from oak. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. In England, a mixed style was formed - a kind of transition from Gothic to Renaissance, which was called the Tudor style. A classic pattern begins to appear on the Gothic structure.

The through openwork ornament and a special type of arched decorations still belong to the Gothic style, however, the invasion is already noticeable from the new profiling of furniture parts, rosettes and other motifs early renaissance. In most cases, this applies to furniture that has a Dutch influence, such as china cabinets. The coats of arms of the owners begin to appear on the panels of a wide variety of furniture objects.

The influence of the new Italian Renaissance art began to penetrate into Central Europe around 1500, primarily in France, where they worked at the royal court Italian artists. French furniture of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. takes on a new, completely unique character.

The decor of this time in the form of grotesque ornaments, for example, is combined here with Gothic decorations. Overhead openwork iron hinges and locks are still in use. One part of the supplier’s panels, for example, is decorated with linen folds, and the other with a grotesque. The front supports are made in the form of bars, but the plank rear wall continues to descend to the bottom. The frame continues to be hexagonal, but its front wall is made wider than the side ones. However, in Germany, for example, suppliers usually differed from French ones in the simpler rectangular shape of the body and the absence of a solid rear wall. In their decoration, profile images of human faces in grotesque ornaments are sometimes replaced by sculpted male and female heads that are strongly pushed forward. This was a transitional time when constructive and compositional clarity and definiteness began to be felt in the morphology of furniture objects, and all divisions and profiles were specially emphasized and manifested in external form.

Gothic style - important stage in the history of the development of furniture styles. Many new types of furniture were created and forgotten antique furniture technology was resurrected to new life. The carpentry craft, with its lively, original form of expression in ornamentation, was on the rise. In a Gothic interior, furniture is still not entirely mobile: many of its types still gravitate towards walls or are built into enclosing structures, and have a close connection with architecture in terms of borrowing its forms, the nature of their divisions and decorative decoration. Already during the late Gothic period, the art of carpentry was highly developed, which served as the basis for performing even more complex tasks in the Renaissance.

Textbook materials used. benefits: Grashin A.A. Short course stylistic evolution of furniture - Moscow: Architecture-S, 2007

Gothic(Gothic style)- historical artistic style that dominated in Western European art in the period from the XIII to the XV centuries.

General characteristics of the style Gothic

Gothic style means huge windows, multi-colored stained glass, lighting effects. Giant openwork towers, emphasized verticality of all structural elements.

Characteristic elements in the interior design of churches are slender columns, complex vault shapes, openwork ornaments, rose-shaped windows and lancet vaults, lead-framed window glass, made of convex glass, but without curtains.

Fantastic Gothic designs, surpassing all previously existing ones, overcome the bulkiness of stone. As a result, the main features can be considered irrationalism, dematerialization, upward striving, mysticism, lightness, expressiveness.

Gothic is the crown of the Middle Ages, it is bright colors, gilding, the shine of stained glass, expression, prickly needles of spiers soaring into the sky, a symphony of light, stone and glass... The Gothic style characterizes the final stage of the development of medieval art in Western Europe. The fact of the birth of the Gothic style can be considered the culmination of the Romanesque style and at the same time its overcoming. For a long time elements of both styles coexisted, and the transitional time of the 12th century. was of a revivalist nature.

The birthplace of the new style is Paris. Here, in 1136-1140, under the leadership of Abbot Suger (Suzher), two spans of the main nave of the church of the Abbey of Saint-Denis were erected. But building a Gothic temple is a task for generations. Notre Dame de Paris, founded in 1163, took more than two hundred years to build. The Roman Cathedral (length - 150 meters, height of the towers - 80 meters) was built from 1211 to the beginning of the 14th century, the Milan Cathedral - until the 19th century.

A paradoxical feature of the Gothic style, the perfect forms of which demonstrate irrationalism, dematerialization and the highest, mystical expression, is that the reason (but not the reason) for its emergence was technical achievements - the rational improvement of building construction. The history of Gothic architecture is the history of the rib and flying buttress. Relieving the walls of the load made it possible to cut them with huge windows - this stimulated the art of stained glass. The interior of the temple became tall and bright.

Style Features Gothic

Interiors designed in the Gothic style are distinguished by grandeur and grace. The walls cease to be a structural element, become lighter, are lined with wood or decorated with wall paintings bright colors, wall tapestries. The plank and stone floors of the early Gothic interior were also later covered with carpets. Characteristic elements are openwork ornaments, stone lace carvings, and pointed vaults. Above the entrance, as a rule, there is a huge stained glass rose window. The window panes are lead-framed, convex glass, but without curtains. Wooden beam ceilings or with open rafters; Decorative painting on the ceiling is possible.

In the construction and decoration of Gothic buildings, mainly stone, marble, and wood were used (oak, walnut and spruce, pine, larch and European cedar, juniper). The decor used tiled mosaics and majolica.

Colored stained glass windows in the form of pointed arches are one of the most recognizable features of the Gothic style. Huge windows, for which the walls serve only as a light frame, multi-colored stained glass windows, lighting effects, and finally, a beautiful rose window - all this creates the unique “face” of the Gothic style.

Theologians attributed stained glass the ability to enlighten a person’s soul and keep him from evil. The origins of this type of fine art go back to late antiquity.

The unique effects of stained glass are explained by the transparency of its base - colored glass; the black paint used to draw the contours was opaque. In the ornamental areas of the stained glass window, red and blue tones dominate, in the narrative areas - white, various shades of purple, yellow and green.

“Gothic roses”, colorful stained glass windows, painted sculpture - all this speaks of the special role of color in the Middle Ages. In the interior design of Gothic style temples, rich red, blue, yellow, brown shades, as well as gold and silver threads. Purple, ruby, blue-black, carnation pink, and green shades were used for contrasting details.

Conclusion

The key point of Gothic architecture is the ever-flowing Divine light - a symbol of enlightenment and wisdom. Therefore, Gothic is the finest hour of stained glass.

Gothic is the first pan-European style.

Notre Dame Cathedral is the most impressive and, undoubtedly, the most remarkable monument of early Gothicism; it serves as its symbol and is perceived as one of the highest embodiments of French artistic genius. The western facade of Notre Dame - the horizontal competes with the vertical. this rivalry creates incomparable clarity and balance. The main façade of the five-nave basilica is light, and the height of the towers culminates in a thin, graceful spire (above the middle cross), rapidly rising to the sky. A huge openwork rose window shines in the center of the second tier above the pointed arches of the recessed portals directed upward. Gothic sculpture played a huge role in the Gothic temple, the overall appearance of which is born from a combination of architectural forms - statues or reliefs.

Chartres Cathedral is the pinnacle of French Mature Gothic and all French Gothic architecture. As in the Parisian Notre Dame Cathedral, the main facade is in three tiers, with an openwork rose in the middle and two powerful towers. But here the vertical easily and at the same time solemnly dominates the horizontal, the tiers are almost blurred, and the wall unconditionally capitulates to the grandiose skeleton of the finest architecture, which rushes upward without any tension. everything here is not only majestic, but also elegant, graceful, with full expression of what is primordial for the Gallic mind internal logic and a sense of proportion. The light openwork bulk is a synthesis of architecture and sculpture, a festive symony of pointed arches, columns and blooming, fabulously magnificent sculptural decoration.

Saint Chapelle in Paris is the most delightful of the royal palace chapels 4. interior: instead of a wall there is an openwork frame of windows with sparkling clean stained glass windows. The music of color is happily combined here with the music of the most elegant architectural forms. Tall, light pillars pick up the equally light ribs of the vault, bringing their dynamics to the very floor. The rapidity of takeoffs and a fabulous symphony of colors create a kind of magically poetic mood in this temple.

2.Filippo Brunelleschi(1337-1446) - one of the greatest Italian architects of the 15th century. It opens a new chapter in the history of architecture - the formation of the Renaissance style. the architect came into the world “to give a new form to architecture.”

Breaking with Gothic, Brunelleschi relied not so much on ancient classics as on the architecture of the Proto-Renaissance and national tradition Italian architecture, which retained classical elements throughout the Middle Ages. Brunelleschi's work stands at the turn of two eras: at the same time it completes the tradition of the Proto-Renaissance and lays the foundation for a new path in the development of architecture.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florentine rulers, guild organizations and merchant guilds paid great attention to completing the construction and decoration of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Basically the building had already been erected, but the huge dome planned in the 14th century was not realized. Since 1404, Brunelleschi has been involved in the design of the dome. He eventually received an order to do the work; becomes a leader. The main difficulty that faced the master was caused by the gigantic size of the span of the middle cross (over 48 meters), which required special efforts to facilitate the expansion. Brunelleschi's innovation was that he raised the dome, making it pointed rather than flat, using frame ribs (8 ribs + additional ones) and a double shell inside and outside (with a void between them), i.e. the dome was made as light as possible. This work of the Florentine architect marked the beginning of the construction of domed churches of the Italian Renaissance, right up to St. Peter's Basilica, topped by Michelangelo's dome.

The first monument of the new style and the most early work Brunelleschi's civil engineering work is the Orphanage House (Orphanage). At the first glance at this building, one is struck by its significant and fundamental difference from Gothic buildings. The emphasized horizontality of the facade, the lower floor of which is occupied by a loggia opening onto the square with nine arches, the symmetry of the composition, completed on the sides by two wider openings framed by pilasters - all evokes the impression of balance, harmony and peace. However, having approached the classical concept, Brunelleschi embodied it in full-fledged forms of ancient architecture. The light proportions of the columns, the grace and subtlety of the profiling of the cornices reveal the kinship of Brunelleschi’s creation with the version of the classics that he brought to late Middle Ages Tuscan Proto-Renaissance architecture.

Pazzi Chapel (1430-1443). It is distinguished by the clarity of spatial composition, purity of lines, elegance of proportions and decoration. The centric nature of the building, all volumes of which are grouped around the dome space, the simplicity and clarity of architectural forms, the harmonious balance of parts make the Pazzi Chapel a concentration of the new principles of Renaissance architecture.

Ticket 10

1. Distinctive features of Romanesque and Gothic churches (with drawings).

2. The work of Piero della Francesca.

1. Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building always fit harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially durable and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-recessed portals. Such walls had a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of a monastery or castle is the tower - the donjon. Around it were located the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral:

§ The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space

§ Enlargement of the choir or eastern altar of the temple

§ Increasing the height of the temple

§ Replacement of coffered (cassette) ceilings with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat on beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).

§ Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns

§ The main motif of the interior is semicircular arches

§ Rational simplicity of the design, made up of individual square cells - grasses.

§ Pisa Cathedral, Italy

Chapel of Penitents.

The characteristic features of stylagotik are the verticality of the composition, pointed brightness, a complex frame system of supports and a ribbed vault. The advantage of using ribs is that the vault can be larger, thereby reducing the loads arising from it.

The absorption of these loads by the system of buttresses made it possible to make the walls thinner. The desire to minimize the massiveness of the structure led to the fact that as a result of the introduction of the frame, the wall ceased to be a load-bearing element and became just a filling between the load-bearing pylons. As a result of its variability, the pointed vault was structurally superior to the semicircular vault in many respects. Massive stonework vault in early middle ages was replaced by openwork stone structures, whose emphatically vertical supports and columns transfer static loads collected in a bundle to the foundations

2. Piero della Francesca(Italian Piero della Francesca); OK. 1420-1492, Italian artist and theorist, representative of the Early Renaissance. The works are distinguished by majestic solemnity, nobility and harmony of images, generality of forms, compositional balance, proportionality, accuracy of perspective constructions, and a soft, elegant colorful range full of light.

In the period from 1446 to 1454, Pierrot created a style that, in its main features, was preserved in works dating back to the period of his creative maturity. It is characterized by conventionality in the depiction of hair and eyes (the famous almond-shaped eyes, borrowed from the characters of Domenico Veneziano) and the idealization of facial features. The tall figures are built according to the classical canon of Vitruvius proportions, but the female figures have elongated, slightly curved necks and high foreheads - elements of the late Gothic ideal of beauty. In modeling the carnation, Piero della Francesca gives preference to soft tones and smooth transitions, as opposed to the sharp and dark shadows that Masaccio resorted to in his works. IN Flagellation of Christ Pierrot shows a clear reluctance to depict fast, abrupt or frequently repeated movements. This is primarily due to his temperament, but the study of ancient sculpture also played a role here. The main action, the actual scourging of Christ, is depicted on the left in the background, while in the foreground on the right three characters stand in frozen poses with their backs to what is happening. The torturers of Christ seem impassive, stopped in their movement, like participants in a “living picture.” In paintings with strictly canonical iconography, Piero della Francesca proposed original coloristic solutions, giving preference to the use of cold tones and especially a large number of shades of blue.

Piero della Francesca builds large compositions, emphasizing the positions and actions of the characters with the help of spatial intervals, light and color accents.

In old age, Piero della Francesca abandoned painting, apparently due to deteriorating eyesight, and turned to mathematics. The most significant of his mathematical treatises, intended for artists and scientists, is About perspective in painting(De prospectiva pingendi).

"Portrait of Duke Federigo Montefeltro and Duchess Battista Sforza"

"The Story of the Queen of Sheba", Church of San Francesco in Arezzo.

Ticket 11

1. Gothic cathedral: image and design ( architectural features, sculptural decor, stained glass).

The Gothic cathedral, with all the richness of its constituent elements, amazes with its extraordinary unity, both of the architectural plan and of the entire decorative system (exterior and interior). Moreover, this unity characterizes the Gothic style as a whole.

The same device Christian temple remains unshakable. Its internal skeleton is still the same, the same sequential arrangement of parts. No matter how much sculpture and carving the shell of the temple is decorated with, underneath it you will always find, at least in its rudimentary, initial state, a Roman basilica. It is located on earth according to an immutable law. These are the same two naves, intersecting in the form of a cross, the upper end of which, rounded by a dome, forms the choir; these are the same permanent chapels for religious processions inside the temple or for chapels - something like side aisles with which the central nave communicates through the spaces between the columns. On this constant basis, the number of chapels, portals, bell towers, spiers varies endlessly, following the imagination of the century, people and art. Statues, stained glass windows, rosettes, arabesques, various decorations, capitals, bas-reliefs - it combines all this according to its own taste and its own rules.

Design of a Gothic cathedral Plan of a Gothic temple

Almost always two tiers of flying buttresses were built. The first, upper tier was intended to support roofs, which became steeper over time, and, therefore, heavier. The second tier of flying buttresses also counteracted the wind pressing on the roof. Pointed arches, which became more and more elongated and pointed as Gothic architecture developed, expressed the main idea of ​​Gothic architecture - the idea of ​​the temple aspiring upward.

The compositional and ideological concept of the sculptural decoration was subordinated to the program developed by theologians. The focus of the sculptural compositions was the portals, where large statues of apostles, prophets, and saints followed in lines, as if greeting visitors. Tympanums, arches of portals, spaces between them, galleries of the upper tiers, niches of turrets, and vimpergi were decorated with reliefs and statues. Many small figures and scenes were placed in archivolts, transepts, on consoles, plinths, pedestals, buttresses, and roofs. The capitals were entwined with leaves and fruits; half-blooming leaves (crabs) quickly ran along the ledges of the cornices, the ribs of the turrets, and the flying buttresses; the spiers were crowned with a flower (crucifer). The window frames were filled with carved openwork patterns. In the temple, a particle of the universe, they sought to embody the religious concept of human history with its sublime and base sides.

The design features of Gothic buildings did not require massive walls, and the external spaces between the pillars-buttresses were filled with huge lancet windows. The benefits of better lighting are obvious; It is useful, however, to remember the symbolic meaning that medieval people gave to light. The image of Christ as the “Light of the World” is very often found in painting and literature of that era. And this image was probably especially dear to Abbot Suger, who, among other characteristic elements of the future Gothic style, introduced stained glass windows to Saint-Denis. Using colored glass for visual compositions in itself was not news. But only in the Gothic temple did the stained glass windows become necessary element church architecture. Stained glass can be defined as “transparent mosaic”. They indeed consisted of large pieces of colored glass. The outline of the stained glass window was first marked on a wooden board; The glass was cut to size, set into a lead rim, and finally all the pieces were joined together in an iron frame. The early stained glass windows of Gothic cathedrals are distinguished by bright, intense colors, often red and blue, which were fixed by firing. By the middle of the 13th century. the colors become less intense and the paint is applied directly to the glass. Like other customers of the Middle Ages, Suger was extremely proud of his stained glass windows, seeing in them not only material and artistic value, but also a deep spiritual meaning.

Mantegna's work.

Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506), one of the greatest Renaissance painters in Northern Italy. Mantegna combined the artistic aspirations of the Renaissance masters of the 15th century: a passion for antiquity, an interest in accurate and meticulous, down to the smallest details, rendering of natural phenomena and a selfless belief in linear perspective as a means of creating the illusion of space on a plane. His work became the link between the early Renaissance in Florence and the later flowering of art in Northern Italy.

Mantegna was born around 1431; in 1445 he was enrolled in the workshop of painters in Padua as the adopted son of Francesco Squarcione, a local artist and antiquarian, in whose workshop he worked until 1448. In 1449, Mantegna began painting frescoes in the Church of the Eremitani in Padua.

Mantegna's passion for perspective and ancient art is evident everywhere and in everything. He gained knowledge of the rules of linear perspective from the masters of the Tuscan school, directly from Donatello and other Florentine artists who were then working in Padua. In 1454, Mantegna married Nicolosa, daughter of the Venetian painter Jacopo Bellini.

In 1460, having accepted the invitation of the Marquis of Mantua, Lodovico Gonzaga, Mantegna settled at his court. He visited Tuscany and Rome, where, at the request of Pope Innocent VIII, he decorated his chapel with frescoes. Elevated to knighthood and occupying a high position at court, Mantegna served the Gonzaga family until the end of his life.

The master's passion for ancient classics again manifested itself in his painting “Saint Sebastian”. The saint is tied to an elegant Corinthian column, which apparently remains from a destroyed temple. Plants grow through the crevices of the stone, and fragments of antique marbles are scattered at the feet of the martyr.

For the office of Isabella d'Este, wife of Francesco Gonzaga, Mantegna wrote two compositions on mythological themes (the third remained unfinished): Parnassus (1497) and Minerva expelling vices (1502). In them, some softening of Mantegna's style is noticeable, associated with a new understanding of the landscape .

Ticket 12

1.Roman sculptural portrait.

Roman sculptural portrait- one of the periods in the development of world portraiture, spanning approximately five centuries (1st century BC - 4th century AD), is characterized by extraordinary realism and the desire to convey the character of the depicted. The Roman portrait developed from death masks.

The development of the ancient Roman portrait was associated with increased interest in the individuality of an individual person. The basis of the artistic structure of many ancient Roman portraits is a clear transfer of the unique features of the model. The difference from the ancient Greek portrait is that the Greeks sought to idealize a person.

The Roman sculptural portrait as an independent and unique artistic phenomenon can be clearly traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. - the period of the Roman Republic. A characteristic feature of portraits of this period is extreme naturalism and verisimilitude in conveying facial features of what distinguishes a particular person from any other person. These trends go back to Etruscan art.

Characteristic psychological features of a portrait from the period of the Republic: “the external resemblance of the statue to the original and the special internal mood that brought all the images together, making them similar friend on a friend, as well as isolation, independence and immersion in the world of personal feelings and experiences"

Marcus Aurelius.

Antoninus Pius

2. Botticelli's later works.

Sandro Botticelli(Italian Sandro Botticelli, March 1, 1445 - May 17, 1510) - nickname of the Florentine artist Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi(Italian Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi), who brought the art of the Quattrocento to the threshold of the High Renaissance.

A deeply religious man, Botticelli worked in all the major churches of Florence and in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, but remained in the history of art primarily as the author of large-format poetic paintings on subjects inspired by classical antiquity - “Spring” and “The Birth of Venus”.

From the beginning of the 1490s. Botticelli's style has changed noticeably: the paintings have become smaller in scale; the painter, emphasizing the gestures and expressions of the characters, concentrated attention on their passionate impulse to action. This is a mysterious retreat from the idealization of naturalism of the 1480s.

In the 1490s, notes of drama appeared in Botticelli’s art (“Lamentation of Christ”, after 1490, Poldi Pezzoli Museum, Milan; “Slander”, after 1495, Uffizi). The sharp contrasts of bright color spots, the internal tension of the drawing, the dynamics and expression of the images indicate an extraordinary change in the artist’s worldview - towards greater religiosity and even a kind of mysticism. However, his drawings for “ Divine Comedy“Dante (1492–1497, Engraving Cabinet, Berlin, and the Vatican Library), while maintaining the sharpness of emotional expressiveness, maintains lightness of line and Renaissance clarity of images. Spring

Birth of Venus

Slander

1. Naumburg Cathedral is a magnificent example of Romanesque and Gothic architecture. Construction of the cathedral began in 1210, but, as usual, it lasted for many years, and early Gothic elements appeared in the appearance of the Romanesque cathedral in the 13th–14th centuries.

The most interesting is the western choir of the cathedral, which represents bright example a synthesis of mature Gothic architecture and sculpture with masterpieces of Gothic sculpture. The name of the artist who worked on the creation of the Western choir remains unknown to this day. What is known is that he came to Naumburg around 1240 and had enormous talent. Against the background of European Gothic of the 13th century, his works stand out for their striking realism, humane interpretation and courageous violation of the canons and norms of medieval art.

The “Master from Naumburg” spent ten years (1255-1265) building the western choir of Naumburg Cathedral in the early Gothic style. From the end of the 1240s, the master began to decorate the western choir with sculpture, so at the turn of the 1240s-1250s, a series of outstanding works of medieval European art appeared in the western choir of Naumburg Cathedral, which today have become recognized classics. The Naumburg master and his assistants made the reliefs of the altar barrier of the western choir with the image of the “Passion of Christ”, the group “The Crucifixion with those present” and 12 statues of donors in the choir itself.

The barrier of the western choir (horizontal tier) is decorated with the cycle of reliefs “The Passion of Christ”. This is the first in monumental art Germany is the embodiment of the Gospel narrative of the suffering and death of Christ.

The first relief, " last supper", reproduces the scene of a peasant meal - rough bowls, bread cut into thick slices. The Apostles are wide-cheeked, stocky, with no refinement. The figures of the gospel heroes are more reminiscent of German peasants who greedily, as if hungry for the day, pounced on food. Among them, two figures stand out sharply. In the center of the composition is Christ. His gaze, thoughtful and clear (how this can be depicted in stone is amazing). Participating in a common meal, he nevertheless is no longer here, he is in tomorrow, where he awaits trial and painful execution. Handing Judas a piece of bread, Christ carefully holds the wide sleeve with his other hand so as not to stain it. The thoughtful and bright image of Christ is echoed by the figure of a middle-aged, balding, bearded man sitting at the edge of the table. His look says the same thing: he understood the Teacher’s thoughts. And a poignant tragic note bursts into the atmosphere of the evening meal of strong, healthy men: this evening is the last.

In the relief “Christ before Pilate” (Pilate washes his hands), the master surprisingly vividly conveyed the furious rage of Christ’s enemies and Pilate’s doubts. But Christ is higher than them - in his figure one can see calm detachment, inner agreement with the will of the Father. The variety of characters and intensity of passions are stunningly conveyed.

The entrance group itself is made in the form of a crucifix. The sculpture of the crucified Christ himself seems surprising and completely uncharacteristic of medieval art. We see not an ideal image of the Savior, but a person who is no stranger to pain and torment. Christ is depicted as suffering, humane. The body of Christ is depicted in detail: a natural human figure, with a wound from the spear of the centurion Longinus, a face distorted by suffering, a fading gaze.

The pinnacle of the work of the “Master of Naumburg” is the twelve figures of donors - the founders of Naumburg Cathedral. This is the first portrait gallery in the art of medieval Europe, amazing in the brightness of its depiction of characters, which has no analogues in any country. If in the creation of the altar barrier of the western choir the author showed himself as a master of dramatic storytelling, then in the statues of the founders of the temple his talent as an excellent portrait painter was revealed. The sculptures of Naumburg Cathedral are called the culmination of the development of German sculpture of the 13th century. Among the twelve sculptures of the western choir, made almost in human height, the most notable are famous portraits the powerful, cruel and intelligent Count of Meissen Ekkehard and his wife Uta - majestic, proud, and at the same time deeply feeling and reverent. The gallery of images, amazing in their brightness, is also represented by Ekkehard’s weak-willed and indecisive brother Hermann and his cheerful and smiling wife Reglinda, the sensitive and dreamy Welhelm, the personification of the evil stupidity of Timo von Kistritz.

In these works the artist was far ahead of his time. There is nothing similar to the Naumburg sculptures in European art of the 12th century.

The realism and emphasized “secularism” of the Naumburg sculptures prompted some researchers to look for a connection between them and the medieval heretical movement of the Waldenses. However, later studies refute these assumptions: the cathedral in Naumburg was an episcopal see, and the Bishop of Naumburg personally participated in the development of the decoration of the temple. This excludes the influence of the Waldensian heresy on the images of the famous sculptures of Naumburg Cathedral.

The sculptures of Naumburg Cathedral are associated with French Gothic, and this is natural - the “Master from Naumburg” studied and worked in France. In many of the motifs of Naumburg Cathedral one can see the influence of the sculptural decoration of the Cathedral in Reims. However, the German artistic tradition is clearly present in the works of the Master of Naumburg.

To summarize, we can say that the most characteristic features of German monumental sculpture of the Middle Ages are the individualization of images and the dramatic nature of the narrative. The uniqueness of German plastic art is that it combines the features of true realism with expressiveness and even exaltation.

2. Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel- the painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is the most famous cycle of frescoes by Michelangelo Buonarotti, created in 1508-1512 and considered one of the recognized masterpieces of High Renaissance art. The most difficult task set before him by Pope Julius II - Michelangelo, who called himself a sculptor, not a painter, had never had to carry out such a large-scale work in fresco technique - the master completed in record time and practically alone.

In 1508, despite the strong resistance of Michelangelo's opponents and rivals, especially Bramante, Raphael's friend and zealous defender from any attack on his glory, the powerful Pope Julius II summoned Michelangelo from Florence to Rome to paint the plafond (ceiling) of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. Four years earlier, Michelangelo the sculptor had become famous for his David, but he had little experience as a painter and even less in fresco technique. In any case, he never dealt with the curved vaults that make up a significant area in the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo resisted this order, but eventually complied with the pope's demands.

This titanic work took four years. Michelangelo made hundreds of drawings for her, many of which were masterpieces in themselves. The physical parameters of this creation alone, which the artist created virtually alone, are impressive: the area of ​​Michelangelo's paintings in the chapel is about 520 square meters. m. At first, he invited his fellow artists from Florence and invited them, as Vasari says in his biography of Michelangelo, “to write something as a model. Seeing how far their efforts were from his desires and not receiving any satisfaction, one morning he decided to knock down everything they had written and, locking himself in the chapel, stopped letting them in and receiving them at home. And since these jokes, in their opinion, went on for too long, they resigned themselves and returned to Florence in shame.”

You can often read that Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the chapel while lying on his back. This is apparently a legend. Vasari speaks of the greatest inconvenience of work - the constantly “head thrown up,” in other words, Michelangelo worked standing up, forced to keep his head thrown up all the time. “He ruined his eyesight so much,” continues Vasari, “that for several months he could not read what was written or look at the drawings except from bottom to top.” Any tourist who has visited the Chapel will confirm that he left it with a sore head and neck, because, trying to look at the ceiling frescoes, he kept throwing his head back. One can imagine what Michelangelo felt after four years of such exhausting work!

A separate topic is how it was technically possible to arrange scaffolding for painting such a large ceiling area. It is known that Bramante, whom the pope instructed to technically provide this possibility, decided to hang scaffolding (something like cradles) from the ceiling on ropes and for this he punched holes in the entire ceiling. When Michelangelo saw this, he naturally asked the question of how to fill these holes after the painting was done. Bramante replied that he would think about it later, but there was no other way to do it. “Michelangelo understood,” says Vasari, “that Bramante either small master his business, or his little friend.” In the end, Michelangelo invented his own method: he installed the scaffolding on trestles so that they did not touch the walls. An artist's drawing has been preserved, giving an idea of ​​this. Moreover, already in our time, when the frescoes were being cleared, restorers built the scaffolding exactly as Michelangelo designed it.

Four years of exhausting work meant struggling with one’s own poor health, the pressure of financial difficulties, church problems, insufficient knowledge of the technique of fresco painting (at some point the frescoes began to become covered with mold, and this drove the artist into despair), and finally, Dad's annoying impatience and quarrelsomeness. “When meeting with Michelangelo, dad often reminded him: “Shouldn’t we make the chapel richer in colors and gold, because it’s poor,” says Vasari. To which Michelangelo answered simply: “Holy Father, in those days people did not wear gold on themselves, and those depicted there were never too rich, but they were holy people, because they despised wealth.”

Gothic- a period in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 12th to the 15th-16th centuries. Gothic replaced the Romanesque style, gradually displacing it. The term "Gothic" is most often applied to the famous style architectural structures, which can be briefly described as “intimidatingly majestic.” But Gothic covers almost all works of fine art of this period: sculpture, painting, book miniatures, stained glass, frescoes and many others.

Gothic style originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France; in the 13th century it spread to the territory modern Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Spain, England. Gothic penetrated into Italy later, with great difficulty and strong transformation, which led to the emergence of “Italian Gothic”. At the end of the 14th century, Europe was swept by the so-called international Gothic. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

The term "neo-Gothic" is applied to buildings and works of art that contain characteristic Gothic elements, but were created during the eclectic period (mid-19th century) and later.

In the 1980s, the term “gothic” began to be used to refer to the subculture that arose at that time (“gothic subculture”), including the musical direction (“gothic music”).

Elements that define the Gothic style

The Gothic style has fairly clear elements that define it. The Gothic style is easily recognizable by certain techniques that were then used. If we express this in one phrase, then we can use the following - aspiration upward into the world of the spiritual, its religious sense. This idea was expressed in:

Gothic in the interior.

Gothic- the next stage in the development of medieval art, the second pan-European style. The term “Gothic” was introduced by Italian humanists to designate everything that does not relate to classical, ancient models, that is, in their opinion, ugly, associated with complete barbarism (the Goths are a “barbarian” Germanic tribe).

Gothic style, which dominated Western Europe in the 13th - 14th centuries, became the highest artistic synthesis of the Middle Ages.

The leading art form in gothic architecture remained, and its highest achievement was the construction of city cathedrals, evoking a feeling of lightness, special airiness and spirituality. In contrast to the Romanesque, the Gothic cathedral is a city building, directed upward, dominating the entire urban development.

The transition from Romanesque style to gothic in Western European architecture was marked by a number of technological innovations and new stylistic elements. It was believed that the basis for the changes was the introduction of a pointed arch, which with its shape emphasized the upward direction of the entire building; its appearance was associated with Arab influence.

In Gothic architecture, the basilica type of temple was used. The buildings of the Gothic period were based on a new vault design with a stable frame system. Central nave gothic temple usually was higher than the side ones, and part of the load was taken on by flying buttresses - special girth arches that connected the base of the arch of the central nave with the buttresses (special supporting pillars) of the side one. This design made it possible to significantly lighten the entire structure and maximize the internal space of the building, almost removing the walls.

An important detail of the Gothic building is the huge windows, which seemed to replace the walls and occupy all the spaces between the supports. Window decorated with colored stained glass. Thanks to the stained glass windows, the entire interior space was saturated with light, painted in various colors.

On the outside, a Gothic building usually has two towers on the facade, and between them there is a large round window, the so-called “Gothic rose”.

The feeling of lightness was emphasized and interior decor. The smooth surface of the wall disappeared, and the arches were cut by a network of ribs; Wherever possible, the wall was replaced by windows, dismembered niches or arches.

Furniture items of the Gothic period were quite heavy and awkward, they were usually located along the walls. On the cabinets beds, chairs contained a variety of elements of church architecture.

Later, geometrically precise ornaments, quite bizarre and pretentious, begin to be used on wooden products.

Furniture products rooted in a church setting. Furniture decorated with openwork, floral patterns and ribbon weaving. A characteristic feature of this period is a stylized carved ornament, presented on furniture in the form of an engraved leather scroll or an imitation of the texture of fabric laid in fancy folds.

One of the main types of furniture is box, performing a variety of functions. The chests were made from various breeds wood and were decorated with figured stucco molding and rich metal inserts.

Used everywhere benches. They came in a wide variety of types, for example, with a chest-like lower part and a high back.

Bed V gothic style was equipped with a canopy, and in European countries with milder climates it was replaced by a wooden structure, decorated with carvings, panels and trim of different colors.

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After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the so-called Dark Ages began in Europe, during which numerous barbarian tribes carried out their orgy on the remains of the Roman cultural heritage. Against the backdrop of endless wars, there was a partial revival of the Roman architectural tradition, which resulted in the Romanesque architectural style, which was formed around the 10th century and transformed three hundred years later into Gothic.

The Gothic style in architecture was formed in the 12th-13th centuries, along with the onset of the High Middle Ages. It was based on the same Romanesque heritage and the growing power of the Holy See, which needed to be emphasized by the appropriate scale of church buildings.

It is worth noting that the church so dominated the minds of people in those days that its agents without much difficulty raised huge masses of people on an adventure, later called the First Crusade, as a result of which Jerusalem was captured and Christian states were founded in Asia Minor. This, in turn, contributed to the development of pilgrimage, and the pilgrims brought considerable income to the Church itself, whose representatives also enriched themselves by selling indulgences, displaying counterfeit relics, and simply donating. But, despite such dubious methods, which were limited by the Literan Council of 1215, first in France, and then in other European countries, beautiful cathedrals were erected, marking their appearance a new dawn European culture and Gothic as an architectural movement.

Bourges Cathedral

The pioneers in Gothic architecture were members of the Benedictine Order. It was under the arches of the Burgundian Abbey of Cluny that they developed their own type of basilica, first embodied in the five-nave Basilica of Cluny, built in 1088. The basilica was distinguished by the presence of two transepts and an altar part expanded due to the crown of chapels.

The use of the chapel crown was due to the rapidly developing cult of relics at that time, as mentioned a little earlier. In 1220, the basilica was expanded - a three-oil building was added to the west, thanks to which the basilica became one of the largest Catholic churches of that time. The third basilica of Cluny, built on the basis of the first two, became the prototype of the vast majority of large-scale French cathedrals in the Gothic style. But alas, only its drawings have survived to this day, and the building itself was demolished in 1807.

Third Basilica of Cluny (reconstruction)

Abbot Suger made a lot of efforts to develop Gothic architecture, under whose leadership the basilica of Saint-Denis Abbey was rebuilt in the first half of the 12th century. It is this event that is considered to be the starting point of the accurate history of European Gothic.

According to Suger's plan, the light flooding the temple is a symbol of the boundless divine light emanating from the Creator himself. The lighter interior of Gothic churches, compared to Romanesque ones, was facilitated by the revolutionary rejection of columns in favor of a Gothic frame. In addition to the fact that the internal space of the temple was now unified, this technology made it possible to significantly save construction resources and build higher structures. Another distinctive feature of Gothic architecture is strict symmetry, thanks to which the interior of Gothic cathedrals looks very harmonious.

Among the most famous representatives of the Gothic architectural style in France are Notre Dame Cathedral, as well as Chartres, Reims, Laon, Bourges and Amiens Cathedrals.

Gothic style in English architecture began to appear in end of XII century. It is worth noting that while in France there was active urban development, English cities developed rather slowly and Gothic churches were predominantly of the monastic type. The purest example of the early period of English Gothic is considered to be Salisbury Cathedral, and Canterbury is considered the main Gothic cathedral in England.

The building that has the most common features with French Gothic is the building of London's Westminster Abbey Cathedral - it was here that the Norman rulers of England, starting with William the Conqueror, were crowned and buried. Among other significant English examples of Gothic architecture, one can recall the cathedrals of Durham, York, Winchester, Eley and Lincoln.

Canterbury Cathedral

Gothic came to Germany from France, but over time it acquired its own unique features. Some of the buildings, the construction of which began much earlier, were completed using characteristic Gothic elements of decor and construction, becoming the basis of a unique Romanesque-Gothic style, which includes the Michaelskirche, the Chapel of St. Bartholomeus, the Cathedral of St. Kilian and others.

Experts call the Church of Our Lady in Trier one of the first buildings with exclusively Gothic features, the shape of which is an equal-ended cross, elongated only in the altar part. A novelty not found in France was the placement of two chapels at each corner of the cross. German Gothic also has other differences from French: more geometrically strict forms, an entrance from the side facade, one or four turrets (in France there are traditionally two), more strict external decoration of buildings, etc. The only exception is the cathedral in Cologne, created in a characteristic for French Gothic style.

In the northern part of Europe, due to the shortage of sandstone and marble, traditionally used for the construction of Gothic cathedrals, the so-called. brick gothic. The builders used figured brick, which made it possible to create Gothic patterns no worse than from hewn stone.

Gothic actively developed in Spain, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Italy - this style everywhere underwent certain changes, while maintaining common features. The development of Gothic was interrupted by the Black Death, which wiped out almost a third of the population of Europe in the 14th century. Subsequently, Gothic received a kind of revival under the name “flaming Gothic” - features of mannerism were already visible in it.

Duomo, Milan Cathedral, flaming Gothic

Gothic architecture finally faded away at the beginning of the 15th century, giving way to the architecture of the Renaissance, whose masters drew inspiration from the spiritual and material culture of antiquity.

Neo-Gothic architecture burst into flames in the 50s of the 18th century at the instigation of the British aristocracy, after which they turned to Gothic in continental Europe. This was facilitated by the idealization of the Middle Ages and the rejection of the priorities of antiquity. Neo-Gothic turned into the national style of Victorian Britain. During this period, abandoned and unfinished cathedrals were completed and restored throughout Europe, a striking example of which is the already mentioned cathedral in Cologne.

On the territory of Russia during the dawn of European Gothic, there were more pressing problems than the construction of cathedrals, especially since the Gothic forms characteristic of Catholicism did not really fit into Orthodox tradition. But in the 18th century, along with the dawn of neo-Gothic in Europe, the Russian Empire nevertheless arose its own, unique, Russian pseudo-Gothic, which contained traditional Gothic features and elements

Romanesque art and the established style were replaced by Gothic art ( Gothic; from Italian gotico - Gothic, after the name of the German tribe Goths). Term Gothic as a synonym for barbarism, it was first used by the people of the Renaissance to characterize medieval art (as opposed to Roman art), which did not follow the traditions and stylistic features of antiquity and therefore was of no interest to contemporaries.

Increased exaltation and interest in feelings distinguish this art from Romanesque. Between Romanesque And gothic style it is difficult to draw a chronological boundary.

The heyday of the Romanesque style, which occurred in the 12th century, simultaneously served as an impetus for the emergence of another style with other characteristic aesthetic ideals and principles of composition of forms. In the history of art, it is customary to distinguish early, mature (high) and late (the so-called flaming) Gothic. High Gothic reached its peak in the 13th century, late Gothic in the 14th-15th centuries. Gothic art, developing in countries where the Christian Church dominated, remained predominantly cultic in purpose and religious in theme. It is characterized by a symbolic-allegorical type of thinking and a conventional artistic language. From the Romanesque style, Gothic inherited the primacy of architecture in the art system and traditional types of buildings. The cathedral occupied a special place in Gothic art - the highest example of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting.

Gothic style in architecture

Cathedral in Strasbourg. The end of the XII-XV centuries. France - Strasbourg Cathedral

Reims Cathedral, western façade. Construction began in 1211, completed in the 15th century.

Salisbury Cathedral, pointed arches. England - Salisbury Cathedral

Lincoln Cathedral of the Virgin Mary. 1185-1311 England - The Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln

Cathedral in Cologne. Construction began in 1248, completed in 1842-1880. Germany - Cologne Cathedral

Notre Dame Cathedral, west façade. 1163 AD XIV century France - Notre Dame Cathedral

Chartres Cathedral, north portal. Construction began in 1194, consecrated in 1260. France - Chartres Cathedral

Exeter Cathedral. 1112-1400 England - Cathedral Church of St. Peter in Exeter

...western (royal) portal, completed in 1150. The sculptures are a visible transition from Romanesque to Gothic style

The gigantic space of the cathedral, directed upward, the subordination of sculpture to the rhythms of architectural divisions, the stone carving of decorative ornaments, and the painting of stained glass windows had a strong emotional impact on believers.

City architectural ensembles included religious and secular buildings, fortifications, bridges, etc. The main city square was often lined with residential buildings with arcades, the lower floors of which housed retail and warehouse premises. Along the streets radiating from the square and along the embankments, two- and three-story houses were built, often with high gables.

The cities were surrounded by powerful walls with travel towers. Castles gradually turned into complex complexes of fortresses, palaces and cultural buildings.

Usually a cathedral was built in the city center, which was the cultural center of the entire city. Divine services were held there, theological debates were held, mysteries were played, and meetings of townspeople were held. In that era, construction was carried out not only by the church, but also by the community through professional workshops of artisans.

The most significant buildings and, above all, cathedrals, were erected at the expense of the townspeople. Often many generations worked on the creation of one temple. Grandiose Gothic cathedrals differed sharply from Romanesque monastery churches. They are tall, richly decorated and very roomy.

The dynamism and picturesqueness of cathedrals began to determine the character of the city landscape. Following the cathedral, city houses also rushed upward. The entire composition of the cathedral, with the increasing rhythm of all its main elements from bottom to top, was generated by the religious, idealistic aspiration of the soul to heaven. The Gothic cathedral developed the basilica type of building, in which all its elements began to obey a single style system. The main difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque cathedral is a stable frame system, in which the main role is played by cross-rib lancet vaults made of stone and lancet arches, which largely determine the internal and external appearance of the cathedral.

Frame arches formed at the intersection of cross vaults, the so-called ribs (from the French nervure - rib, fold) in mature Gothic, connected the supports of the spans of the central and side naves, where for each rectangular span of the main nave there were two square spans of the side ones naves

The forms of architecture began to express the Christian idea of ​​spirituality, ascension, aspiration upward, to the sky. A feature of the Gothic style is the dematerialization of form. The design and properties of the material no longer determine the visual image. Entering the temple, a person saw a row of thin columns going up, which ended with a bunch of even thinner ribs of the vaults (ribs) as if floating in height. In fact, these huge vaults pressed on special support pillars hidden in a bunch of thin columns. The lateral thrust of the arches of the main nave was suppressed not by the walls, which were a solid stone lace, but through the flying buttresses by massive pillars-buttresses, carried out and supported by the frame of the buildings and therefore invisible to a person inside the cathedral. Here the visual image did not coincide with the operation of the actual structure. If the design worked for compression, then the visual image expressed the idea of ​​​​ascension, the aspiration of the soul to heaven.

The complex frame structure of the Gothic cathedral, the highest manifestation of the architectural and construction art of that time, made it possible to overcome the massiveness of Romanesque buildings, lighten the walls and vaults, and ensure the unity and interconnection of all elements of its object-spatial environment.

Gothic originated in the northern part of France (Ile-de-France) in the middle of the 12th century and reached its peak in the first half of the 13th century. and existed until the mid-20s. XVI century Stone Gothic cathedrals received their classical form in France. As a rule, these are 3-5-nave basilicas with a transverse nave-transept and a semicircular choir (deambulatorium), to which radial chapels (crown of chapels) are adjacent. The impression of movement upward and towards the altar is created by rows of slender columns and the rise of pointed pointed arches, the accelerated rhythm of the arcades of the upper gallery (triforium). The picturesqueness of the interior space of the cathedral is determined primarily by the contrast of illumination of the main and dimly lit side naves and the colored stained glass windows.

The facades of cathedrals are decorated with pointed arches and such compositional and figurative-plastic elements of architectural decor as patterned wimperg, vial, crabb, etc. The statues on the consoles in front of the columns of the portals and in the upper arched gallery, the reliefs on the capitals of the columns, socles and tympanums of the portals form a kind of multi-story picture, which seems to show various episodes of the Holy Scriptures, allegorical images, real characters, etc.

Town halls begin to be built in the main squares of cities, which are usually decorated. Castles are converted into palaces (for example, the papal palace in Avignon, 1334-1352). In the 15th century a type of rich city mansion house arose, the so-called. hotel (for example, Jacques Keurre's hotel in Bourges, 1453, Cluny hotel in Paris, late 14th century, etc.).

At this time, an enrichment and complication of the synthesis of arts took place, which began in the Romanics, which reflected the medieval idea of ​​​​the real and the afterlife. The main type of fine art was sculpture, which received a new plastic interpretation in the Gothic style. Static Romanesque sculpture was replaced by dynamic Gothic sculpture, where the depicted figures seem to address each other and the viewer.

Mature Gothic is marked by a further increase in the verticalism of lines and a dynamic upward thrust. Reims Cathedral - the place of coronation of the French kings - is one of the most integral works of Gothic, a wonderful synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

The plot begins to occupy an important place in Gothic art, including sculpture. The role of secular plots is increasing, but the Last Judgment remains the most common plot in Gothic. Iconographic subjects begin to gradually expand. Interest in man, in his spiritual and worldly life, was expressed in the depiction of scenes from the lives of saints. An outstanding example of the depiction of legends about saints is dating from the last quarter of the 13th century. tympanum History of St. Stephen on the portal of Notre Dame Cathedral.

The inclusion of real motifs is also typical for many small reliefs. As in Romanesque churches, a large place in Gothic cathedrals is occupied by images of monsters and fantastic creatures - the so-called chimeras.

It is believed that the first work of Gothic architecture appeared during the reconstruction of the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis in 1137-1144. Early Gothic also includes cathedrals in Lanie, Chartres and Paris. The greatest achievement of early Gothic art is the Notre Dame Cathedral (Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral), founded in 1163, and was completed until the middle of the 14th century. Cathedral in Chartres, founded in the 12th century. and consecrated in 1260, remains one of the most beautiful in Europe.

The grandiose mature Gothic cathedrals in Reims (1211-15th century) - the largest cathedral in France (150 m long with a tower height of 80 m) and in Amiens (1220-1269) - are distinguished by the perfection of architectural composition and the richness of sculptural and pictorial decoration. , where the cathedral has a length of 145 m and a height of the main nave of 42.5 m, as well as the Sainte-Chapelle church in Paris (1243-1248), built as a royal palace chapel, with its many stained glass windows. From about the middle of the XIII-XIV centuries. majestic Gothic cathedrals were built in other European countries: in Italy (in Venice, Siena, Milan), Germany (in Marburg, Naumburg, Ulm, Cologne), England (in London, Salisbury), Spain (in Barcelona, ​​Burgos, Lona, Toledo ), Austria (in Vienna), Flanders (in Brussels), the Czech Republic (in Prague), etc., where Gothic received a unique local interpretation. As a result of the Crusades, the architects of Rhodes, Cyprus and Syria became acquainted with Gothic building principles.

In the Gothic era, true masterpieces of sculpture were created: reliefs and statues of the northern portal of the cathedral in Chartres, a deeply humane image of Christ blessing on the western facade of the cathedral in Amiens, images of the group of Mary's Visit to Elizabeth on the western portal of the cathedral in Reims. These works had a great influence on the development of all Western European sculpture.

The sculpture of cathedrals in Germany (in Bamberg, Magdeburg, Naumburg) is distinguished by expression, vital concreteness and monumentality of images. Temples were decorated with reliefs, statues, stained glass windows, floral patterns, and images of fantastic animals. In the decoration of churches, in addition to religious ones, there were already many secular motifs.

In Gothic painting, stained glass became the main element of interior color design. The stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle chapel and the cathedral in Chartres stand out especially. Fresco painting, which, along with canonical scenes, included secular subjects and portraits, adorned the walls of palaces and castles (papal palace paintings in Avignon). In Gothic miniatures, the desire for a reliable reproduction of nature intensified, the range of illustrated manuscripts expanded, and their themes were enriched. Under the influence of Dutch and Italian art, easel paintings and portraits appeared.

The French Gothic style manifested itself, in addition to cathedrals, in the creation of comfortable and, at the same time, ceremonial buildings, palaces of kings and the highest nobility, and elegantly decorated urban private houses. For example, in the castles of Amboise (1492-1498), in Gayon (1501-1510), in the Palace of Justice in Rouen (1499-mid-XVI century), etc.

In late (flaming) Gothic, especially in France, sculptural altars in interiors became widespread, combining painted and gilded wooden sculpture and tempera painting on wooden boards. The best examples of French Gothic art include small ivory sculpture, silver reliquaries, Limoges enamel, tapestries and carved furniture. Late Gothic is characterized by abundant decoration that hides architectural divisions, the appearance of curved lines, and a whimsical pattern of window openings reminiscent of flames (the Church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen, 1434-1470, the completion of construction was delayed until the 1580s). In miniatures there has been a desire to convey space and volume. The number of secular buildings being constructed (city gates, town halls, workshops and warehouse buildings, etc.) is increasing.

Gothic style furniture

The interiors of early Gothic are still quite modest, and their elements still bear traces of Romanesque style. This period was characterized by wooden or tiled floors covered with carpets. The walls are lined with plank panels and decorated with bright wall paintings or carpets. The windows are glazed, but there are no curtains yet. Paintings are rarely used to decorate rooms; instead, wall paintings and wood engravings are performed; ceilings are made, as a rule, of wooden beam construction with rafters open to the outside, although well decorated. There are also false ceilings, lined with smooth boards or divided by frequent slats and decorated with decorative paintings. In countries such as France and England, the center of the interior was a fireplace, very richly decorated. In Germany since the middle of the 15th century. Tiled stoves are beginning to play a major role in the interior. All furnishings have heavy proportions, an excessive supply of material, are awkward and are usually placed along the walls. At first, almost every piece of early Gothic furniture (and not only) has ecclesiastical origins. Later, with the development of furniture technology, well-made church furniture was created for sacristies, choir rooms, etc., which greatly influenced the further development of furniture in urban homes. This was facilitated by the introduction into the design of furniture objects of the technique of frame-panel knitting wood and almost all other carpentry techniques for joining parts, as well as the invention of a two-handed saw, forgotten since antiquity. The saw was only re-invented at the beginning of the 14th century. in Germany, and from that time on, it became possible to obtain thin and even sawn boards instead of hewn thick, roughly axed boards. Already by the beginning of the 15th century. All the techniques known to us for box corner knitting of boards were developed.

Gradually, the houses of the medieval aristocracy were increasingly decorated, this is especially noticeable in the interiors of reception halls and guest rooms, furnished with well-decorated furniture. The residential buildings of wealthy citizens follow the example of the nobility, but retain a certain restraint and simplicity of decoration and furnishings. The entire design corresponds to the architectural decor of stone buildings, especially temple buildings. Only by the 15th century, during the period of Flamboyant Gothic, when Gothic architecture began to be especially actively saturated with sculptural decor, Gothic ornament began to abundantly decorate previously established stable furniture forms, in which constructive techniques related to the building principles of Gothic architecture appeared. In addition to the borrowed architectural forms of window frames, portals, pointed turrets with phials (spires), columns, pointed vaults, niches, etc., furniture is also decorated on the frame and panels with carved ornaments, in which four main types can be distinguished. These are an openwork geometric ornament, a floral (leafy) ornament, a ribbon weaving ornament and a so-called ornament. linen folds or napkins. In addition, in the late Gothic period, furniture, in addition to carvings, was decorated with painting, gilding and richly decorated metal parts of frames, locks, hinges, rowlocks, as well as sculptural images of human faces and figures.

The Gothic openwork geometric pattern is based on simple geometric shapes: circle, triangle, square, which can be easily drawn using a ruler and compass. The openwork ornament represents the so-called. maswerk (from German maßwerk - literally work according to the applied dimensions) in the form of a complex intersection of parts of a circle and straight lines, resulting in a complex pattern with pointed arches and interlacing, reminiscent of the ribs of Gothic structures.

The famous Gothic trefoil, rosette, quadrifolium, and the design of the central window of the cathedral - a large rose - were built in a similar way. Masverk ornamentation in late Gothic was very common throughout Europe and in England. As a rule, the walls of chests, cabinet doors, and the backs of chairs were decorated with such ornaments. Masking is performed using deep carving techniques, when the background is deepened relative to the ornament, due to which the elements of the ornament are finely profiled, their outlines are smoothed and rounded. This is a bit reminiscent of relief carving, although the relief here is cut entirely in the plane of the board (panel), without rising above its surface. The plant ornament is made in the form of stylized sharp leaves and curls, gradually acquiring naturalistic forms.

Since the end of the 15th century. On panels, a flat ornament is especially common in the form of a piece of parchment or linen with patterned edges laid in double-sided byte folds. The ornament is made in flat relief. This type of ornament is found in large quantities on furniture objects in France, Germany and England. It was especially widely used on wardrobes and chests manufactured in Cologne and Ghent.

Gothic furniture in the north and west of Europe (in France, the Netherlands, northwestern Germany and England) was made mainly from oak; in the south and east (in Tyrol, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary) pine and spruce wood was used, as well as larch and juniper .

The main type of furniture for storing things, as well as sitting and lying in the houses of the nobility and ordinary townspeople is a chest, from the forms of which, over time, new types of furniture objects were formed such as a chair-chest, a dresser, a credenza and a buffet. In size, Gothic chests are wider and taller than Italian cassone chests of the Renaissance. As a rule, chests have overhead iron hinges with which the lid was attached. These loops, as well as large applied iron locks with openwork ornaments, are decorative elements of the chest.

Since the 15th century The side walls of the chests are covered with rich carvings in the form of masverk ornaments, floral ornaments, stone frames of Gothic windows and other architectural elements of building decoration. The front wall is also richly decorated; a special place is reserved for the coat of arms of the owner of the chest and a patterned, well-chased lock. Sometimes, in addition to architectural motifs, entire sculptural scenes on religious and secular themes are performed. The painter and gilder also participate in the final finishing of the chest.

In medieval houses, regardless of the status of the owner, it was cold and even damp, so furniture had to be raised above floor level. Therefore, some chests not only had a massive shaped and highly profiled base, but were also made with legs that were a continuation of the side posts of the frame or flat side walls with a figured cutout at the bottom. In the south of Germany, pine chests with engraving and flower painting became widespread. This decor was complemented by an incised ornament on a painted background. The openwork pattern undoubtedly comes from deep carving, but the process of creating it is less labor-intensive. With the advent of thin sawn boards, end-to-end ornaments began to be used, superimposed on the main painted board that made up the background. With significantly less labor, the same impression of decor was created in two planes. This technique became very widespread and lingered for a long time not only in German, but also in Swiss folk art.

The types of containers characteristic of Gothic style were, in addition to chests, supplies (dresses). The prototype of such a cabinet is a chest placed on four high legs, which are connected at the bottom by a horizontal frame, the upper part of which is sewn up with a board. Thanks to this, the bottom shelf was created, right next to the floor. Subsequently, the legs of the cabinet on three sides (the back and two sides) also began to be tightly sewn up with boards - a kind of niche was obtained. The upper part of the supply had shelves that were closed with hinged or hinged doors.

Such suppliers were, as a rule, intended for storing dishes and drinks. The most valuable metal utensils, including silver, and glassware were placed in the upper compartment, and polished copper utensils were placed on the lower shelf, located in the basement. The set was borrowed from church use, where it was purely altar furniture, and only then penetrated into secular life. Such containers were called credenza there and sometimes had the shape of a tall chest with a horizontal upper surface. And only over time was such a chest raised and placed on high legs. In the earliest French suppliers, the upper parts were made in the form of a rectangular box, the plank walls of which were connected by simple box knitting. The back and two side walls of the box continued to the floor and were connected at the bottom by another plane for rigidity and strength, thanks to which the supplier stood high above the floor. Two, and sometimes three, front doors, made of solid thick boards, were attached to openwork iron hinges. The doors themselves were decorated with ornaments made using deep carving techniques. A wooden canopy was placed on top of the supply to protect from the ash and soot of still smoking fireplaces. Dishes were placed under the canopy and on the lower surface.

Later, with the mastery of the frame-panel design, suppliers begin to make more complex hexagonal shapes, in which the desire of the craftsmen to simplify the proportions and develop the shape vertically, including through the upper turned decorative elements in the form of phials or spiers, is clearly visible. In later and richly decorated stavkas, its side walls rest on thin twisted columns, which are connected in the upper part by pointed arches. The front three wall faces of the supplier have the same arches, but without supports, ending with weights hanging in the air. The ribs formed at the intersection of the edges of the walls are decorated with carved pointed Gothic turrets, or vials. The walls of the supplier are made up of several frames with panels. The frames are heavily profiled on the sides and top, which creates the impression of niches in which panels with carvings of religious subjects are deeply placed. In other cases, the panels are filled with either a Gothic floral ornament, or a mask, or a linen fold pattern, which would be very actively used along with Renaissance ornaments on furniture objects in the 16th century.

In the 15th century Large and very bulky cabinets with two or four doors (in the form of two-tier cabinets) appear, the panels of which, as a rule, are decorated with a pattern of linen folds.

Seating furniture gradually became more varied, but was still reluctant to be separated from the walls, although some of such furniture was already beginning to be freely placed in the room. For a long time, benches and chests attached to walls remained the most common furniture for sitting and lying.

The seats of stools and chairs take on a variety of shapes - square, round, rectangular, multifaceted.

A characteristic type of Gothic chair is a chest, to which a very high blank back with blank elbows was attached. The seat was usually arranged with a lift, and the back was decorated with floral ornaments or masverk and ended with an openwork Gothic comb, phials, French lilies, etc. The front and side panels of the drawer (chest) of such a chair were usually processed with linen folds. Chairs were usually placed near the bed and therefore received the name bedside chairs. They also served as a home closet. The seat was made of wood, hard, the bottom drawer interfered with the legs when sitting, because... they could not be pulled back, and the carved vertical back did not contribute to the comfort of a sitting person. These chairs were very common in France, and in the countries lying to the north of it they were of little use.

In addition to armchairs, the most widespread seating furniture was stools, benches and chairs.

In poor houses the only type of seating was probably stools, the construction of which consisted of a round or triangular board with three or four cylindrical or rectangular legs. Stools of a more complex shape were also made with a rectangular seat standing on side supports, which were sometimes decorated with Gothic pointed arches. Benches were often made in the form of elongated stools with a rectangular seat for several people, or they resembled ordinary chests, the top cover of which was adapted for sitting. Such benches had a high back and, as a rule, were placed against the wall. There were also benches with a folding back (with a crossbar), which were freely placed in the room or installed near the fireplace. A fairly primitive type of cylindrical chair is also known, which was made on the basis of an ordinary barrel, to which several additional back parts were attached. Other types of chairs were also used, for example, a swivel chair (the so-called Lutheran), chairs (armchairs) on three or four legs of turning work, reminiscent of the seating areas of the Romanesque era. The rest of the seating furniture was much more advanced and better adapted for humans. These were stools and chairs made on the basis of ancient X-shaped stools, chairs and curule chairs. Such seating areas with intersecting support parts have the oldest pedigree, dating back to Ancient Egypt and antiquity.

Such furniture spoke of the power possessed by the owner of the chair or armchair, which was further emphasized by the special elevation on which they stood, and in some cases, also by the canopy.

The earliest known X-shaped stools could be folded. The supporting parts were fastened with crossbars, the top of which were fastened with brightly decorated straps, forming a seat. In other cases, in order to create a chair, the back support was made higher than the seat and turned into a back support. Additional comfort of such a chair was achieved with the help of felt upholstery, a pillow and a footstool.

Appearing in the late Gothic period, especially in Italy and Spain, X-shaped chairs and armchairs only imitate the folding shape and represent, in fact, Renaissance furniture, the so-called. curule chairs, in which their side parts rise above the seat and act as a kind of elbows, sometimes connected to the back. Such chairs were richly decorated with flat carvings, painted and gilded.

Very few beds have survived from Gothic times, mainly due to the dilapidation of the lush draperies. Beds played an important role in expressing the social status of the owner, which can be seen, at least, from the numerous surviving paintings of that era. During this period, state beds in the homes of noble nobles were considered one of the most expensive and prestigious pieces of furniture and were often intended more for display than for sleeping.

Like chests, beds in Western European countries had to be raised to elevated heights to protect them from drafts and cold, damp floors. Beds in the Gothic era, unless they were built into the wall, had a half-canopy, a full canopy, or a large wardrobe-like wooden canopy box decorated with carvings and paintings. Warm draperies appeared that could be detached and packed into chests during moves.

The design of Gothic tables is similar to the tables of the Romanesque period, although their range has increased. The most characteristic type of table is a rectangular dining table with a strongly protruding tabletop on two rectangular plank side panels. These shields had flat carvings with Gothic ornaments, and the middle part had openings made in the form of a single or double Gothic temple window with its characteristic shape, including the latticework. Sometimes deep drawers were made in the underframe boxes. The side panels at the bottom near the floor were pulled together with a special bar or plank.

On the basis of this type of table, an early form of desk was subsequently formed with a massive liftable tabletop, under which there were many compartments and small drawers in the base box, and below there was a container hidden from prying eyes. These types of tables, characteristic, for example, of southern Germany and Switzerland, were used by merchants and money changers until the 16th century.

Traditional ribbon weave or floral Gothic patterns made with in-depth oak carvings fill the tops of these tables. An additional decorative effect is achieved by the contrast of this wide, flat, wax-rubbed carving with the slightly recessed flat background. The side support panels are connected by a horizontal bar, the outer ends of which are usually locked with wedges. Tables are also known that stand on four obliquely set legs connected by legs. Such legs, as a rule, had a flat thread. In the late Gothic period, extendable tables were also known. Tables with rectangular and round tops, standing on one central support, began to appear. Table tops are starting to be covered with veneer. Attempts at still primitive inlay are known.

Tables borrowed from Romanesque continued to exist in the form of a simple wooden shield, which was mounted on trestles or on two hollow rectangular frames that folded together.

Gothic style in furniture characterized by significant local differences. The greatest elegance of proportions, decorations, as well as the proportionality of parts was distinguished by French furniture, which is characterized by a large number of types of chests, chairs with drawers and high backs, chairs, benches, stands, cabinets, etc. True, in Northern France, furniture was strongly influenced by the Dutch furniture and had very heavy shapes, but was still beautifully decorated. This influence was due to the work of many visiting Dutch woodcarvers. In other countries, the furniture range was much poorer, and the shapes of the products were somewhat uniform. However, in Spain, the development of furniture art went in line with the French Gothic style, but the decor of furniture objects, as well as architecture, was strongly influenced by the Arab-Moorish style - a peculiar mixture of geometric motifs, as well as motifs of climbing plants with already intricate lines of openwork ornament of late, flaming, Gothic. Spanish furniture is characterized by an extremely complex and rich flat surface finish. Unfortunately, apart from church pews and chairs for the choir, we do not know any other Spanish furniture for sitting from the Middle Ages. Wood carving flourished in medieval Spain, but other types of decoration were also used. For example, chests were covered with colored or embossed leather, rich metal (iron and bronze) fittings, stalactite motifs, and turned bars were used.

During the Gothic period, the furniture art of Germany and the Netherlands was highly developed and also had much in common with the art of France. Artistically and structurally, the furniture was beautifully executed. The material was hard wood. Furniture, as a rule, had a frame structure with thin panels. Beautiful carved plant elements, free openwork and folded patterns were used as decorations. Typical furniture products are tall double-door wardrobes with four, six or even nine panels, as well as sideboards with a ladder with a canopy and high legs. The carpentry work was carried out very carefully, with great precision. The carvings were distinguished by their subtlety and grace. In Northern Germany, on the Rhine, high-quality Gothic furniture with a tenon joint was used. Large cabinets are similar in design to Flemish ones. Noteworthy is the tall cabinet on legs, decorated with folded patterns, and later with floral patterns on the panels. Such cabinets were in most cases decorated with decorative forging. Typical bench chests were also made. The South German style would be common in the Alpine countries (Switzerland, Southern Bavaria, Tyrol, Upper Austria). South German furniture was made primarily of soft and semi-hard wood, had a plank construction and was decorated with flat carvings.

Such furniture was more varied in both form and decor than northern furniture. The furniture was decorated with openwork ornaments based on plant motifs with curls and ribbons using the technique of flat carving, made on a colored base and enriched with animal figures and coat of arms. The interior was clad in wood with profiled slats.

This technology of decorating living quarters, including furniture, with shallow flat carved ornaments (Flachschnitt) painted, usually in red and green, was called Tyrolean carpenter Gothic (Tiroler Zimmergotik). Fine Gothic furniture has been preserved in Tyrolean castles. These are various types of tables, canopy beds decorated with rich carvings, chests, chairs, benches, narrow cabinets for washing accessories built into the wall and other furniture objects. Here we see the first attempts at veneering and primitive inlay.

The southern Gothic movement also captured Upper Hungary, where beautiful furniture was made. First of all, church furnishings have reached us: chairs for the choir, libraries, tables, etc., having simple shapes, flat openwork carvings, painting and gilding.

The Gothic style had a very superficial influence on Italian architecture and furniture art, which can be explained by differences in living conditions and climate.

In Italy, where the influence of ancient traditions was still extremely strong, the Gothic style was considered barbaric; Already in its very name there was an expression of disdain for the art of the northern countries, alien in spirit. The Gothic style in Italy brought its own ornamentation, but all the sharp Gothic corners were blunted. The flat carving of southern German furniture influenced the ornamentation of northern Italian cabinets. In the 15th century in Venice and Verona, wooden chests were decorated with beautiful openwork carvings with rosettes and Gothic foliage patterns. Chests from Central Italy (Tuscany and Siena, c. 1400) had figured stucco, which was painted and covered with gilding (stucco).

The Gothic style in England lasted for a very long time. It is customary to divide English Gothic into three periods: early Gothic (1189-1307), decorative Gothic (1307-1377) and late, so-called. vertical, rectilinear Gothic (1377-1590). This was precisely the time when the Renaissance was already in full bloom in Italy, and England was still experiencing the Gothic style of the third period, which the British call the perpendicular style, which received this name due to the predominance of vertical straight lines of structural and decorative elements. At this time, it was customary to cover the walls of rooms with wooden panels of a frame-panel design. The panels were decorated with carved ornaments. The interior wooden ceilings of the rooms were also decorated with carvings. In the early period of English Gothic, the furniture was heavy, its profiles were simple and rough. The main decorative element is a folded ornament. Later, the influence of architecture begins to be felt in the divisions of furniture.

English furniture, even late Gothic, is characterized by simplicity of design and a small amount of decoration.

The main universal furniture object continues to be the chest. As throughout Western Europe, the frame of the chest consists of thick bars, between which panels with flat carvings of decorations are inserted. The frame of the chest is also bound with iron strips for strength, and locks are attached above the panels. The prototype of the English wardrobe, as elsewhere in Europe, is two chests placed one on top of the other. The front part of such a cabinet is divided by frame bars into six frame cells into which panels are inserted. Moreover, the central panels are wider, and the side panels are narrow. The narrow side panels are decorated with an ornament with linen folds. The frames of the wide panels resemble cabinet doors, hung on massive and well-decorated metal hinges.

English late Gothic furniture is characterized by massive armchairs, the frame of which is made of thick rectangular bars, between which thin panel boards decorated with flat carvings are inserted into the tongue. The panels of the backrest are decorated with a masverk ornament, and the panels of the armrests and the lower part of the chair are decorated with a folded ornament.

The side posts of the backrest and elbows are additionally decorated with vertical posts and spiers. In addition to cabinets, low and wide suppliers - coupe boards - have become widespread in England. Tables at this time, as a rule, have a rectangular tabletop and a massive base, which is attached to the side panels instead of legs. These shields and the base are primitively decorated with figured sawn edges and shallow carvings of a simple floral pattern. The side support panels of tables are often fastened with legs, into the outer ends of which wedges are inserted.

The beds have a canopy, which is attached to four posts, which are a kind of continuation of the legs. In the lower part, the legs have a tetrahedral cross-section, and above the bed frame, the posts are carved with plant motifs in the form of polyhedrons, interceptions of various shapes, etc. The headboard of the bed is made high, and its five panels are decorated with low relief carvings.

In general, English Gothic furniture had a simple design, the elements of which were never disguised and were used as well as decorative elements. All nodes and joints are clearly visible and understandable. All furniture was made exclusively from oak. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. In England, a mixed style was formed - a kind of transition from Gothic to Renaissance, which was called the Tudor style. A classic pattern begins to appear on the Gothic structure.

The through openwork ornament and a special type of arched decoration still belong to the Gothic style, but the invasion of the early Renaissance is already noticeable in the new profiling of furniture parts, rosettes and other motifs. In most cases, this applies to furniture that has a Dutch influence, such as china cabinets. The coats of arms of the owners begin to appear on the panels of a wide variety of furniture objects.

The influence of the new Italian Renaissance art began to penetrate central Europe around 1500, primarily in France, where Italian artists worked at the royal court. French furniture of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. takes on a new, completely unique character.

The decor of this time in the form of grotesque ornaments, for example, is combined here with Gothic decorations. Overhead openwork iron hinges and locks are still in use. One part of the supplier’s panels, for example, is decorated with linen folds, and the other with a grotesque. The front supports are made in the form of bars, but the plank rear wall continues to descend to the bottom. The frame continues to be hexagonal, but its front wall is made wider than the side ones. However, in Germany, for example, suppliers usually differed from French ones in the simpler rectangular shape of the body and the absence of a solid rear wall. In their decoration, profile images of human faces in grotesque ornaments are sometimes replaced by sculpted male and female heads that are strongly pushed forward. This was a transitional time when constructive and compositional clarity and definiteness began to be felt in the morphology of furniture objects, and all divisions and profiles were specially emphasized and manifested in external form.

Gothic style- an important stage in the history of the development of furniture styles. Many new types of furniture were created and forgotten antique furniture technology was resurrected to new life. The carpentry craft, with its lively, original form of expression in ornamentation, was on the rise. In a Gothic interior, furniture is still not entirely mobile: many of its types still gravitate towards walls or are built into enclosing structures, and have a close connection with architecture in terms of borrowing its forms, the nature of their divisions and decorative decoration. Already during the late Gothic period, the art of carpentry was highly developed, which served as the basis for performing even more complex tasks in the Renaissance.

Textbook materials used. benefits: Grashin A.A. A short course in the stylistic evolution of furniture - Moscow: Architecture-S, 2007