Art culture Muslim East. Pray to the Creator; he is mighty, he rules the wind, on a hot day he sends clouds into the sky; Gives the earth a tree canopy. He is merciful; He revealed to Mohammed the shining Koran, May we also flow into the light. And let the fog fall from the eyes. A.S. Pushkin.
Muslim East. In the VI century AD. The Arabian Peninsula was considered "the end of the world." Most of the population of the p / o were Bedouin tribes who called themselves Arabs, which meant "dashing riders." Only in Yemen did a culture exist that created a large number of trading cities. In the VI century AD. The Arabian Peninsula was considered "the end of the world." Most of the population of the p / o were Bedouin tribes who called themselves Arabs, which meant "dashing riders." Only in Yemen did a culture exist that created a large number of trading cities.
Islam. Its origin and role in the formation of Arab culture. Translated from Arabic means "submission, devotion." It arose at the beginning of the 7th century AD. Translated from Arabic means "submission, devotion." It arose at the beginning of the 7th century AD. The followers of Islam were called “Muslims” (“submissive to God”), hence the name “Muslims” (“devoted to Allah”). The followers of Islam were called “Muslims” (“submissive to God”), hence the name “Muslims” (“devoted to Allah”). The founder is a real person - Mohammed (Year). The founder is a real person - Mohammed (Year). In 610, the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca, in 622 he moved with his followers to Yathrib, which would be called Medina, the city of the prophet. In 610, the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca, in 622 he moved with his followers to Yathrib, which would be called Medina, the city of the prophet. Muslim chronicles begin this year. Muslim chronicles begin this year.
Arab Caliphate. The first leader is Mohammed. The first leader is Mohammed. The territory included Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, part of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa, Spain. The territory included Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, part of the Transcaucasus, Central Asia, North Africa, and Spain. The Arabic language has become the language of international communication, a powerful factor that unites all Arab countries. The Arabic language has become the language of international communication, a powerful factor that unites all Arab countries. In the X century AD. disintegrated into separate independent parts - the emirates, but the Arab culture remained united thanks to Islam. In the X century AD. disintegrated into separate independent parts - the emirates, but the Arab culture remained united thanks to Islam.
Qur'an ("reading"). Muhammad was revered as the last prophet of mankind, who brought the words of Allah to people. His speeches were recorded by the disciples and collected in the Qur'an. All the recorded sayings, in which the speaking person is not Muhammad, but Allah, are called revelations, all the rest are traditions. Muhammad was revered as the last prophet of mankind, who brought the words of Allah to people. His speeches were recorded by the disciples and collected in the Qur'an. All the recorded sayings, in which the speaking person is not Muhammad, but Allah, are called revelations, all the rest are traditions. The entire Qur'an was collected after the death of Muhammad. The entire Qur'an was collected after the death of Muhammad. The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah, sacred tradition, examples from the life of Muhammad. The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah, sacred tradition, examples from the life of Muhammad.
General provisions of the Qur'an Muslims believe in one God - Allah. Muslims believe in one God - Allah. The last and main prophet is Muhammad. The last and main prophet is Muhammad. After the death of a person, God's judgment awaits, and then his fate will depend on what deeds he did during his lifetime. After the death of a person, God's judgment awaits, and then his fate will depend on what deeds he did during his lifetime. Muslims believe in heaven and hell, but they believe that the fate of man, as well as everything that happens in the world - good and evil - is predetermined by the Almighty. Muslims believe in heaven and hell, but they believe that the fate of man, as well as everything that happens in the world - good and evil - is predetermined by the Almighty. The basis of the Qur'an is the commandments, sermons, ritual and legal regulations, prayers, edifying stories and parables of Muhammad. The basis of the Qur'an is the commandments, sermons, ritual and legal regulations, prayers, edifying stories and parables of Muhammad.
Practical ritual precepts of Islam. Mandatory five times daily prayer - prayer, ablution before prayer and in some other cases, an annual fast that is required to be performed from sunrise to sunset, a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj, at least once in a lifetime. Mandatory five times daily prayer - prayer, ablution before prayer and in some other cases, an annual fast that is required to be performed from sunrise to sunset, a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj, at least once in a lifetime.
What are the trends in Islam? There are three main directions into which Islam broke up in antiquity: Sunnism, Shiism and Kharijism. There are three main directions into which Islam broke up in antiquity: Sunnism, Shiism and Kharijism. Sunnis (from Arabic "people of tradition") - stand for the power of the Caliph, who must belong to the Quraish family, be a theologian of the highest rank, fair and wise. Shiites believe that state and religious power is of divine nature and can only belong to the heirs of Muhammad. The recognized form of government is the imamat, the imam is the secular and spiritual head of the community. Kharijites believe that any devout Muslim can be elected head of the religious community.
The Mosque of Omar was built in the years, during the reign of the caliphs from the Umayya family. The huge building, topped with a golden dome, is located in the Old City, where the grandiose temple of King Solomon, destroyed by the Romans, once stood, and where Jesus Christ delivered his sermons. The huge building, topped with a golden dome, is located in the Old City, where the grandiose temple of King Solomon, destroyed by the Romans, once stood, and where Jesus Christ delivered his sermons.
Calligraphic inscriptions have become one of the forms of ornamentation. Calligraphic inscriptions on the walls of mosques are the only decoration, the word and letter of the Koran is the only approximation to God. Allah cannot be seen or touched, the power of influence is in the sacred word. Hence the ban on the image visible world and living beings in religious art. Calligraphic inscriptions on the walls of mosques are the only decoration, the word and letter of the Koran is the only approximation to God. Allah cannot be seen or touched, the power of influence is in the sacred word. Hence the ban on depicting the visible world and living beings in religious art. Moorish style. Cathedral Mosque in Cordoba. Cathedral Mosque in Cordoba. Its feature is 850 columns made of pink and blue marble, jasper, granite, porphyry, stretching in 19 rows from north to south and 36 rows from east to west. The colonnade was illuminated by hundreds of silver lamps.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BASHKORTOSTAN
ARAB-MUSLIM CULTURE
Performed:
Checked:
UFA-2009
Introduction
1. Rise of Islam
2. Koran. Main directions in Islam
3. Islam as the foundation of the Arab-Muslim culture. Muslim creed
4. Philosophy of the Arab-Muslim East
5. Caliphate. The collapse of the Caliphate
6. Islamic literature. Artistic culture of the East
7. New revival of the culture of the Arab-Muslim East
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Arab-Muslim culture, as a unity of diversity, has its own potentialities and flaws, constitutes a cultural identity, occupying an appropriate place in the global civilization. Arab-Muslim culture- a culture that was determined in its characteristic features in the 7th - 13th centuries. and received its initial development in the Middle East in the vast, inhabited by different peoples of the Arab Caliphate and united by theocratic statehood, the Muslim religion and the Arabic language, the main language of science, philosophy and literature. The very term "Arab culture" has a collective, not a literal character, because already during the Abbasid dynasty (750 - 1055), not only Arabs, but other subjects of the Caliphate participated in its creation: Iranians, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, etc. .d., and then there was a deep interaction between the Arab culture itself and the cultural pre-Islamic traditions of other peoples. In particular, this was manifested in the fact that among the "Eastern Iranians" (Tajiks) and "Western Iranians" (Persians), in favorable conditions for the formation of the Eastern Iranian state of the Samanids (887 - 999), independent of the Arab Caliphate, with its capital in Bukhara, a Persian -Tajik literature in Farsi, within which by the XII century. the classical tradition of Oriental poetry and prose will be created.
The study of the Arab-Muslim culture as an integral socio-cultural phenomenon with all its structure, core and periphery is always an urgent research task that arouses keen interest of both domestic and Western historians, political scientists, sociologists, cultural scientists, and philosophers.
1. Rise of Islam
Before the first Muslims appeared in Arabia, there were already adherents of monotheistic religions. The earliest of these was Judaism, which was practiced by Jewish emigrants from the Roman Empire, who inhabited the cities of Yemen, the oases of Hijas. In Yemen at the beginning of the VI century. it was even declared the state religion, but, like Christianity, which spread in Arabia a little later, Judaism was not accepted by the Arabs as the dominant religion. And yet in Arabia there were spontaneous monotheists, similar to the ancient prophets of Palestine, the Hanifs. They did not fully accept either Judaism or Christianity, although they experienced their influence. In their sermons there were calls for asceticism, for the rejection of idolatry, for the recognition of the one God, with whom pre-Islamic Allah was sometimes identified, prophecies about the end of the world and doomsday. The Hanifs were close to the ideas of Islam, but they were vaguely aware of the extent to which their ideas were consistent with ancient customs. The question of the novelty of religion is of fundamental importance only for those who profess it, and for a scientist-researcher, this issue can be resolved only in connection with the influence that it has on peoples.
2. Koran. Main directions in Islam
A distinctive feature of the rich Arab-Muslim culture was that its organic basis was the Koran and philosophy, which received comprehensive development here earlier than in Western Europe. Islam has become one of the world's religions, contributing to the creation of a community of peoples and culture in the vast territory of the Caliphate. The emergence and spread of Islam was accompanied by the appearance of the Koran, the holy book of the sermons of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 - 632), and the study of the text of the Koran became the basis of education, religious and ethical education, ritual and everyday life of every Muslim.
Main Feature The idea of the inseparability of religious and secular, sacred and earthly principles appeared in the Islamic worldview, and Islam did not seek, unlike Christianity, to develop such special institutions as the Church or Ecumenical Councils, designed to officially approve dogmas and guide people's lives along with the state. The Quran had a comprehensive general cultural significance: it contributed to the formation and dissemination of the Arabic language, writing, various genres of literature and theology, influenced the development of philosophy, episodes from the Quran became the basis for plots and images of Persian and Turkic literature classical era. The Koran was a factor in the West-East cultural interaction, examples of which are the “West-Eastern Divan” (1819) by the German writer of the Enlightenment J.W. Goethe, as well as “Imitation of the Koran” (1824) by A.S. Pushkin, the pen of the Russian religious philosopher of the XIX century Vl. Solovyov owns the essay "Mohammed, his life and religious teachings" (1896).
Islamic religiosity contained separate provisions that could have different philosophical meanings and interpretations. Thus, in Islam there were separate directions: in the 2nd floor. 7th century - Shiism, in the 2nd floor. 8th century - Ismailism, in the X century. - Sunnism. A special place among them was occupied by the one that arose at the end of the 8th century. Sufism, which gave birth to an extensive philosophical and fiction and had a significant impact on the entire spiritual culture of the Muslim East up to the present. Sufism(or Islamic mysticism), defined in the most in general terms as a mystical-ascetic trend in Islam, it seems to be a subcultural component of the Arab-Muslim culture. The Sufi component reflects a significant part of the moral and aesthetic system of Muslim civilization. The social, moral ideals of Sufism are directly related to social justice, universal equality and brotherhood of people, rejection of evil, conscientiousness, affirmation of goodness, love, etc.
For many Muslim peoples, Sufism is an integral part of their spiritual cultures, reflecting the internal esoteric state of the believer. Sufism is involved in the development cultural property pre-Islamic civilizations, largely adopted by Islam. Philosophical, ethical and aesthetic problems, borrowed by Muslim thinkers from ancient culture, were processed through the prism of the intellectual search of Sufism, which formed a common Muslim mental culture. On this basis, G.E. von Grünebaum argues that Muslim civilization in cultural and social relations is one of the branches of the "development of the ancient and Hellenistic heritage", and he considers Byzantium to be the main branch of this development. Thus Sufism is integral part Arab Muslim culture.
Muslims are at least inhabitants of two cultural spheres. The first of these allows them to realize their belonging to a nation or local ethnic group, and the second serves as a source of religious and spiritual identity. The ethnocultural context and Islam are closely interconnected and have gone through a long stage of coexistence and acculturation in their development.
3. Islam as the foundation of the Arab-Muslim culture
Islam as a total system of regulation is the foundation of the Arab-Muslim culture. Fundamental principles of this religion form a new cultural and historical type, giving it a universal character. Having acquired a wide scope, this type of culture covers many peoples of the world with their diverse ethno-cultural systems, determining their behavior and way of life. Based on Islamic doctrinal provisions and socio-philosophical concepts, local and regional ethnic cultures absorbed the features of universalism and acquired a holistic vision of the world.
In Islam itself today there are two paradigms associated with reformism and determining its development. The first paradigm orients Islam towards a return to its origins, to its original spiritual and cultural state. This reformist direction is called Salafism and its supporters are opponents of Western trends in public and spiritual state Muslim society. The second reform paradigm is associated with modernizing tendencies in Islam. Unlike the Salafis, Islamic modernizers, as supporters of the revival of Islam, its socio-cultural flourishing, recognize the need for active contacts with Western civilization, justifying the importance of borrowing scientific and technological achievements and the formation of a modern Muslim society built on rational grounds.
Islam, which arose in the pre-Islamic Arabian culture, interacting with foreign cultural traditions, expanded the boundaries of its cultural field. On a specific example of the spread of the Arab-Muslim culture in the North Caucasus, the features of the refraction of the universal values of Islam are revealed. The sacralized part took shape as the core of the regional Arab-Muslim culture in the North Caucasus. ethnic culture more rooted than the basic principles of Islam. This feature of the relationship between the core and the periphery in the Arab-Muslim culture is highlighted in the studies of F. Yu. Albakova, G. G. Gamzatov, R. A. Hunahu, V. V. Chernous, A. Yu. Shadzhe and others.
Of particular value in the Arab-Muslim culture are such works as “Raykhan hakaik va bustan ad-dakaik” (“The Basil of Truths and the Garden of Subtleties”), “Adabul-Marziya”, “Asar”, “Tarjamat Makalati ... Kunta Sheikh” ( "Speeches and Sayings of Sheikh Kunta-Khadzhi") and "Halasatul adab" ("Sufi ethics"), "Treasury of blessed knowledge", which belonged to Sufi thinkers North Caucasus: Faraj ad-Darbandi, Jamal-Eddin Kazikumukhsky, Muhammad Yaragsky, Kunta-Khadzhi Kishiev, Hassan Kakhibsky, Said Cherkeysky. These local cultural monuments, being religious and philosophical works, reveal the mystical and spiritual and moral aspects of the Sufi culture that has spread in the North Caucasus region.
4. Philosophy of the Arab-Muslim East
The most important phenomenon and factor of spiritual life, its highest expression in the Arab-Muslim culture was philosophy, which developed in an atmosphere of deep respect for book wisdom and knowledge. The philosophy of the Arab-Muslim East was born on the basis of intensive translation activity, one of the famous centers of which was Baghdad, where during the time of Caliph al-Mamun (818-833) the "House of Wisdom" was created, the richest library containing thousands of handwritten books in Greek, Arabic , Persian, Syriac and other languages. By the end of the ninth century in the Arabic-speaking world, most of the main philosophical and scientific works antiquity, and in particular, Aristotle and Plato. This led to the fact that it was through the Arab East that the ancient heritage penetrated into Western Europe, which, starting from the 12th century, acquired a systematic character. Al-Farabi (870-950), Omar Khayyam (1048-1131), Ibn-Sina (980-1037), Ibn-Rushd (1126-1198) became the leading figures of the Arab philosophical school. Arab-Muslim philosophical thought was based on the idea of cosmism, the universal dependence of all earthly affairs and phenomena on the processes taking place in heavenly spheres. One of the dominant ones was the idea of the outcome of the Many from the One, the return of the Many to the One and the presence of the One in the Many. All these principles were also applied in life. individual person, the study of his soul and body. No wonder the term "philosophy" united almost the entire complex of knowledge about man, social processes and the structure of the universe.
When considering the issues of cultivating a beautiful character in the Arab-Muslim culture, much attention was paid to the definition of vicious and beautiful character traits. The basis of this tradition was laid down in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. Al-Ghazali, Ibn Adi, al-Amiri, Ibn Hazm, Ibn Abi-r-Rabi, al-Mukaffa developed and reworked the ancient heritage in their own way.
Virtue, in accordance with the teachings of medieval thinkers, was presented as a commendable mean between two reprehensible vices. So, courage, which is a virtue, from excess turned into recklessness, and with a lack it became cowardice. Philosophers give examples of such virtues, squeezed from two sides by vices: generosity - as opposed to extremes - greed and extravagance, modesty - arrogance and self-abasement, chastity - intemperance and impotence, intelligence - stupidity and subtly vicious cunning, etc. Each of the philosophers singled out his list of the main virtues of man. Al-Ghazali, for example, considered wisdom, courage, temperance and justice to be the main ones. And Ibn al-Mukaffa puts the following words into the mouth of a hero who has reached the state of a “calm soul”: “I have five properties that will be useful everywhere, brighten up loneliness in a foreign land, make the impossible accessible, help to gain friends and wealth. The first of these properties is peacefulness and goodwill, the second is politeness and good breeding, the third is directness and gullibility, the fourth is nobility of character, and the fifth is honesty in all actions. Philosophers of the Middle Ages believed that morals could be corrected and improved in two main ways: education and training. The first - education - means endowing a person with ethical virtues and practical skills based on knowledge. This, in turn, is achieved in two ways. First, through training. For example, if a person often experiences greed, unwillingness to share his good, then in order to exterminate this vice, he needs to give alms more often and in this way cultivate generosity. Al-Ghazali advises a person, and especially the ruler, if he is too angry, to forgive the offender more often. Such training was to achieve the properties of the soul striving for perfection.
Faith in the transformative power of enlightenment spread in Arabic philosophy, respect for experiential knowledge and human reason developed. All this was embodied in the great achievements of mathematics, medicine, astronomy, geography, aesthetics, ethics, literature, music and testified to the encyclopedic nature of Arab-Muslim scientific and philosophical thought. In the field of mathematics major achievements that influenced Western science were the development of the positional number system (“Arabic numbers”) and algebra (Mohammed al-Khwarizmi, IX century), the formulation of the foundations of trigonometry. Along with this, works on optics were of great importance in the field of physics, and the method of determining longitude was introduced in geography (al-Biruni, 973-1048). The development of astronomy was associated with the work of observatories, which, in particular, led to the reform of the calendar (Omar Khayyam). Great successes were achieved in medicine, which was one of the main occupations of philosophers: various tools, medicinal herbs were used in practical medicine, interest in human and animal anatomy developed. The pinnacle of the development of medicine was the activity of Ibn Sina, known in Europe as Avicenna and who received the title of “Prince of Healers” there. The intellectual culture of the Arab-Muslim East was characterized by a passion for chess, which became a characteristic sign of Indian cultural influences.
5. Caliphate. The collapse of the Caliphate
It should be noted that the emergence of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. marked the beginning of a long and eventful history of the Arab Caliphate. The state formations that were emerging, disintegrating and undergoing restoration included numerous ethnic groups in their orbit, including those with a rich cultural tradition. In the civilization that arose on the basis of Islam, a system of moral institutions was also formed. Among non-Arabs, the most significant contribution to the development of Muslim civilization belongs to the Persians; the memory of this is preserved in the Arabic language, where one word (ajam) denotes both Persians and non-Arabs in general. In the process of developing culture, including ethics, on the territory of the Arab Caliphate, thinkers who did not profess Islam played a significant role. The ancient heritage also played a significant role.
As indicated, the diverse development of the culture of the East was associated with the existence of an empire - the Arab Caliphate (VII - XIII centuries), whose main city was Baghdad, founded in the VIII century. And which had the official name "City of Prosperity". The political culture of this state was expressed in the primacy of the principle of statehood based on the power of the caliph. The caliph was considered the successor of the prophet Muhammad and combined the emir, the owner of the highest secular power, and the imam, who had the highest spiritual authority. The Caliph ruled on the basis of a special agreement with the community. Thus, the principle of syncretism became the basis of political life, that is, the fusion of socio-political, secular and religious life with the ideal of the spiritual community of people. The city became the center of the Arab-Muslim social and political culture. Cities were fortresses, centers state power, production, trade, science, art, education and upbringing, cathedral mosques were built only in cities, they contained objects of ritual worship, which served as the basis for considering Islam as an “urban religion”. Such outstanding centers of culture in different periods were Damascus, Basra, Baghdad, Mecca, Medina, Bukhara, Cairo, Granada. In this regard, in the philosophical culture of the Arab-Muslim East, the ideal of the city as a single social world based on similarity and unity has developed. human body and the cosmos of universal life. From this point of view, the city is an ordered architectural space and a strict fair social structure, where cooperation of people in all spheres of activity is ensured and spiritual harmony of citizens is achieved on the basis of a common desire for virtue, mastery of book wisdom, sciences, arts and crafts, which should be constitute true human happiness. The development of this complex of social, humanistic and ethical problems by the Arab-Muslim philosophy became its original contribution to the world spiritual culture.
However, the foundations of the boundless state were shaken by the uprisings that followed one after another, in which Muslims of various persuasions participated - Sunnis, Shiites, Khawarijs, as well as the non-Muslim population. The uprising in Kharasan in 747, led by the former slave Abu Muslim, resulted in civil war covering Iran and Iraq. The rebels defeated the Umayyad troops, as a result, the Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, Muhammad's uncle, came to power. Having established themselves on the throne, they dealt with the rebels. Abu Muslim was executed.
The Abbasids moved the capital to Iraq, where in 762 the city of Baghdad was founded. The Baghdad period is known in history for the fabulous luxury of the caliphs. The “golden age” of Arab culture is the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (763 or 766-809), a contemporary of Charlemagne. The court of the famous caliph was the center of oriental luxury (the fairy tale "Thousand and One Nights"), poetry and scholarship, the income of his treasury was immeasurable, and the empire stretched from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Indus. The power of Harun ar-Rashid was unlimited, he was often accompanied by an executioner, who, at the nod of the caliph, performed his duties. But the Caliphate was already doomed. Such is the general law of the development of culture, which, like a pendulum, moves from rise to fall, and from fall to rise. Let us remember Solomon, the last king of a united Israel, who led fabulous image life, but thereby pushed the state to disintegration. The successor of Harun al-Rashid recruited mainly Turks into his guard, who gradually reduced the caliph to the position of a puppet. A similar situation developed in medieval Japan, far from Arabia, where, starting from the 12th century. power in the country passed to the former combatants, from which a layer of the petty nobility, the samurai, was formed. And in Rus', the Vikings were in power, called upon by the Slavs to defend their cities from the raids of nomads. By the beginning of the tenth century in the hands of the Abbasids remained only Arabic Iraq and Western Iran. In 945, these areas were also captured by the Iranian Buyid dynasty, and the Caliph was left with only spiritual authority over all Muslims. The last caliph of the Abbasid dynasty was killed by the Mongols during the capture of Baghdad in 1258.
6. Islamic literature. Art culture
In connection with the restrictions that Islam imposed on the fine arts, the development of the Arab-Muslim and Arabic-speaking artistic culture was associated with architecture, ornamental painting, book illustration, calligraphy, music, but literature reached a particularly high level. However, the real peak of the Arab-Muslim verbal art was poetry, which received the character of the originality of the classical tradition in world literature and spiritual culture. The main genres of Arabic and Persian-Tajik poetry were qasidas - small poems of canonized form and varied content, rubais - quatrains, which became examples of philosophical lyrics associated with Sufism, and ghazals were characteristic of lyric poetry - small poems consisting of several couplets. In the literature of the Arab-Muslim East, poetic epic poems and prose epics based on oriental, mainly Indian folklore traditions have become widespread. On the basis of urban culture, the genre of maqama, a picaresque novel, is being formed. Arab-Muslim scientific, philosophical prose and classical poetry made their outstanding contribution to the formation of the Western European spiritual and artistic culture of the Middle Ages.
In Islam, there is a ban on the image of people and animals, so that the faithful would not be tempted to worship the works of human hands - idols. Therefore, the fine arts in the Arab-Muslim artistic culture did not receive wide development. Prose alternates with poetry.
Musical art in the Arab-Muslim culture was developed mainly in the form of singing. In search of a religious and cult identity, emphasizing its difference, in particular, from Christianity, Islam did not allow instrumental music into the sphere of worship. Already the Prophet himself established - azen - a call to prayer, filled with a harmonious human voice. Later, he bequeathed "to decorate the reading of the Quran with a harmonious voice", which marked the beginning of the art of tajvid - melodic recitation of the Quran.
The Muslim religious tradition developed other types of sacred music as well. During the period of Ramadan (the month of fasting), special melodies were performed at night - fazzaizist, and on the occasion of the birthday of the Prophet (mavled) - hymns and chants telling about his birth and life. Music accompanied celebrations dedicated to famous saints.
7. New revival of the culture of the Arab-Muslim East
In the future, the historical fate of the peoples and states that inhabited the vast territory of the Near and Middle East, Central Asia, turned out to be associated with wars, conquests, the collapse of empires, violent processes of breaking the traditional way of life under pressure Western civilization, steadily carrying out the colonization of the eastern regions. From the point of view of the development of culture, this era is usually called "post-classical", in particular, the time of "spiritual sterility" (H. Gibran). Under these conditions, it turned out to be important to have an original basis - a historical and cultural community, a single Arab-Muslim tradition. The beginning of the processes of a new revival of the culture of the Arab-Muslim East is usually attributed to the 2nd floor. XIX-XX centuries This period was characterized by more and more consistent and deepening interaction between Western and Eastern types of civilizations, which manifested itself in the social, economic, political and ideological fields and contributed to the progressive development of secular culture. From the end of the 19th century Against the background of the ever-increasing opposition of the peoples of the East to the colonial policy of the Western powers, a period of enlightenment begins, associated with the desire to join the highest spiritual achievements of Western civilization. The ideology of enlightenment took into account the ideas of the need for a Muslim reformation. Enlightenment and religious-reformed ideals found their expression in philosophical writings and literature. A great contribution to the spiritual culture and literature of the Iranian-speaking peoples was made by Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), an outstanding Indian poet, thinker, and religious reformer. Having great authority as a spiritual mentor and poet among the Muslim intelligentsia, Iqbal transformed traditional Sufism into a philosophy that affirms the ideas of human perfection and peacemaking in the name of all people. Evidence of the revival of Arab culture was the work of H. Gibran (1833-1931), a writer, philosopher, artist who emigrated from Syria to the United States. Gibran, an outstanding representative of the literary and philosophical Arab romanticism, argued the ideal of a person who combines familiarity with spiritual heritage Arab-Muslim tradition with comprehension of the surrounding world and self-knowledge in the spirit of Sufism. Based on the conclusion “self-knowledge is the mother of all knowledge”, Gibran called for a spiritual dialogue with the great representatives of Western and Russian culture (W. Shakespeare, Voltaire, Cervantes, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy). in 1977, the 1st World Conference on Muslim Education was held in Mecca, which pointed out the need in the conditions of the 20th century. further development of Islamic culture, education of youth through the development of spiritual wealth and the achievement of world civilization. In the 70s of the XX century. the idea of challenging the West to the Islamic world takes root, which, in particular, was substantiated by S.Kh. Nasr, author of books on the history of Muslim philosophy, former rector of the University of Tehran. He argued that against the backdrop of atheism, nihilism and psychoanalysis prevailing in the West, the Islamic world should turn to the values of Sufism and the Koran, which should become a source of consideration of topical sociological, historical and humanitarian problems.
Conclusion
It is known that French writer and the thinker R. Guenon, born in 1886, who came from a Catholic family, converted to Islam in 1912, and in 1930 left Europe forever and went to Cairo. He knew well both European and Arab-Muslim cultures, he could objectively judge their mutual influence. R. Guenon expressed his opinion about the influence of Islamic civilization on the European one in a short article with the same title, in which he points out the indisputable facts of this influence in the history of both cultures.
European philosophy and culture as a whole were strongly influenced by the work of Arab thinkers, artists, and poets. All this speaks of the need to study the rich heritage of the Arab-Muslim culture, the significance of which in today's world goes far beyond the borders of the "Islamic world".
References
1 Batunsky M.A. Islam as a total system of regulation // Comparative Study of Civilizations: A Reader. - M., 1999. - 579s.
2 Grunebaum G.E. background. The main features of the Arab-Muslim culture. - M., 1981.
3. Fekhretdin R. Islam din nindi din / R. Fekhretdin // Miras. - 1994. - No. 2. - B.57-60.
4. Fedorov A.A. Introduction to the theory and history of culture: Dictionary / A.A. Fedorov. - Ufa: Gilem, 2003. - 320p.
5. Stepanyants M.T. Philosophy of the foreign East of the XX century // History of Eastern philosophy. – M.: IFRAN, 1999.
6. Stepanyants M.T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. - M.: Nauka, 1987. - 190 p.
7. Yuzeev A.N. Tatar philosophical thought late XVIII- XIX centuries. - Book 2. - Kazan: Iman, 1998. - 123 p.
8. Mikulsky D.V. Arab - Muslim culture in the work of al - Mas'udi "Golden mines and placers of gems" ("Muraj az - zahab wa ma'adin al - jauhar"): X century. - Publishing House "Eastern Literature", 2006. - 175 p.
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Topic: "The artistic culture of the Muslim East, the logic of abstract beauty."
Date: "___" _______________ 20 "___". Grade: 10.
Lesson 8
Target : to study the features of the art of the Islamic East; form an idea of national features temple architecture.
Lesson type : Combined.
Equipment Keywords: computer, presentation, textbook MHK.
During the classes.
I . Organizing time.
II . Updating students' knowledge.
Checking reports.
Plan:
1. Illustrations of arabesques.
2. Art of the Muslim East.
3. Arabic architecture.
4. Alhambra from a bird's eye view
III . Preparing to study new material.
The Muslim East is a vast region that has united different peoples on the basis of the youngest of the world's religions - Islam.
The medieval culture of Muslim countries occupies one of the most important places in the history of world civilization. Numerous monuments of the Middle Ages have been preserved, testifying to a single original artistic tradition, which was born under the influence of the teachings about Allah. The connection between religion and art in Muslim culture is inseparable.
IV . Learning new material.
The fine arts of the Arab East are presented various types ornament, calligraphy and a wonderful book miniature. most early form ornamental art is the arabesque (from the French "arabic"). Arabesque is the European name for a complex oriental medieval ornament, a linear geometric pattern, consisting mainly of geometric, calligraphic and plant elements and created on the basis of an accurate mathematical calculation.
1. Arabesque illustrations
The pattern included plant motifs, inscriptions, images of animals, birds, people and fantastic creatures were woven into it. The arabesque served as a beautiful background, filling the entire void of space. They observe a measured rhythm, repeatability of the pattern within the entire composition.
Eastern thinkers compared the arabesque to music designed to "create a new and more perfect beauty." As in music, the ornament has great emotional expressiveness, gives rise to a complex range of feelings, moods and thoughts. Arabesque colors are inherent: bright cobalt, emerald green, red and yellow. Oriental ornament is called "music for the eyes".
The Quran teaches that Allah cannot be seen or touched. Therefore, the Quran was never illustrated. From this follows the ban on the depiction of the visible world and living beings in religious art. The main decoration of the sacred texts was the letter itself - the famous Arabic calligraphy. In the culture of the Muslim East, this art was especially highly valued. In the 7th century, a rectilinear, angular style of Kufi arose. Kufic writing adorns the walls of monumental architectural structures.
Islam as a world religion, in order to strengthen its influence, uses the values of artistic culture, i.e. means of aesthetic influence on believers. At the same time, artists are placed in a fairly rigid framework. On the one hand, they must use the means available to them to glorify Allah and the institutions of Islam; on the other hand, these means, i.e. the forms and content of creative activity should not go beyond the prescriptions of Muslim dogmas.
In the field of fine arts, Muslim orthodoxies (from Greek - direct, correct) forbid realistic creativity. For the only creator of all things is Allah, and to compete with him is a sin. This prohibition is also intended to avoid idolatry, i.e. manifestations of polytheism. Therefore, Muslim artists usually depict either stylized (conditional, not existing in nature) objects, or abstract paintings in the form of ornaments.
One such art form is an arabesque is a kind of ornament, including compositions of weaves of stylized vegetation, geometric figures and elements of art of calligraphy (graceful inscriptions in Arabic script). But the arabesque is not only an art, but also a science. The drawing of ornaments was built in accordance with a complex mathematical calculation. With the help of arabesques, entire panels are created on the walls of mosques and palaces.
At the same time, the realistic trend in painting was not completely lost in the Arabic-speaking countries. This primarily applies to countries where the Shia direction of Islam has been established. Realistic drawings have become widespread in book miniatures. Arabic books of the 10th-13th centuries are kept in many museums of the world. with colorful illustrations domestic scenes, landscapes, with portraits of the heroes of the epic, in particular Iskander - this is how Alexander the Great was called in the East.
Particularly impressive are the pictorial motifs of works of arts and crafts - on fabrics, ceramics, metal vessels and utensils. In this area of art, the most manifested national characteristics Arabic-speaking countries, because the traditions of making and decorating such items developed long before the Arab expansion. For example, in Egypt, the rise of fine arts occurred under the Arab Fatimid dynasty (969-1171). In the design of Egyptian fabrics, there is both an angular geometric braid - an element of Arabic art, and rounded lines - a sign of Coptic influence (Copts - before Arab population Egypt). Fatimid fabrics are woven with gold and colored silks. Their wide borders consist of many multi-colored stripes filled with figures of people-animals, birds, and floral ornaments.
Similar plots can be traced in the works of applied art and other countries. For example, on a silver dish from Iran, kept in the Hermitage, there is an illustration to the legend of King Bahram Gur and his concubine, the beautiful Azad. Iranian (Persian) carpets are famous all over the world. In the Middle Ages, the arabesque became the main motif of the carpet pattern, while among the stems and flowers there were figures of people and animals, sometimes with modified limbs so as not to anger Allah with a realistic image (for example, a lion's paw could end not in claws, but in a bouquet of flowers).
Thus, the arts and crafts of the medieval Arab East did not always agree with the principles of Islamic dogmas, but corresponded to the centuries-old traditions of the various peoples of the caliphate and confirmed the fact that not all art here was subordinated to religious principles.
In the field of architecture, Islam also developed a system of aesthetic categories designed to emphasize the greatness of this religion. These are notions-symbols: jamal is a divinely perfect beauty, which is personified by the dome of the mosque; jalal - divine greatness, which is emphasized by the height of the minaret; sifat is a divine name, expressed by the beauty of Arabic writing, calligraphy on the outer walls of the mosque.
The mosque (from Arabic "masjid" - a place of worship) as the main place of worship was built from the 7th-8th centuries. in imitation of Christian churches. It has a rectangular courtyard surrounded by galleries, a rectangular main building with a spherical dome and a prayer hall with many columns. Mosques are not distinguished by rich stucco decoration, their decorations are flat. But in the design of the surface of the walls, the Arab masters achieved great perfection. They used carved multi-colored bricks, terracotta facing tiles with glaze. Next to the mosque, a majestic and also richly decorated minaret is being erected (from the Arabic “manara” - lighthouse), which has the shape of a round, square or polygonal tower in section.
The construction of a mosque with a dome tens of meters in diameter and a minaret as high as a modern high-rise building required very complex mathematical calculations related to the seismicity of the region, wind force, density of soils, high skill of builders. And the Arabs have achieved great perfection in this. If in the VII-VIII centuries. mosques were built mainly by Byzantine masters, then in the future, Arabs were often invited to build Christian churches in Byzantium.
One of the main shrines of Muslims is the cathedral Qubbat al-Sahra Mosque (Dome of the Rock) in Jerusalem. During its construction, the type of a centric-domed mausoleum was used. This is a huge octahedron topped with a dome. In other parts of the caliphate, the construction of mosques developed somewhat different architectural principles. Persia was dominated by an inner courtyard with a relatively small covered area. Maghreb mosques are characterized by an abundance of longitudinal and transverse naves (spaces between columns), located not only in the prayer hall, but also on the sides of the courtyard. Here were built the largest minarets. The minaret of the mosque in Marrakech (Morocco), built at the end of the 12th century, has a height of 70 m with a base of 12.5 x 12.5 m.
Along with places of worship, the Arabs built numerous secular buildings. The palaces of the Arab nobility were distinguished by special magnificence. Their windows were decorated with alabaster lattice and colored glass, the brickwork of the walls and floor was a mosaic pattern. The throne room (takht) was divided into naves in orderly rows of columns and covered with vaulted ceilings. Residential houses, caravanserais and outbuildings were distinguished by greater simplicity in design. But they were distinguished by exceptional orderliness, cleanliness and reliability. The Tajik writer and traveler Nasir-i-Khusrad, visiting Cairo, founded by the Fatimids, in 1046, wrote: “ Most of buildings with five and six floors. These houses are so clean and elegant that one could mistake them for houses built of precious stones, and not of lime, tiles and stone.
Numerous cities founded by the Arabs (Cairo, Baghdad, etc.) were built according to previously developed plans, which provided for the width of the streets, the location of palace complexes, residential areas, bazaars, etc.
Arabic literature has deep pre-Islamic roots. The significance of the literature of this period was noted by al-Biruni (973 - c.1050); “When the Arabs lived in the deserts, they were a non-literate people and, in order to perpetuate something, resorted to memorization and oral transmission. That is why poetry became for them a receptacle of knowledge and a reminder of battles and genealogies. The main genre of poetry at that time was qasida (poem, ode), which contained many stories about nature, domestic animals and, of course, about love.
The heyday of Arabic poetry falls on the 9th-11th centuries. At this time, a genre of short lyrical verse was formed - a ghazal, which was created by outstanding masters of the word of different peoples: Abu Nuwas (d. 810) - a singer of love, wine and the joy of life; Abu-l-Atahiya (d. 828) - a potter by profession, the author of religious ascetic poems, who denounced the licentiousness of the court of the caliphs in Baghdad; Abu-l-Ala ol Maari (d. 1057) is a blind poet from Syria, whose "Message and Forgiveness" influenced the creation of Dante's "Divine Comedy". The author of numerous rubaiyat - aphoristic quatrains was the classic of Persian-Tajik poetry, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher Omar Khayyam (1048-1123). At the heart of his creations was the glorification of worldly pleasures, which clearly did not correspond to the dogmatic principles of Islam:
Renounce wine? Yeah it's all the same
What to give your life! How will you make up for the wine?
Can I become a follower of Islam,
When is the highest of blessings forbidden to them?
In Spain, thanks to the work of Ibn Kuzman (1080-1160), a peculiar genre of strophic poetry arose - zajal (melody), which influenced the formation of early Provencal lyrics and the poetry of vagantes (wandering students).
Among prose works, the genre of satire is developing, containing attacks against individual rulers and the rich, but not affecting social system generally. This direction should include maqam (story, short story), which arose in the XII century. based on urban folklore. It glorifies the type of hero-dodger, whose high education and intelligence are combined with cynicism and roguery. This original prototype of O. Bender was further developed in the short stories of the Italian Renaissance. It is impossible to imagine Arabic literature without the fairy tales "1001 Nights". This cycle finally took shape in the 12th century. based on the folklore of many peoples of the caliphate - Egyptian, Iranian, Arab fairy tales and legends.
Until the middle of the IX century. the Islamic world knew only literature written in the sacred language of the Koran - Arabic. Then a second Islamic literature arose - neo-Persian in Iran, which then spread to the regions of Central Asia and the Caucasus. The achievement of this literature was the creation of the genre of the epic poem. This literature is more free from religious prohibitions and is socially oriented, for example poems "Shah-Nameh" (Book of Kings) by Ferdowsi(925-1020) and "Khamse" (Pyateritsy) Nizami (c. 1141-1209).
During late medieval a third Muslim literature arose - Turkish. Thus, national traditions in the field of literature, developed on a common Muslim basis, gave brilliant results.
A distinctive feature of medieval Arab culture was the significant development exact sciences and philosophy. At this time, the scientists of the Arabic-speaking countries greatly outnumbered their European contemporaries. Giving an overall assessment of the state Arabic science Middle Ages, F. Engels wrote: “The Arabs gave decimal calculus, the beginnings of algebra, the modern system of calculus and alchemy. The Christian Middle Ages left nothing.
The Arabs, like the Byzantines, diligently studied and translated into their language the works of the Greek classics, scholars of India and other countries. Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Ptolemy were well known to Arab scholars, and Europeans first became acquainted with these authors through translations into Latin from Arabic. In the capitals of different caliphates - Baghdad, Cordoba, Cairo - there were higher schools, like medieval European universities - madrassas (from Arabic "daras" - to study). Large libraries with hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were established in Cairo, Cordoba and many other cities. In Baghdad, Damascus and Samarkand there were large observatories, thanks to which Arab astronomers discovered many new stars and made maps of the starry sky.
Scientists enjoyed the patronage and financial support of the official authorities. For example, Caliph al-Mamun created the “House of Science” in Baghdad, a kind of academy that housed libraries, laboratories, colleges of translators and provided accommodation for scientists. But there were also difficulties in the development of science, generated by the desire of Islamic theologians to rigidly define the boundaries of the cognizability of the world. With all these difficulties in the interaction of scientists with theologians and rulers, the scientific discoveries of the Arabs, as they say, were ahead of their time.
In medicine, the Arabs not only mastered the experience of ancient physicians, but also made significant progress. They used in their work vivisection (an operation on a living animal in order to study the functions of the body), carefully studied the anatomy, the properties of various drugs and the characteristics of the course of diseases. Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037), a Tajik by nationality, enjoyed great fame not only in the East, but also in Europe. His main work, The Canon of Medical Science, was a reference book for doctors in Europe until the 16th century. Ibn Sina, in particular, suggested that some diseases are transmitted by invisible "smallest animals", which anticipated the teachings of L. Pasteur on the role of microbes as causative agents of infectious diseases by eight centuries.
Medieval mathematician Al-Khwarizmi(787-c. 850) became famous for his writings on algebra (this word is Arabic). He applied algebraic calculations to practical matters: measurements of land, inheritance divisions, trade transactions. At the same time, he improved methods for calculating the area of surfaces and volumes of bodies, solving equations of the first and second degrees. The name of Al-Khwarizmi entered mathematics to designate a system of calculations performed according to strictly defined rules - an algorithm. Al-Khwarizmi, on the instructions of the enlightened caliph al-Mamun, calculated the dimensions of the Earth, which they recognized as a spherical body.
The achievements of Arab philosophers are generally recognized. There were practically no atheists among them, but the difference in points of view on the problems of the universe and the depth of substantiation of their views are striking.
In the 8th century, when Islamic theology was only in its infancy, the Kadarite movement arose, which questioned the dogma of the fatal predestination of a person’s fate, and therefore his passivity. Based on the rationalism of the Greek philosophers, the Kadarites defended the idea of free will, i.e. man's responsibility for his actions. The representative of this trend, Al-Kindi, recognized the role of God as the creator of nature, the absolute wisdom of which is not given to man to comprehend.
Against, Ibn Sina was convinced of the cognizability of the world. He denied the position that Allah constantly creates the world and therefore it is filled with miracles. Like a materialist Avicenna He denied the ideas of creationism - the creation of the world by God from "nothing". At the same time, in an effort to reconcile science and religion, the philosopher put forward a capacious formula: "God creates the world so that a person knows the world, and through it God."
Al-Ghazali (1054-1111), a supporter of Muslim idealism, criticized these views. He believed that it was impossible to explain the phenomena of nature and human consciousness by natural causes. The power of God excludes the independence and self-sufficiency of the material principle.
Philosopher living in Spain Ibn Rushd(Averroes, 1126–1198), developing the materialism of Aristotle, defended the ideas of eternity and the uncreated world, i.e. about the development of matter independent of the will of God; position on the evolutionary development of nature. He denied the immortality of the individual soul; rejected the dogma of punishment or retribution to a person after death. On the basis of the teachings of Ibn Rushd, a materialistic direction of “Latin Averroism” arose in Europe, condemned by the Catholic Church.
A significant contribution to the development of world science was made by the works of Arab historians, geographers, and economists. Al-Biruni, Ibn Fadlan, Ibn Battuta not only devoted their research to the countries of the East, but also described the events associated with the existence of the Old Russian state. The encyclopedic scientist from Tunisia Ibn Khaldun (1332-1402) in his writings tried to explain the history of mankind through the evolution of economic forms, i.e. his ideas were 2-3 centuries ahead of the corresponding theories of Europeans. Thus, the Arab scholars who lived in various countries Caliphate (from Spain to Central Asia), significantly expanded the boundaries of human knowledge.
How to explain the truly rise of science and art under the dominance of conservative Muslim dogmatics? The simplest explanation is that these achievements were made contrary to the official worldview, that the activities of many scientists were condemned by the Muslim clergy. There is some truth in this explanation. But the main thing, obviously, is that, while holding back the development of some branches of knowledge and trends in art, the official ideology left others open. It was in them that all the talent of Arabic-speaking scientists and artists rushed. It should also be taken into account that developed abstract thinking, contemplation are a feature of the people of the East; not only the ideology of Islam is based on it, but also more ancient worldview ideas, character traits, and the mentality of the inhabitants of this region of the planet.
The emergence of the religion of Islam and the beginning of the Arab expansion in the period early medieval contributed to the emergence of a new type of civilization - the Arab-Muslim. Its peculiarity is its multi-ethnic composition and at the same time cultural and historical stability. That is, Islam and its religious, moral, aesthetic and legal norms have become an integral component of the life of many peoples of the planet, a regulator of the behavior of hundreds of millions of people of different races and languages.
liquidation of the Arab caliphate united state led to the Arabs losing decisive influence in Muslim world. However, the new conquerors (Turks, Mongol-Tatars) themselves learned the values of Islam and contributed to its spread in the world. As a result of Turkish expansion, Islam was spread among some peoples. of Eastern Europe: Albanians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Greeks. Currently, the Arab population prevails in the countries of Western Asia and North Africa and is about 140 million people. The number of followers of the religion of Islam is about 800 million people. On the territory of the CIS, Islam is practiced by a significant part of the population of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, among Russians - Ingush, Tatars, Chechens, etc.
Currently, there is a truly "Islamic boom", which is expressed by the formula "the politicization of Islam and the Islamization of politics." The reason is that capitalist relations, the associated Western way of life and the system of moral values, actively invaded the traditional social structures of Muslim countries. And this caused a corresponding "defensive reaction." At the same time, socialism with its poverty, class intransigence and atheism turned out to be unacceptable for Muslims. Therefore, in the countries of the East, the search for a “third way” began - a universal Islamic model for the development of society. Another circumstance that contributed to the revival of Islam was the acquisition by the ruling conservative regimes of Muslim countries (Iran, Saudi Arabia, etc.) of billions of dollars from oil production and refining. As a result, huge funds were directed to the needs of "Islamic solidarity".
Several types of religious consciousness (trends) have emerged in Islam, whose representatives influence the politics of the countries of the East. Traditionalists (orthodox) advocate the preservation of pre-bourgeois Islam and its socio-economic, political and cultural institutions. Modernists (reformers) are trying to adapt Muslim dogma to global norms and values. Fundamentalists (revivalism) seek restoration in modern life specific norms and institutions of early Islam, primarily the religious community as a guarantor of equality and justice. Secularists consider Islam an obstacle to progress, therefore, in public affairs, they propose to rely on universal human achievements, and treat religion only as a matter of conscience of an individual.
The existence of these conflicting theories hinders the practical implementation of the slogan of pan-Islamism popular among Muslims - the revival of a single Islamic state (caliphate). Moreover, Muslim countries are sometimes unable to coordinate their efforts to solve universally significant problems, for example, to fight poverty, illiteracy, ethnic and religious conflicts, and Israeli aggression.
The establishment of the “Islamic order” in a number of countries (Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, etc.) is perceived ambiguously by the world community. This usually leads to a totalitarian form of government - the dominance of the religious elite and the suppression of political opposition, as well as the introduction of medieval prohibitions in culture, the cruelty of Sharia. For example, immediately after the victory of the "Islamic revolution" in Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini issued decrees (1980) on the prohibition of showing on television "wrong" Western films, entertainment and music programs, women who do not hide their faces with a veil. A real tragedy for the world community has recently been the activities of Arab-Muslim extremist organizations - terrorists who carry out their actions in various parts of the world.
All this allows us to say that at present Islam has not lost its significance as a world religion. But the all-round dissemination of Islamic dogma, the norms of law and morality of the Middle Ages is hardly justified. Religion - Islam, Judaism or Christianity - is primarily a matter of human conscience, and in solving economic, political, socio-cultural problems, it is necessary to be guided by the criteria of a general civilizational order.
