Introduction……………………………………………………………………
Baroque……………………………………………………………
Classicism………………………………………………………..
Romanticism…………………………………………………………
Realism…………………………………………………………….
Bibliography………………………………
Introduction.
The history of art is characterized by a change of different styles and directions.
Under artistic style understand the totality of all means of artistic expression, all creative techniques, which as a whole form a certain figurative system.
Style as one figurative system based on unity ideological content, which generates the unity of all elements of the artistic form, all artistic and expressive means. Thus, the word "style" denotes that visible, tangible originality that catches the eye first of all and by which one can immediately determine the difference between one phenomenon in art and others.
These phenomena themselves are infinitely diverse: we can talk about the style of a single work or a group of works, about the style of an individual, author, about the style of certain countries, peoples, geographical regions.
However, most often the concept of "artistic style" denotes large, "historical" styles of certain eras, when the unity of socio-historical content determines the stable unity of artistic and figurative principles, means, and techniques.
In the field of art in second half of the 17th century. there was a flowering of style baroque, which was closely associated with the church and aristocratic culture of that time. It manifested tendencies to glorify life, all the richness of real life. Painting, sculpture, architecture, baroque music glorified and glorified monarchs, the church, and the nobility.
A different kind of aesthetic, opposed to the artistic means of the Baroque, was canonized in European art and literature. classicism. Closely associated with the culture of the Renaissance, classicism turned to the ancient norms of art as perfect models; rationalistic clarity and rigor were characteristic of it.
First half of the 19th century became a time of intensive development of spiritual culture. Among its diverse manifestations, the most noticeable distribution was romanticism with exceptional versatility. In the field of artistic creativity, he was clearly imprinted in the form of a trend in literature, fine arts, music, theater. At the same time, romanticism was a certain worldview: a romantic trend developed in the field of philosophical and aesthetic ideas, historical science, arose romantic type personality and behaviour.
In the 30-40s of the XIX century. along with romanticism in fiction and painting, the realism. The works of the realist writers Balzac, Stendhal, Dickens, Thackeray, and others are distinguished by their exceptionally wide coverage of reality and the predominance of social problems. The life of society in its most diverse manifestations, life, customs, psychology of people belonging to different classes, have never received such a multifaceted reflection in the literature.
Historical and cultural processes of the New Age - the development of capitalism, scientific and technological progress, a social system built on liberal democratic principles, the ideas and values of the Enlightenment and positivism, the aesthetics of the great styles of the 17th-19th centuries (baroque, rococo, sentimentalism, classicism, romanticism, realism) - had a decisive influence on the formation of the modern world.
Baroque.
Baroque (Italian barocco - “vicious”, “dissolute”, “excessive”, port. perola barroca - “pearl of irregular shape” (literally “pearl with vice”); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - a characteristic of the European culture of the XVII-XVIII centuries, the center of which was Italy. The baroque style appeared in XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).
The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of a shock, as they were in the 16th century. The Reformation and Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of man as a most rational being, has changed. Man began to recognize himself as "something in between everything and nothing" in Pascal's words, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of jousting tournaments - "carousels" (horseback rides) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and a masquerade ball. You can add the appearance of swings and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound.
The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. Everything that is "clear and distinct" is thought or has a mathematical expression is true, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes erected to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco. The first European park appears in Versailles, where the idea of the forest is expressed in the utmost mathematical way: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. Dressed for the first time in baroque army uniforms great attention they pay "drill" - the geometric correctness of constructions on the parade ground.
baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, arrogance, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that in the era of romanticism will become a virtue. The Baroque woman cherishes the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, frilly hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She is in heels.
And the gentleman becomes the ideal of a man in the Baroque era - from the English. gentle: “soft”, “gentle”, “calm”. Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and wear powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of ennobling nature on the basis of reason. The need is not tolerated, but “it is good to offer in pleasant and courteous words” (Youth, an honest mirror, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, instincts no longer constitute the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is shaped in exquisite table etiquette(it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in the opposite sex - in a courteous flirtation, quarrels - in a sophisticated duel.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of a sleeping God - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just as a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the Baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - one can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true guardians of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles natural philosophy"(1689), and Carl Linnaeus systematizes biology "The System of Nature" (1735). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established everywhere in European capitals.
The diversity of perception raises the level of consciousness - something like the philosopher Leibniz says. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailboats plow the expanses of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. The literary symbols of the era are travelers and adventurers: Captain Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.
Athenais de Montespan
Baroque style in painting characterized by the dynamism of the compositions, the "flatness" and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of the plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are catchy flamboyance and dynamism; a striking example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio from his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among the Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. The followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who were at first called caravaggists, and the current of caravagism itself, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and the characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) early XVII in. studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing his course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and the South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, scholarship and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved international recognition. With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was picked up by Frans Hals (1580/85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) worked in the style of Caravaggio, and in France, Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new trend in his work - classicism.
For baroque architecture(L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of the Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the façade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to about 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. A significant contribution was made by D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - Sicilian Baroque.
The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread in Latin America. His most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque.
In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. characteristic feature The baroque style is a regular style in landscape art, exemplified by the park of Versailles.
Later, at the beginning of the 18th century. the French developed their own style, a kind of baroque - rococo. It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was distributed throughout Europe and in Russia.
In Belgium outstanding monument baroque is the Grand Place Ensemble in Brussels. The Rubens House in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features.
Baroque appeared in Russia as early as the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, it was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called "Petrine baroque" (more restrained), and flourished in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.
In Germany, the outstanding baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I. G. Bühring, H. L. Manter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G. W. von Knobelsdorff). The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria). In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Sarmatian baroque and Vilna baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative was Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension of the Lord (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.
Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome
Classicism.
Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as highest value being, freeing him from the religious-ecclesiastical influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism there was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, moving in the same direction as Soufflet Bazhenov. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.
Music of the Classical period or the music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music approximately between 1730 and 1820. The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics and determined the direction further development musical composition.
The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century, Winckelmann's writings and archaeological excavations of ancient cities served, expanding the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were initially depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche (1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)
architectural classicism baroque urban planning
Characteristics of each developed style presents no particular methodological difficulties. Another thing is the analysis of the turning point between two specific styles, which is contradictory in its essence. How does such a fracture occur? We are not so much interested in the question as in general sense it is due to the clarification of the main patterns in the change of styles. In search of such regularities, we will consciously allow for some polemical sharpening of the formulations in order to bring out the proposed point of view more sharply. The transition from baroque to classicism was one of the fastest in changing styles of domestic architecture. The end of the 1750s is still the heyday of the Baroque. The middle of the 1760s was already the time of the wide spread of classicism. For an extremely short period of five to seven years, a complete change in aesthetic tastes takes place. Russian baroque architecture of the 18th century. was a historically conditioned, complex and peculiar phenomenon, which absorbed many traditions of Russian architecture of the 17th century, and a number of features of domestic architecture of the immediately preceding period - that is, the beginning of the 18th century, and the influence of contemporary architecture of the main European countries. These very different components, however, formed a strong alloy, which possessed features of unique originality. Both directions did not yet know their future names then, but the essence of stylistic differences, their boundaries are clearly visible in the examples of the best buildings created or designed almost in the same years. The emphatically juicy decorativeness and dynamism of the Baroque forms are opposed by the slightly dry rationalist architecture of early classicism. The most prominent buildings of Russian baroque - Winter Palace B. F. Rastrelli and the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral of S. I. Chevakinskrgo, so typical in their overflowing bravura, were completed by 1762. At the same time, already in 1760, A. F. Kokorinov was designing a Pleasure House near Oranienbaum - a work in which the principles of a new direction in architecture dominate. The plan, silhouette, the entire volume of the structure are very compact, with emphasized dominance. horizontal lines. Details are made in classical forms and proportions. In the same year, A.F. Kokorinov, together with Zh.B. M. Wallen Delamotte create the first draft of the Bolshoi Gostiny Dvor In Petersburg. In this version, which became the basis for the final decision made two years later, the idea of a majestic business building in its simplicity with a measured rhythm of two-story arcades dissected by modest pilasters of the Tuscan order was already laid down. In 1763-1764. projects are being developed for the Academy of Arts (A. F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Vallin Delamotte), Orphanages in Moscow (K. I. Blank) and St. Petersburg (Yu. M. Felten) - the first structures specially designed for educational purposes. Of these, the building of the Academy of Arts is the best work initial period Russian classicism. Being located on a responsible site, with its main facade facing the main waterway of the capital - the Neva River, it contributes to the architectural organization of a significant segment of the embankment. The building plan is based on a well-thought-out functional training process for artists: the main working areas are located along the outer perimeter of the building and around a huge circular courtyard, which provides them with good lighting. The surface of the walls is abundantly dissected, but the articulations with clearly defined order proportions are mainly planar in nature. A period of decline, gradual degradation did not precede the change in style. On the contrary, just at the moment of its highest flowering, the baroque turned out to be untenable for solving new problems, and buildings in the classicist style immediately appeared with surprising speed. Such speed in changing styles is not typical. It is, as already mentioned, a distinctive feature of this very turning point - from baroque to classicism - and was caused by the general situation when artificially slowed down historical development began to strenuously make up for lost time. The concept of baroque as an integral style ceased not only to dominate architecture, but in general to have any significant influence on its further development. Separate features of the old system, although they appeared for some time in certain elements of the structures of early classicism, were only remnants that were gradually obsolete. Only in the provinces did Baroque forms continue to exist by inertia almost until the end of the 18th century. The historical prerequisites for a change in style include material and ideological factors. As the most important, it should be noted the significant increase in the military and political power of Russia, accompanied by the rapid growth of its economic potential.
No less important prerequisites for a change in style were the ideas of enlightenment, humanism, the ideals of the natural man, characteristic of all progressive thinking of the 18th century. The call to reason as the main criterion and measure of all achievements was heard louder and louder. The ideas of rationalism have been widely developed since the second half of the century.
In architecture, all these factors led to major changes. The economic prosperity of the country caused a rapid growth in construction in all areas. Changes in the ideological order required a significant expansion of architectural themes, a different figurative content. Never-before-seen themes and tasks arose continuously.
Meanwhile, Baroque architecture was distinguished by thematic narrowness. The sphere of architecture as an art was limited mainly to palace and religious construction. If it was necessary to create structures for a different purpose, then they were developed in the same, close to the palace, ceremonial, highly solemn forms, an example of which is the project of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg, proposed by F. B. Rastrelli in 1757.
The development of baroque forms along the path of their further complication could continue for quite a long time, but the very range of application of such forms could not be expanded in any way. The possibilities of style came into conflict with reality. This determined his fate.
towards the middle XVIII century there was a need to create various types of new public buildings or such buildings that did not have artistic value-- for example, industrial, warehouse, commercial buildings. New tasks also arose in housing construction. Finally, the city as a whole as a social unit received a significantly different characteristic than before and, in this regard, required a different planning and volumetric solution.
All this growth of demands took place on the scale of a gigantic country.
Traditional creative methods could not cope with such tasks. But this kind, although simpler, tasks already arose before architects at the beginning of the 18th century. The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by clear and practicable decisions based on clear rationalistic principles. The traditions of rationalism appeared in Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, of course, not for the first time. These traditions have lived for a long time, but there were epochs that were especially favorable for their development, and such times when rationalism existed latently in architecture as a residual phenomenon of the previous period. Russian Baroque II quarter XVIII in. also did not escape the influence of the Petrine architecture that preceded it, and the rationalism of the latter entered some separate elements into the stylistic features of a direction that was opposite to it in essence.
Even in the work of the leading baroque master Rastrelli, elements of rationalism can be seen. So, for example, the fantastically rich and complex in form decoration of the palace buildings of this architect does not violate the simplicity and clarity of plans.
In the works of D. V. Ukhtomsky and S. I. Chevakinsky, rationalistic tendencies are even more noticeable. It is worth remembering Ukhtomsky's project for the Invalid Home in Moscow, or the belfry of St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in St. Petersburg, whose clear clarity of architecture is so different from the ebullient gaiety of the cathedral itself that some scholars did not even want to recognize it as the work of Chevakinsky. Both architects were students of I.K. Korobov, whose activities partially coincided with the Baroque period. However, among the masters of this time, Korobov, one of the glorious pensioners of Peter the Great, retained the most rationalistic orientation of his work. It was through Korobov that the traditions of rationalism were continued in the works of his numerous students and in the work of the youngest of them, A.F. Kokorinov, they were revived in a different artistic quality, rethought in the spirit of the tasks of the new architectural direction.
Rationalism as a striving for clarity, comprehensibility, logicality of the architectural image - everything as a whole and its individual components - became the main factor in the formation of a new style. Its principles demanded a particularly harmonious, logically coherent artistic concept. Such a concept had already been created earlier in the classical schools of architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. The architects began to carefully study the heritage of antiquity (in its Roman interpretation, the only one available at that time) and the Renaissance. Close attention to the classics became, as it were, a secondary factor in the formation of the architecture of early Russian classicism.
Naturally, in the Russian conditions of those years, the study of the classical traditions of shaping could only take place through acquaintance with the theoretical works of Vitruvius, Andrea Palladio, Vignola, and with uvrazh, in which measured drawings or sketches of architectural monuments were placed. The insufficiency of this method of acquaintance was realized very soon. It is characteristic that if the young B. F. Rastrelli at one time traveled abroad no further than Germany, where he only got acquainted with the experience of contemporary German architecture, then already in the first half of the 1750s the idea arises of sending the promising gezel Kokorinov to Italy for the study of the architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. Since 1760, the newly founded Academy of Arts began to regularly send its best pupils abroad, and charged them with the duty of familiarizing themselves with the monuments of architectural classics.
Finally, another factor influencing the formation of a new style in Russia was the connection of Russian architecture with the contemporary architecture of other countries, among which France was at that time the leading country in all areas of ideology.
For Russian architecture, connections with French architecture became very significant as early as the first quarter of the 18th century, when J.-BA Leblon, invited to Russia, created here not only one of the fundamental planning projects for St. determined the physiognomy of the young Russian capital.
The tendencies of rationalism, characteristic of that branch of French architecture, of which Leblon was a representative, coincided with the main direction of Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century. The change in the orientation of architecture in the post-Petrine period also led to a change in the nature of ties with French architecture. Rococo tricks began to enjoy the success, which in France itself by that time had suffered a serious defeat. Competition for the project of the main facade of the Church of St. Sulpicia in Paris heralded a turn in the development of architectural ideas. It was at this competition that the principles of Rococo decorativeism, brought by J. O. Meissonier to the highest degree of sophistication, were rejected, and preference was given to the strict and classically clear composition of J. N. Servandoni, which was then, basically, implemented in 1733-- 1745
The development of social life in the 1750s led Russian architecture to focus on the advanced achievements of French architects. An important stage in the victory of classicism in France was the competition for the creation of Place Louis XV in Paris. As a result of several consecutive rounds of the competition (late 1740s - early 1750s), the project of J.A. Gabriel won, which marked the approval of new views on urban planning principles. For the first time in world history town square decided in correlation and connection with the entire space of the city.
The success of J.-J. Soufflet at the St. Genevieve in Paris and Gabriel's construction of the intimate palace mansion Petit Trianon in Versailles already meant the final victory of the new trend in French architecture.
In Russia, the works of architectural theorists M. A. Laugier, J. F. Blondel, and others were studied with interest and attention. Blondel's idea was too obvious French national flavor and was still far from the consistent implementation of classical forms, which, among other reasons, played a role in the rejection of the project. But this was already an accident in the general course of history. From the end of the 1750s, it was the advanced French architecture that became closest to Russian architecture in terms of goals and aspirations.
Using the example of the transition from baroque to classicism, one can try to deduce some general patterns in the change in architectural styles.
The newly emerging style meets new requirements, and in this sense its path is always original and unexplored. The more innovative this neophyte is, the broader must be the traditions on which he relies. But at the same time, the emerging direction relates with quite understandable antagonism to the methods of its predecessor, which at a certain moment revealed their inconsistency. Therefore, each new style seeks support in the traditions of art not of the immediately preceding period, but of a more distant past, and above all in the traditions of the “grandfathers”. After all, the previous style also denied the direction that existed before it, which is why every time the "grandfather" traditions become the main source of borrowing.
Indeed, the Russian baroque architecture of the second third of the 18th century is much closer in spirit to the buildings of Russia at the end of the 17th century than to the architecture of the era of Peter I.
For the same reason, the desire for enlightenment, utilitarianism and all-encompassing rationalism, characteristic of Petrine architecture, found its independent continuation in the architecture of classicism. Such an original building for the complex scientific institutions, as the Kunstkamera, conceived under Peter I, did not receive any further development during the Baroque period as a new type of building, or even repetitions, even simplified ones. Meanwhile, the architecture of classicism began precisely with the creation of a structure of this kind: the building of the Academy of Arts combined the highest art center, a museum, educational institution"three most noble" arts with a boarding school and even a theater attached to it, artists' workshops and residential apartments for teaching staff.
The Petrine era did not pay much attention to palace buildings, but gave great importance utilitarian construction, raising it to the level of real architecture. The Admiralty in St. Petersburg was decided not just as an industrial enterprise combined with a defensive structure, but as a monument sea power Russia. The building was very low and the material - half-timbered - was not at all monumental, but the very idea of a wide, 400 meters spread structure, marked in the center by a tower with a spire, was the idea of \u200b\u200bgreat architecture.
One of the great masters of the Russian Baroque, S. I. Chevakinsky, in his position as an architect of the Admiralty Colleges, designed and built many utilitarian structures for the domestic fleet. But among these works of his there are no buildings similar to the Admiralty, significant in their architectural design. Having built the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, Chevakinsky created a joyful, jubilant hymn by means of architecture. Nevertheless, in utilitarian buildings, the era did not require anything from him but strength and usefulness.
It is characteristic that in the early 1760s, having started the project of a timber warehouse building on New Holland Island in St. Petersburg, Chevakinsky developed new technology storage of the forest, and also created a plan for the building, but did not cope with the figurative solution of the facades, and this part of the work was entrusted to the architect of the new direction - Wallen Delamotte.
Rationalism, which forms the basis of the concept of classicism, also found an echo in the traditions of architecture of the early 18th century, although, as noted earlier, Russian baroque architecture itself to some extent used these traditions.
Here I would like to emphasize that the most important traditions never die. They develop in an upward spiral. With each subsequent turn, part of the movement, relatively speaking, passes in the shadow. The prevailing style at that time only tolerates such a "shadowed" tradition, and often uses it even in the opposite sense.
Baroque and Classicism
palace versailles culture artistic
In the 17th century, in the conditions of the active development of the economy and the arts, France acquired the status of an exemplary country of absolutist forms of government and practical economic policy. Thanks to the Counter-Reformation movement, Rome in cultural space territorially fragmented Italy acquired a new meaning. As a result, the construction of religious buildings received a strong impetus. Started under these conditions at the end of the 17th century new stage construction contributed to the fact that the German princes were guided in their needs by foreign samples. To a large extent they were influenced by the French absolutism of Louis XIV. Each feudal lord - no matter how small the territory that belonged to him - copied his residence from Versailles, this pearl of royal possessions.
Although for the European architecture XVII- The 18th centuries are not characterized by uniformity and integrity, it is customary to combine it with the general concept of "baroque". Princely castles and places of worship became the primary objects of construction and embodied resistance to the Reformation. In the 1730s, the influence of the Enlightenment began to be felt, which was immediately reflected in the increased intimacy of the buildings. Small elegant castles surrounded by parks became a favorite place for the princes to stay. This is one of the most striking hallmarks of the Baroque.
The new style called upon the beauty of the environment, or, more simply, the landscape, to help in the conduct of urban planning activities. The landscape has become one of the main components of the urban ensemble. The square, having lost its functional and democratic content, has become the front part of the city, its decoration. Baroque architecture is distinguished by grandiosity, splendor and dynamics, spectacularity and a strong contrast of scales and rhythms.
Thanks to the bizarre plasticity of the facades, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, baroque palaces and churches acquired some picturesqueness and dynamism. They seemed to grow into the space around them. Baroque interiors were decorated with multicolored sculpture, stucco, and carvings; mirrors and murals were necessary for the illusory expansion of space, and the painting of the plafonds created the illusion of vaults opening over the viewer.
In baroque painting and sculpture, the dominant position belonged to decorative multifaceted compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical nature, as well as ceremonial portraits. When depicting a person, states of tension, exaltation and increased drama were preferable. In painting, the emotional, rhythmic and coloristic unity of the whole, often the unconstrained freedom of the stroke, acquired great importance; in sculpture - the picturesque fluidity of form, the richness of aspects and impressions.
The characteristic features of the Baroque are the complexity of plans, rich interior design with unexpected and spectacular spatial and lighting solutions, many curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces, contrast, tension and dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for luxury and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, to the fusion of the arts. The baroque style contrasted the simplicity of classical forms with sophistication in shaping. Elements of painting and sculpture, painted wall surfaces were widely used in architecture.
The ideological foundations of the Baroque were formed under the conditions of the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The idea of the world as a rational and permanent unity, characteristic of the philosophy of antiquity and the Renaissance view of man as the crown of creation, has changed. Man began to realize himself "something in between everything and nothing" in the words of Pascal, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."
The birth of the Baroque was to some extent facilitated by the lack of funds for the construction of the palazzo from the representatives of the nobility. In search of a way out of this situation, they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. Partly due to this, Baroque arose in Italy in the 16th century.
The architectural forms of the Baroque were based on the Italian Renaissance, but surpassed it in complexity, diversity and picturesqueness. Facades with profiled cornices, columns, semi-columns and pilasters colossal for several floors, luxurious sculptural details, often fluctuating from convex to concave, give the structure itself movement and rhythm. Not a single detail of such a structure was independent, in contrast to the Renaissance period. All parts of the ensemble are subject to a common architectural design, which is complemented by the design and decoration of interiors, as well as landscape gardening and urban architectural environment.
In France, the baroque style is expressed somewhat more modestly than in other countries. It used to be considered that the baroque style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes it is appropriate to use the term "Baroque classicism" in relation to French and English variants baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles along with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works of architecture are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape art, the clearest example of which is the Versailles Park, the pinnacle of creativity of the talented master Andre Le Nôtre.
German art critic and historian ancient art Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in 1755: "The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients." With this slogan, he called on his contemporaries to renew art, using the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, as a basis, and found active support in European society. Ancient architecture was perceived by him as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The progressive public perceived classicism as a necessary opposition to the court baroque. The formation of classicism coincided in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions - English in 1688 and French - 101 years later. Thus, the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance became one of the most important features of classicism.
The fine arts of classicism sought to embody the idea of a harmonious structure of society. The complexity of the fine arts of classicism is clearly evidenced by the conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feeling and reason. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by the features of strict organization, balance, simplicity and harmony of images.
desire to embody noble simplicity and the calm grandeur of ancient art in construction led the masters of the era to strive to completely copy the ancient building. Thus, what the German architect Gilly had at the design stage of the monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Valhalla - “The Hall of the Dead”.
In Germany, the princely palaces - residences became the centers of construction in the classical style, among them Marktplatz (trade square) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam also favored classicism during construction. However, by this time the palaces had already lost their status as the main objects of construction, villas and country houses looked no less impressive and impressive. The sphere of state construction included social buildings - hospitals, houses for the blind and deaf and dumb, as well as prisons and barracks. Public buildings such as theatres, museums, universities and libraries were soon added to them. The picture was completed by the country estates of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages. The construction of churches was no longer a paramount task, but remarkable structures appeared in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a discussion whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for Christian monastery.
In painting, the dominant role belonged to the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balance of the composition, a clear transfer of volume and light and shade modeling of the form, and the use of local colors.
A clear delineation of plans in landscape painting was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be written in brown, the second - in green, and the third - in blue.
The architecture of classicism is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of the classical style was an order close in proportions and form to antiquity. Classicism is distinguished by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration and a regular system of city planning.
The great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi formulated the architectural language of classicism at the end of the Renaissance. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they were used even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones transported Palladianism to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By this time, the satiation with the luxury of the late baroque and rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics of baroque and rococo was decisively of little use. Already under Louis XV, town-planning ensembles in the "ancient Roman" style were erected in Paris, among them the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI, such "noble laconism" became the main architectural trend.
During the construction of the Church of Saint-Genevieve in Paris, the French architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet were able to move even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was not in demand.
The architects of Napoleonic France looked for inspiration in the images of military glory preserved from the time of imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's column. By order of the emperor, they were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, it is customary to use the term "imperial style" - Empire. In Russia, such masters as Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov were outstanding masters of the Empire style.
The most significant Classical interiors were completed by the Scottish architect Robert Adam after returning home from Rome in 1758. The archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi made a great impression on him. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior in sophistication to Rococo interiors. This earned him fame both among the democratically minded circles of society and among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preferred a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function. The aesthetics of classicism contributed to large-scale urban planning projects and, to a certain extent, contributed to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities.
In Russia, most provincial and almost all county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Genuine museums of classicism under open sky such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and some others have turned. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language was established, dating back to Palladio. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period that followed the Napoleonic Wars, classicism existed simultaneously with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the revival of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neogothic. In connection with the discovery of the Rosetta Plate by Champollion, Egyptian themes gained popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture was gradually replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek, which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism was thinned out by free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.
Conclusions for chapter 1
Baroque and classicism styles developed in artistic culture Western Europe during the 17th-18th centuries. These two trends in art successfully coexisted for two centuries, developing in parallel and alternately occupying a leading position or receding into the background.
The classic style in artistic culture appealed to the use of the art of the ancient world as a standard. The origin of classicism took place at the stage of the bourgeois revolutions - English and French - which affected the nature of its formation and was reflected in the characteristics of the characteristics within the framework of the national style.
AT fine arts classicism pursued the goal of embodying the idea of a harmonious arrangement of the social side of being. The artistic forms of classicism are marked by features of strict organization, balance, simplicity and harmony of images.
The characteristic features of the Baroque style were the complexity of plans, the lavish decoration of interiors with spectacular spatial and lighting solutions, the many curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces, the contrast and vivid dynamics of images, the desire for luxury, the combination of illusion and reality, and the fusion of arts. in defiance classical forms the baroque style promoted sophistication in shaping. In architecture, the use of elements of painting and sculpture, painted wall surfaces was widespread.
In the Baroque ideology, a person appeared as “something between everything and nothing” in Pascal’s words, “one who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end.”
They have both common features and differences, because each of the architectural directions has its own unique properties.
In the era of the Enlightenment and the New Age in the countries of Europe - the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, bright and rich stylistic trends in art appeared. Baroque, rococo, classicism, empire - these are a few of the styles that were known at that time. Such a high development of architectural art was due to the fact that royal, imperial and aristocratic dynasties succeeded each other, and each of them wanted to glorify themselves and the period of their reign with real masterpieces of art and magnificent works of architecture.
What is the difference between the Empire style (late classicism) and ordinary classicism
Two popular trends - empire and classicism in architecture left a great mark on history. At its core, Empire is one of the stages historical development classicism, one of its offshoots, so talking about these styles as completely different directions it is forbidden.
If you ask architects how Empire differs from classicism, it will be difficult even for specialists to answer this question. Empire is the final stage in the development of classicism, it was popular in the first three decade XIX century. Empire, or late classicism - this is how this direction is designated in art, was called upon to serve the state during the reign of Napoleon in order to glorify his personality and the feats he accomplished.
Classicism began to gradually move into the Empire during the period of the Napoleonic Empire, these trends focused on the image of the art of the period of antiquity. The architects of this time used elements that made it possible to convey the military prowess and majestic power of the state as accurately as possible.
For this, such decoration techniques as lictor bundles, military armor, laurel wreaths, lions, and eagles were used. Such elements were also used in the era of the development of classicism in architecture, however, a significant difference is that the empire borrowed architectural forms that were predominantly inherent in ancient Rome, and classicism mainly applied the heritage Ancient Greece. A prime example buildings in the style of classicism is the Villa Rotonda in Italy, the author of which was the architect A. Palladio.
What is the difference between the Empire style and classicism, if we talk about choice colors when furnishing the premises? The interior, decorated in accordance with the laws of classicism, was strictly sustained in light and rich vanilla tones, pale blue and the color of young foliage were widely used.
It was almost impossible to see objects of bright saturated colors, while in the Empire period, on the contrary, designers skillfully combined flashy bright colors with delicate and soft shades. The predominance of saturated green and purple hues, as well as gilding, is another technique characteristic exclusively of the Empire era.
The difference between neoclassicism and classicism and empire
Another common feature for these two areas is the use of expensive woods and luxurious fabrics in interior design. Often one could see pieces of furniture, decorated with inlays from other types of wood, natural stone or ivory.
Among general characteristics directions, it is impossible not to notice that they equally often use flower ornaments as decoration. The choice of fabrics for interior decoration in the era of classicism and Empire was given special attention. It was possible to give the room luxury and pomp thanks to the use of natural silk and tapestries with various motifs. Here it should immediately be noted the difference between neoclassicism and classicism and empire style - it uses exclusively artificial silk, which looks as expensive as natural material.
The differences between Empire and classicism lie in the fact that the former was characterized by pronounced pomposity and luxury. Classicism was endowed with less monumentality, it is more characterized by restraint of forms and lines during construction. architectural structures and interior design. There is one more distinguishing feature Empire, characteristic exclusively of this direction - the widespread use of mirrors.
Classicism, neoclassicism and Russian Empire: similarities and differences
Classicism, Russian Empire and Neoclassicism, as well as many others architectural styles, had a lot in common.
First of all, it is necessary to name such a similarity of directions:
1. Luxury. The styles were intended to decorate the interiors of representatives of the aristocracy, which is why many call them “palace” and “royal”. If you pay attention to all the styles that declared themselves in the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, then the most modest were classicism and neoclassicism, although in fact the interiors were distinguished by unprecedented luxury.
2. Large and spacious rooms. For the premises of these eras, rooms with large space and high ceilings were characteristic. For the Rococo style, this was the least characteristic, if we compare all the architectural trends of that time with each other.
3. Ways to decorate. To decorate the premises, the purpose of which was to give the interior luxury and wealth, elements such as stucco, wall paintings and paintings with classical scenes, wood carvings were used.
Neoclassicism differs from classicism and empire in that it was popular at the end of the XVIII - early XIX century direction, inherited the traditions of not only the period of antiquity, but also the art of the Renaissance can be traced in it. In principle, neoclassicism is inherently a continuation of classicism, its modern completion.
Art Nouveau, Baroque, Empire, Classicism: distinctive features
Baroque, Classicism and Art Nouveau are trends that have many distinctive features. Art Nouveau is a "citation" of all three of these classical styles. It was formed under the strong influence of the culture of Japan, Ancient Egypt and the countries of other ancient civilizations.
The difference between Baroque, Empire and Classicism, on the one hand, and Art Nouveau, on the other, is that with the advent of the latter trend architectural art abandoned the heritage of previous eras. During this period, there is a rejection of straight lines and clear geometric shapes, conservatism and pathos in favor of more natural curved, rounded lines and asymmetry.
What is the difference between eclectic and modern from Empire
The majestic Empire style was replaced by eclecticism at the beginning of the 19th century.
Eclecticism and modernism differ from Empire and classicism in that they are a mixture and "citation" of all previous styles at the same time.
As a rule, eclecticism combines adjacent, not opposite directions. Interior elements of different style must have something in common - color, texture, overall design. On the furniture you can see patterns such as stripes, zigzags, circles. Oriental bedspreads and carpets, patterned wallpaper, niches, rounded corners - all this is typical of eclecticism.
In general, classicism has much in common, while modern and eclecticism are their complete opposite.
In the era of classicism that followed the baroque, the role of counterpoint decreased (although the development of the art of counterpoint did not stop) and the homophonic structure of musical works came to the fore. There is less ornamentation in music. Works began to lean towards a clearer structure, especially those written in sonata form. Modulations (change of key) have become a structuring element; the works began to be listened to as a journey full of drama through the sequence of keys, a series of departures and arrivals to the tonic. Modulations were also present in baroque music, but did not carry a structuring function. In the works of the classical era, many emotions were often revealed within one part of the work, while in baroque music one part carried one, clearly drawn feeling. And finally in classical works usually an emotional climax was reached, which was resolved by the end of the work. In baroque works, after reaching this culmination, until the very last note, there was a slight feeling of the main emotion. The multitude of baroque forms served as a starting point for the development of sonata form, developing many variants of the basic cadences.
Genres Baroque
Baroque composers worked in various musical genres. Opera, which appeared during the late Renaissance, became one of the main baroque musical forms. One can recall the works of such masters of the genre as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), Handel, Claudio Monteverdi and others. The oratorio genre reached its peak in the works of J. S. Bach and Handel; operas and oratorios often used similar musical forms.
Forms of sacred music such as the mass and motet became less popular, but the cantata form was given attention by many Protestant composers, including Johann Bach. Such virtuoso forms of composition as toccatas and fugues developed. Instrumental sonatas and suites were written both for individual instruments and for chamber orchestras. The genre of the concerto appeared in both of its forms: for one instrument with an orchestra and as a concerto grosso, in which small group solo instruments contrasts with the full ensemble. The splendor and splendor of many royal courts were also added by works in the form of a French overture, with their contrasting fast and slow parts.
Keyboard pieces were quite often written by composers for their own entertainment or as teaching material. Such works are the mature compositions of J. S. Bach, the universally recognized intellectual masterpieces of the Baroque era: The Well-Tempered Clavier, Goldberg Variations and The Art of Fugue.
Baroque music was divided into three periods: Early Baroque Music (1600-1654), Mature Baroque Music (1654-1707) and Late Baroque Music (1707-1760).
Music of the early Baroque
The conditional transition point between the epochs of the Baroque and the Renaissance can be considered the creation by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) of his recitative style and the consistent development Italian opera. The beginning of opera performances in Rome and especially in Venice already meant the recognition and spread of the new genre throughout the country. All this was only part of a larger process that captured all the arts, and especially clearly manifested itself in architecture and painting. Renaissance composers paid attention to the elaboration of each part of a musical work, paying little or no attention to the juxtaposition of these parts. Separately, each part could sound excellent, but the harmonious result of the addition was more a matter of chance than regularity. The appearance of the bass general indicated a significant change in musical thinking- namely, that harmony, which is "the addition of parts into one whole", is as important as the melodic parts (polyphony) in themselves. Harmonic thinking also existed among some composers of the previous era, such as Carlo Gesualdo, but in the Baroque era it became generally accepted. It should be added that the term "harmony" is used here in the sense of "combining sounds into consonances and their regular succession", that is, hierarchical, chordal, tonal harmony. A significant figure in the early baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, opposing the growing ideological, cultural and public influence Protestant, was Giovanni Gabrieli. His works belong to the style high revival"(the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (the assignment of specific tasks to a certain instrument) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.
Mature baroque music
The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism. Absolutism reached its zenith under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, the court of Louis was a role model. Including the music performed at the court. The increased availability of musical instruments (especially keyboards) gave impetus to the development of chamber music. The mature baroque differs from the early baroque in the ubiquity of the new style and in the increased separation of musical forms, especially in opera. In music theory, the mature baroque is defined by composers' focus on harmony and attempts to create coherent systems. musical training. In subsequent years, this led to the appearance of many theoretical works.
An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lulli (1632-1687). Already at the age of 21, he received the title of "court composer instrumental music". From the very beginning, Lully's creative work was closely connected with the theater. Following the organization of court chamber music and the composition of "airs de cour", he began to write ballet music. But the main thing in the work of Lully was still writing operas.
Composer and violinist Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) is known for his work on the development of the concerto grosso genre. Corelli was one of the first composers whose works were published and performed throughout Europe.
Music of the late Baroque
The exact line between mature and late Baroque is a matter of debate; it lies somewhere between 1680 and 1720. Much of the difficulty in determining it is the fact that in different countries styles changed out of sync; innovations already accepted as the rule in one place were fresh discoveries in another. Italy, thanks to Arcangelo Corelli and his students Francesco Geminiani and Pietro Locatelli, becomes the first country in which the baroque passes from the mature to the late period. An important milestone can be considered the almost absolute dominance of tonality as a structuring principle of composing music. This is especially noticeable in theoretical works Jean Philippe Rameau, who took the place of Lully as the main French composer. The forms discovered by the previous period have reached maturity and great variability; the concerto, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had sharply expressed national characteristics.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) - italian composer, was born in Venice. Vivaldi's fame was brought not concert performances or connections at court, but publications of his work, including his trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concertos. They were published in Amsterdam and widely distributed throughout Europe. It was to these, at that time still developing instrumental genres (baroque sonata and baroque concerto), that Vivaldi made his most significant contribution.
Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. He composed over 1,000 works in his lifetime. various genres except for opera. But during his lifetime he did not achieve any significant success. AT last years life and after the death of Bach, his fame as a composer began to decline: his style was considered old-fashioned compared to the burgeoning classicism. He was more known and remembered as a performer, teacher and father of the Bachs Jr., primarily Carl Philipp Emmanuel, whose music was more famous.
Only the performance of the Passion according to Matthew by Mendelssohn, 79 years after the death of J.S. Bach, revived interest in his work. Now J.S. Bach is one of the most popular composers of all time.
