In the works of N.V. Gogol, the structure of time and space becomes one of the main means of expression. In Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, real and fantastic spaces collide. Closed in its geographical specificity, "Petersburg Tales" become a metaphor for the world, destructive for a person, and the city depicted in "The Inspector General" appears as an allegory of bureaucratic Russia. Space and time can manifest themselves in everyday scenes or in the marked boundaries of the characters' existence. In Dead Souls, the image of the road as a form of space is identical to the idea of the path as the moral norm of human life.
I. A. Goncharov in the novel "Oblomov", emphasizing the slowness of the calendar of patriarchal existence, refers to the comparison of the hero's life with the "slow gradualness with which the geological modifications of our planet occur." The novel is based on the principle of open time. The author deliberately neglects the clear metrics of the narrative, slows down the passage of time, persistently returning to the description of the patriarchal idyll.
The depicted time and the time of the image in artistic texts may not coincide. So, the novel "Oblomov" reproduces several episodes from the life of the protagonist. Those points on which the author considered it important to dwell are presented in detail, others are only indicated. Nevertheless, such a principle of organizing a work as a result leads to the creation of a holistic picture of a person's life.
L. N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace”, reflecting on the laws of human society, refers to the mythopoetic tradition, which is based on the idea of the cyclical development of the universe. The philosophical purpose of such a decision is the idea that everything in the world, chaotic and contradictory, is subject to the eternal human desire to comprehend harmony.
In the novel "War and Peace" the flow of time is determined by the law of non-linear transformations, which is embodied in the intersection of "real time" and "literary time". In the work of Leo Tolstoy, the chronological order plays a special role. The writer carefully dates each chapter and even notes the time of day.
In the scenes describing the experiences of the characters, the author of the epic manages to achieve the rhythmic tension of the narration and the dynamic change emotional states. The thoughts of the heroes either speed up, or seem to freeze, and, accordingly, time itself accelerates its movement or petrifies in anticipation.
A work of art belongs to special types of exploration of reality. Artistic image only indirectly connected with the image of reality. The writer must always take into account in his work the spatio-temporal boundaries of reality, correlate them with the chronology of the text being created. Often in a literary work, physical time and plot time do not coincide.
As an example, one can refer to the poetics of the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky. The writer puts his characters in crisis situations, the implementation of which requires an exceptionally long time. The events described in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, especially some scenes, do not fit into the framework of real time. But it is precisely such a chronotope of the novel that conveys the tension of the thoughts and will of the characters, caught up in the drama of life situations.
Readers may get the impression that the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky are based on different time plans. This feeling stems from the tense interweaving of events, discussions, confessions, facts, internal monologues and internal dialogues. In fact, the writer's works are marked by the unity of time, and the whole art material offered in a holistic space of simultaneous implementation.
The aesthetics of naturalism in the reproduction of space and time chooses the technique of a rigid spatio-temporal presentation of the material. E. Zola, E. and J. Goncourt record the facts of reality, correlate them with the voice of nature, revealing the conditionality of the intuitive actions of the characters by the eternal laws of nature.
Symbolism overcomes the objectivity of phenomenal existence, metaphors and symbols expand the horizons of human existence. With the help of "lyrical alchemy" C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarme compare reality with the irrational meanings of the world, prove that the symbol embodies the ideal plan, the essence of things that were, are or someday will certainly declare yourself.
Yu. M. Lotman noted that “ art space in a literary work, it is the continuum in which the characters are placed and the action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space. There is some truth in such a perception, because even when its function of modeling extra-spatial relations is exposed, the artistic space necessarily retains, as the first plane of the metaphor, the idea of its physical nature.
According to the degree of conventionality, the categories of space and time can be relative and specific in a literary work. So, in the novels of A. Dumas, the action takes place in France of the 17th century, but the real historical place and time indicated by the writer is only an excuse for recreating heroic types. According to U. Eco, the main thing in this approach to the past is that it is “not here and not now”.
Gogol's principles of realistic typification belong to the "concrete" principle of mastering reality. The image of the provincial city of N. is not at all a symbol of a Russian province, it is a symbol of bureaucratic Russia, an allegory of widespread lack of spirituality.
For the perception of a literary work, the difference between the fictional and the real is not fundamental. The main thing is that Petersburg in the Russian novel, and the city of S. (A.P. Chekhov's story "The Lady with the Dog"), and the city of Kalinov (A. Ostrovsky's play "Thunderstorm") - all of them artistically embody the author's idea and are symbols of peace who have lost the concept of morality.
The conventionality and stereotype of literary time is manifested in the calendar of seasonal preferences. Winter is the most dangerous time of the year for the embodiment of intimate emotions. Many characters of romanticism reflect inconsolably in winter and recall the old glorious time that has gone into oblivion. A rare hero of romanticism will be taken out of the house in winter for love needs. Time and space are subject to the laws of strict regulation. Images of a blizzard, a winter cold in the literature are correlated with the struggle of infernal forces and often become, especially in realistic literature, allegories of social violence. No less common winter landscape sketches whose purpose is to sing the intrinsic value of life.
The normative nature of classicism in the depiction of resurgent nature - the appeal to ancient images, pathetic comparisons - is overcome by a sentimentalist conviction in the identity of nature and soul. Romanticism saturates the description of the awakening world with objectivity, expressive details, and a rich color palette.
Nature awakening from its winter sleep provides convincing interiors for revealing the first feeling. Spring favors the birth of love. A hubbub reigns in the forests, restless birds are absorbed in the construction of housing. The world tirelessly prepares for a date with passion.
The heroes of romantic poetry, faithful to the imperative call of nature, with a heart full of hope, rush into the whirlwind of spring delusions. Lyrical poetry ascribes the most sincere and exciting emotions to spring. In the spring, as literature proves, it is simply necessary to fall in love. Heroes feel their belonging to the general unrest. Nature and the soul awaken from sorrow. The time has come to experience for yourself what you read, saw in a dream and cherished in dreams. Leading in literary plots become descriptions of the joy of innocent love sensations, languid nights, long-talking sighs. The metric of experiences is formed in accordance with the violent natural metamorphoses. Poetry enthusiastically describes the first thunder, the May thunderstorm - signs of a symbolic exposition of the renewal of nature and the birth of love.
Summer in literary works, as a rule, comes unnoticed and does not give the promised joys. Literature does not favor mise-en-scenes lit by bright sunlight. Everyone sincerely is afraid of publicity. For a love story, twilight is preferable. Evening walks evoke thoughts of eternity. Distant stars - the only witnesses of timid feelings - are watching the lucky ones. The very mise-en-scene of the evening meeting, as the works of romantics and A.P. Chekhov show, is built in such a way that the plot of recognition could come true.
The autumn plot declares the need to complete everything started in the spring and summer. The love-everyday mythology of literature warns of this. Autumn moods permeated English graveyard poetry. It is at this time of the year that the most painful events occur in the works of neo-romanticism. The range of "autumn" activity of the heroes is extremely poor. Realist poetry denounces social injustice and romantic heroes in autumn, they tend to put an end to love punctuation.
The literary category of time is marked by a wide range of artistic solutions. Literature actively uses images that are symbols of the measurement of time: an instant, a minute, an hour, a pendulum, a dial. In poetry, the opposition of the symbols of the measurable and the exorbitant - the moment and eternity - is widespread.
The interpretation of the space-time continuum in the works of the last century is ambiguous.
20th century literature marked special treatment to the category of time, to the phenomenon of reconstruction of what happened. Beginning with the "Confessions" of Blessed Augustine, the introduction of present and future plans into the past becomes one of the methods of confessional and memoir literature. Integration of the future into the present allows you to analyze what happened, to see it in a time perspective. V. Shklovsky, reflecting on the nature of the memoir genre, noted: “A person who begins to write memoirs has two dangers. The first is to write, inserting yourself today. Then it turns out that you always knew everything. The second danger is remembering, to remain only in the past. Run through the past the way a dog runs along a wire with its dog chain on it. Then a person always remembers the same thing: he remembers small things. Trampling the grass of the past, he is attached to it. He has no future. We must write about the past, not inserting ourselves today into the past, but seeing the past from today.
Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005
In ancient times, when the myth was a way of explanation and knowledge surrounding reality, special ideas about time and space were formed, which subsequently had a noticeable impact on literature and art. The world in the minds of ancient man was divided primarily into two parts - ordinary and sacred. They were endowed with different properties: the first was considered ordinary, everyday, and the second - unpredictably wonderful. Since the actions of mythical heroes consisted in their movement from one type of space-time to another, from the ordinary to the wonderful and vice versa, incredible adventures happened to them in their travels, since miracles can occur in an unusual world.
Illustration by G. Dore for the "Divine Comedy" by Dante A.
Illustration by G. Kalinovsky for L. Carroll's book "Alice in Wonderland".
Drawing by A. de Saint-Exupery for the fairy tale "The Little Prince".
“It was - it wasn’t; a long time ago; in some kingdom; went on the road; long, short; soon a fairy tale is told, not soon the deed is done; I was there, I drank honey-beer; that's the end of the fairy tale "- try to fill in the gaps with the actions of any heroes, and, most likely, you will get a finished literary work, the genre of which is already determined by the use of these words themselves - a fairy tale. Obvious inconsistencies and incredible events will not confuse anyone: it should be so in a fairy tale. But if you look closely, it turns out that the fabulous "arbitrariness" has its own strict laws. They are defined like everyone else. fabulous wonders, unusual properties of space and time in which the fairy tale unfolds. First of all, the time of a fairy tale is limited by the plot. “The plot ends - the time also ends,” writes Academician D.S. Likhachev. For a fairy tale, the real passage of time turns out to be unimportant. The formula "how long, how short" indicates that one of the main characteristics of fabulous time is, after all, its uncertainty. As, in fact, the uncertainty of the fairy-tale space: "go there, I don't know where." All the events that happen to the hero are stretched along his path in search of "that, I don't know what."
The events of a fairy tale can be stretched out (“I sat in my seat for thirty years and three years”), or they can accelerate to an instant (“I threw a comb - a dense forest grew”). The acceleration of action occurs, as a rule, outside real space, in a fantastic space, where the hero has magical helpers or miraculous means to help him cope with this fantastic space and the wonderful time merged with it.
Unlike fairy tales and myths, the fiction of modern times, as a rule, deals with history, describes a certain, specific era - the past or the present. But even here there are their own space-time laws. Literature selects only the most essential of reality, shows the development of events in time. The determining factor for an epic work is the vital logic of the narrative, but nevertheless, the writer is not obliged to consistently and mechanically record the life of his hero even in such a progressive genre as the chronicle novel. Years can pass between the lines of the work, the reader, at the behest of the author, within one phrase is able to move to another part of the world. We all remember Pushkin's line from " Bronze Horseman”:“ A hundred years have passed ... ”- but we hardly pay attention to the fact that a whole century has flashed here in one moment of our reading. The same time flows differently for the hero of a work of art, for the author-narrator and for the reader. With amazing simplicity, A. S. Pushkin writes in "Dubrovsky": "Some time passed without any remarkable event." Here, as in the annals, time is eventful, it is counted from event to event. If nothing necessary for the development of the plot happens, then the writer “turns off” the time, just as a chess player who has made a move turns off his clock. And sometimes he can use hourglass, reversing the events and making them move from the denouement to the beginning. The originality of a novel, story, short story is largely determined by the ratio of two times: the time of telling and the time of the action. The time of storytelling is the time in which the narrator himself lives, in which he leads his story; the time of the action is the time of the heroes. And all this we, the readers, perceive from our real, calendar, today. The works of Russian classics usually tell about events that took place in the recent past. And in what particular past - it is not entirely clear. We can only speak with certain certainty about this time distance when we are dealing with a historical novel in which N. V. Gogol writes about Taras Bulba, A. S. Pushkin - about Pugachev, and Yu. N. Tynyanov - about Pushkin. A gullible reader sometimes identifies the author and the narrator, who pretends to be an eyewitness, witness, or even participant in the events. The narrator is a kind of starting point. A significant time distance can separate him from the author (Pushkin - Grinev); it can also be located at different distances from the described one, and depending on this, the reader's field of vision expands or narrows.
The events of the epic novel unfold over a long period of time over a vast area; the story and short story are, as a rule, more compact. One of the most common settings for the works of N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov, A. M. Gorky is a small provincial town or village with an established way of life, with minor events that repeat from day to day, and then sleepy time seems to move in a circle on a limited patch.
In Soviet literature, the artistic space of works is distinguished by considerable diversity. In accordance with the individual experience and preferences of certain writers, there is attachment to a particular place of action. So, among the representatives of the stylistic trend, called village prose (V. I. Belov, V. P. Astafiev, V. G. Rasputin, B. A. Mozhaev, V. N. Krupin, etc.), the action of novels, stories , stories unfolding predominantly in countryside. For such writers as Yu. V. Trifonov, D. A. Granin, G. V. Semenov, R. T. Kireev, V. S. Makanin, A. A. Prokhanov and others, the characteristic scene of action is the city, and therefore the works of these writers are often called a city story, which determines the characters, situations, and the mode of action, thoughts, experiences of their characters. Sometimes it is important for writers to emphasize the concrete definiteness of the space of their works. Following M. A. Sholokhov, V. A. Zakrutkin, A. V. Kalinin and other writers from Rostovites showed their commitment to the “Don” problems in their works. For S. P. Zalygin, V. G. Rasputin, G. M. Markov, V. P. Astafiev, S. V. Sartakov, A. V. Vampilov and a number of Siberian writers, it is fundamentally important that the action of many of their works takes place in Siberia; for V. V. Bykov, I. P. Melezh, I. P. Shamyakin, A. M. Adamovich, I. G. Chigrinov, the artistic space is mainly Belarus, as for N. V. Dumbadze - Georgia, and for Y Avizhius - Lithuania ... At the same time, for example, for Ch. Aitmatov there are no such spatial restrictions in artistic creativity: the action of his works is transferred from Kyrgyzstan to Chukotka, then to Russia and Kazakhstan, to America and into space, even to the fictional planet Lesnaya Grud; this gives the artist's generalizations a universal, planetary, universal character. On the contrary, the moods that permeate the lyrics of N. M. Rubtsov, A. Ya. Yashin, O. A. Fokina could arise and be natural in the northern Russian, more precisely, the Vologda village, which allows the authors to poeticize their own " small homeland» with its way of life, primordial traditions, customs, folklore images and folk peasant language.
A distinctive feature, noticed by many researchers of the work of F. M. Dostoevsky, is the unusual speed of action in his novels. Each phrase in Dostoevsky's writings seems to begin with the word "suddenly", every moment can become a turning point, change everything, end in disaster. In Crime and Punishment, time rushes by like a hurricane, a broad picture of the life of Russia is shown, while in fact the events of two weeks take place in several St.
The spatial and temporal characteristics of a work of art, as a rule, differ significantly from those familiar qualities that we encounter in everyday life or get acquainted with in physics lessons. The space of a work of art can be curved and closed in on itself, it can be limited, have an end, and the individual parts of which it consists have, as we have already seen, different properties. Three dimensions - length, width and depth - are broken and confused in such a way that they combine the incompatible in the real world. Sometimes space can be upside down in relation to reality or constantly change its properties - it stretches, shrinks, distorts the proportions of individual parts, etc.
The properties of special, as literary theorists call it, artistic time are also unpredictable; sometimes it may seem that it, as in L. Carroll's fairy tale "Alice in Wonderland", "has gone crazy." A story or story without any difficulty can take us back to the time of Vladimir the Red Sun, and to the 21st century. Together with the heroes of an adventure novel, we can travel around the world or, by the will of a science fiction writer, visit the mysterious Solaris.
Drama has the most stringent laws: within one stage episode, the time needed to depict the action is equal to the time that is depicted. No wonder the rules of the theoreticians of classicism touched, first of all, dramaturgy. The desire to give the stage work more credibility and integrity gave rise to the famous law of three unities: the duration of the play should not exceed one day, the space was limited to a single place of action, and the action itself was concentrated around one hero. In modern drama, the movement of heroes in space and time is not limited, and only from the change of scenery (the viewer), the author's remarks (the reader), from the replicas of the heroes do we learn about the changes that have occurred between acts.
The freest travel in time and space is the privilege of lyrics. “The worlds are flying. Years fly by” (A. A. Blok), “Centuries flow in moments” (A. Bely); “And time away, and space away” (A. A. Akhmatova), and the poet is free, looking out the window, to ask: “What, dear, do we have a millennium in the yard?” (B. L. Pasternak). Epochs and worlds fit in a capacious poetic image. With one phrase, the poet is able to reshape space and time as he sees fit.
In other cases, greater certainty and concreteness are required from artistic time (historical novel, biographical narrative, memoirs, artistic and journalistic essay). One of the significant phenomena of modern Soviet literature- the so-called military prose (works by Yu. V. Bondarev, V. V. Bykov, G. Ya. Baklanov, N. D. Kondratiev, V. O. Bogomolov, I. F. Stadnyuk, V. V. Karpov and others .), largely autobiographical, refers to the time of the Great Patriotic War in order to recreate the feat of the Soviet people who defeated fascism, to put on the material that excites the modern reader universal moral, social, psychological, philosophical problems that are important for us today. Therefore, even the limitation of artistic time (as well as space) makes it possible to expand the possibilities of art in the knowledge and understanding of life.
his traditions, the assimilation of moral and moral norms of behavior in society. It contributes to the development of speech, thinking of students.
And it is no coincidence that the fairy tale is included in the elementary school curriculum. However, the role of the teacher himself is also great. When a fairy tale comes to the lesson, it is always interesting and unusual. A special holiday, if with a tale
which a smart and talented, enthusiastic, with a great deal of imagination teacher comes to the child. If a teacher cares about educating a thoughtful reader with a developed imagination, figurative memory and feeling poetic word, then it is necessary to bring the child closer to understanding the subtext of the tale, its moral content, to help him feel how important it is to be a good, kind, attentive person, able to listen and hear not only himself, but also others.
Work in this direction must be carried out regularly so that children learn to see the world through their eyes. folk wisdom so that they know and respect the traditions and way of life of their people.
Bibliography
1. Gusev D. A. Pedagogical potential of folk art in the context of historical analysis of development educational institutions in the countryside // Humanitarian sciences and education. - 2015. - No. 1 (21). - S. 44-47.
2. Zhestkova E.A., Tsutskova E.V. Extracurricular work on literary reading as a means of developing the reader's interests of younger schoolchildren // Contemporary Issues science and education. - 2014. - No. 6. - S. 1330.
3. Zhestkova E.A., Kazakova V.V. Teaching junior schoolchildren to write a review about a read work of art. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 8-2 - S. 355-358.
4. Zhestkova E.A., Klycheva A.S. Spiritual and moral development of younger schoolchildren at the lessons of literary reading through Russian folk tales // Intern. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 1-1 - S. 126130.
5. Zhestkova E.A., Kazakova V.V. Web quest technology at the lessons of literary reading in elementary school. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 9-4 - S. 723-725.
6. Luchina T. I. moral education modern schoolchildren // IV Silvestrovskie ped. Thu. Spirituality and morality in the educational space in the light of the civilizational choice of the baptism of Rus': materials of ped. Thu. - Omsk, 2015. -S. 70.
O. N. Krasnikova
Space and time in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Mad Money"
A. N. Ostrovsky carefully worked on each of his plays, the playwright also repeatedly turned to the manuscript of the comedy in question. Initially, the text was called "Scythe on a stone", then "Not all that glitters is gold." Only by the time the final position of all the characters of the comedy is formalized does the writer find a modern
the play's alternate title, abandoning the naive morality of the proverb in favor of a sharp-sounding social definition - "Mad Money".
There were several versions of the manuscript with rough notes, the final, white version was marked with the date of completion of work on the play and the signature: "January 18, 1870. A. Ostrovsky."
First published in the magazine Domestic notes”(1870, No. 2, pp. 391-489), the play caused very controversial responses. It was noted that the playwright's talent had already dried up, numerous reviews were superficial and unfair. The dignity of the play was assessed by critics only five years later.
Ostrovsky is often called "everyday playwright". Indeed, social contradictions are usually refracted in his plays in the sphere of family relations. Hence the importance of describing everyday life, every detail of it. In a family, a person pretends the least, he is best recognized. The number of masks worn by a person in his usual life is minimal.
In our article we will try to consider the main categories of life writing, namely space and time. It is important for us to establish why in a particular chronotope the characters behave in accordance with the roles indicated to them. Are spatial and temporal characteristics important for understanding a play? Could the action of the play unfold in other spatio-temporal relations? To begin with, we will try to consider in detail the chronotope of comedy.
“The entire organization of the time of action in Ostrovsky’s “life plays” is subordinated to the search for such solutions that would allow, on the one hand, to absorb the richness and diversity of reality and, on the other hand, would respond specific features dramaturgy as a concentrated reproduction of life in the forms of life itself.
The duration of the play "Mad Money" is about three weeks, but the action in it is really extremely concentrated: between the first and last act, Vasilkov managed to get acquainted, get married, get consent to marriage, marry, divorce his wife and get back together with her again.
In general, having written the first two phenomena (in the final text - d. II, yavl. 3 and 4), Ostrovsky felt the need to explain the background of the action and characterize the figure of Vasilkov in more detail. He writes a new beginning - a conversation between Telyatev and Vasilkov. The text of the first action becomes the second action. Thus, the subtitle “Instead of a prologue” appears in the play, which we find in the first act and which increases the time limits of the text. The main dramatic action takes place in the plays by A.N. Island-
usually within a few days. Consider the chronological milestones of this play.
The first act, in its essence, is the acquaintance of the reader (or the theatrical spectator) with the characters. All dialogues take place within one day and in one location.
The second act shows the interchangeable exterior with the interior, and the development of the plot takes place, apparently, the next day after the end of the first act.
In the lists of acting characters in the third act, we read: "Lydia, Vasilkov's wife." Reflecting on the time during which Vasilkov's matchmaking and their wedding with Lydia could take place, as well as the preliminary furnishing of the Cheboksarovs' apartment, we come to the conclusion that approximately 3-5 days passed between the second and third acts.
At the beginning of the fourth act, there is a clear indication of the time that has passed since the move to a new apartment, and the time of the events described is 3 days.
At the end of the fourth act (on the day described), the Cheboksarovs, on the advice of Kuchumov, return to their former apartment.
Finally, at the beginning of the fifth act, Nadezhda Antonovna says that Kuchumov promised to bring money for the housewarming. And instead of forty thousand rubles he gave six hundred rubles exactly a week ago.
Thus, the action of the play takes place in the interval of 2-3 weeks. As mentioned above, the action of the play is very intense. But let's look not only at the external manifestation of the temporal relations of the play, but also at the feeling of time by the characters themselves.
Repeatedly the characters of the play talk about their time, talk about the century in which they live.
Vasilkov. Because, moreover, it is at the present time that it is very possible to get rich.
Glumov. All this sour talk about virtue is stupid because it is impractical. Today is a practical age.
Vasilkov. Honest calculations are still modern. In a practical age, being honest is not only better, but also more profitable.
It can be noted that already in the first appearance of the first act, the characters talk about the central problems of this play. Vasilkov and Glumov (later Telyatev) talk about practical age. And later, in the fifth act, they will return to this topic. Crazy money just comes and goes just as quickly, it is impossible to keep it. And only a prudent, active, businesslike, in other words, practical person, that is, a person of his age, can make up real capital.
But along with thrifty people, at the same time, wasteful people also live, for whom only big money is of interest, for the sake of which it is not necessary to work at all. About this in
In the fifth act, Telyatev says: “What are you afraid of? Take comfort! Yesterday they described furniture from two of my friends, today from you, tomorrow from me, the day after tomorrow from your Kuchumov. It's such a craze these days."
It is interesting to trace the temporary indications found in Mr. Kuchumov's speech. Grigory Borisovich Kuchumov is constantly trying to emphasize his social position, which, in his opinion, is stable for him: it was yesterday, it is today, and it will be tomorrow.
Kuchumov. What a kulebyaka I ate today, gentlemen, just delicious! Mille e tre... .
Kuchumov. Mille e tre... Yes, yes, yes! I forgot. Imagine what a case: yesterday I won eleven thousand.
Kuchumov.<...>And on Sunday I will feed you dinner at home, I will give you fresh stellate sturgeon, they brought me alive from Nizhny, great snipes and such a Burgonian that you ... .
He also tries to join the central theme of the play's dialogues - to reflections on the present and the state.
Kuchumov. Interprets everything: "the present time, yes the present time"<...>After all, you can get bored. Speak where you want to be heard. And what is the present time, is it better than the former? .
And a real gentleman sums up that it used to be much better, and people of the practical, prudent and thrifty age “should be driven”.
It is also interesting to assess how deftly and without a twinge of conscience Kuchumov "solves" all the money problems of the Cheboksarovs.
Lydia.<...>But do you really send money to your father?
Kuchumov. Tomorrow. And further: “Tomorrow I am writing to your father that I am buying an estate from him, and I will send him thirty thousand as a deposit. What is money to me! .
KUCHUMOV (taking his pockets). Oh my god! This only happens to me. I deliberately put my wallet on the table and forgot about it. Child, forgive me! (He kisses her hand.) I'll bring them to you tomorrow for a housewarming party. I hope you move today<...> .
He simply says about the money sent to Cheboksarov: “They didn’t get it. (Counts on fingers.) Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday. He received them last night or this morning.
In the fifth act, Lydia still believes in Kuchumov's constant "breakfasts", although her mother is already beginning to doubt the honesty of his promises.
What is remarkable for us is how Kuchumov disposes of his time: he is resolutely ready to do everything possible for the Cheboksarovs. But then - in half an hour, tonight or tomorrow.
Kuchumov.<...>After all, I tell you, in half an hour ... well ... circumstances may come up there: the necessary contributions; suddenly there is not so much money in the office; well, in a day or two ... in extreme cases, in a week
you will have everything, more than what is impossible to wish for.
But at the same time, he visits Lydia regularly, without getting confused in the temporary space.
Lydia. I live without a husband, you visit me every day famous hour; what will they think, what will they say? .
Speaking of central character plays, it should be noted that Vasilkov knows not only the price of labor and the cost of money, but also understands the value of time.
Vasilkov. How can they not?! After all, in half a year you will live twenty-five thousand.
Vasilkov. I have an estate, I have small money, I have business; but all the same, I cannot live more than seven, eight thousand a year.
Concluding the conversation about the chronological boundaries of the play and temporary references in it, let's say that this play appeared in its own time and was extremely relevant for this time. But she worries people even now, because, notes the theater expert and theater critic E.G. Kholodov, “the great Russian playwright, reflecting his time, managed to pose enormous universal problems, managed to clothe his vision of life in a workshop art form» .
Now let's take a closer look at the space in which the action of the play takes place.
In general, as you know, the play "Mad Money" belongs to the number of Moscow plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, who make up the so-called Moscow text. Researchers of Ostrovsky's work note that the playwright did not blindly and dogmatically follow the rule of three unities regarding spatial restrictions. However, as in the case with time, A.N. Ostrovsky concentrated the depicted space to the utmost, because, firstly, he did not want to disperse the attention of theatrical spectators, secondly, he preferred not to amaze the viewer with surprises, but to prepare him in advance for the upcoming changes in the scene, and thirdly, he understood the complexity of the decorative design of the production of each plays on stage.
The space in which the playwright places his characters is, in fact, ordinary, standard. And this typical interior or exterior is called upon by "the realist Ostrovsky to characterize the typical circumstances in which his characters live."
Consider the organization of the scene in the play Mad Money.
The first act of the play is accompanied by a remark: “In Petrovsky Park, in Sax's garden; to the right of the audience is the gate to the park, to the left is the coffee shop.
Petrovsky Park is a place of constant festivities for Muscovites, where there were various entertainment establishments, including summer theater, and so-
the same orchestra, whose owner was Sachs. In Petrovsky Park, Telyatev first met Vasilkov walking along the alley. Here, the characters make guesses about the state and type of activity of Vasilkov.
If we analyze other plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, we note that the playwright often acquaints readers with his characters on an open stage: in a garden, park, square or boulevard. This is done in order to introduce viewers into the social atmosphere in which his characters live.
The second action takes place in the Cheboksarovs' house. In the remark we read: “A richly furnished living room, with paintings, carpets, draperies. Three doors: two on the sides and one entrance.
Since the living room is the main plot space of the play under consideration, let us recall one of the main chronotopes identified by M.M. Bakhtin, namely, about the living room.
"Living room-salon". From the standpoint of the plot and composition, “meetings take place here (no longer having the former specifically random nature of meetings on the“ road ”or in the“ alien world ”), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, and finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place, acquiring exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, "ideas" and "passions" of the characters are revealed.
In the same second act, Lydia also speaks about the living room, arguing that they don’t preach in drawing rooms: “Agree, maman, that the living room is not an audience, not Institute of Technology, not an engineering corps".
Act Three: “The same living room as in Act II, but more richly furnished. To the right of the audience is the door to Vasilkov's office, to the left - to Lydia's rooms, in the middle - the day off.
In the third act, another interesting to-pos appears for us, namely, a conversation halfway. Lydia and Vasilkov accidentally meet in the middle of the road, walking towards each other. Lydia asks her husband where to go next; Vasilkov: "Let's stop halfway for now." And this answer by Vasilkov is extremely important for us, because the point is not only in the spatial arrangement of the heroes, but also in their
further relationships. At this point, they really look at each other.
At the end of the third act, the reader learns that Vasilkov and his young wife need to cut the budget. Therefore, he looked after for the family "a one-story house with three windows to the street", in which the fourth act begins.
The space of the fourth act contrasts sharply with the living room in which the action took place earlier: “A very modest hall, it is also an office; on the sides of the window, on the back wall, to the right of the audience,
a door to the front room, to the left - to the inner rooms, between the doors there is a tiled stove; the furnishings are poor: a desk, an old piano."
If Vasilkov speaks of a new place “a new apartment”, then Lydia does not skimp in expressions. She "languishes" (as in a fortress or in prison) in this "kennel", she strives to leave this "miserable shack" as soon as possible. Kuchumov is absolutely in solidarity with her. He calls the room "inn", "chicken coop" and "hut". Even Telyatev calls this new place "a vile apartment."
It is interesting, however, that in the third apparition of the fifth act, we again return to the description of a modest dwelling.
Telyatev: At the gate stands / Tiny house; / He looks at everyone / Through three little windows. / That's where the money is.
The interiors of the two described apartments are not just some space. It's like the participants in the clashes of heroes. They are a reflection of the points of view of the key characters of the play on money, wealth, the habit of living in luxury and thoughtless spending.
In the fifth act, the Cheboksarovs return to their original place. “The boudoir in the former apartment of the Cheboksarovs; to the right of the audience is the door to the hall, directly the entrance, to the left is a mirrored window.
The description of the space in which the action of the play takes place is no less important for the playwright than the mention of places associated with the life of the central characters.
It is curious to consider how people who met him for the first time characterize Vasilkov. Glumov talks about Vasilkov: “He came from somewhere in Kamchatka,” later he calls him “a shipowner, he has his own ships on the Volga,” further: “Well, a Siberian, probably a Siberian.” And finally: "Now I know, an agent of some trading house in London, and there is nothing to interpret."
Telyatev tells Lydia that Vasilkov is from Chukhloma. In general, Telya-tev and Glumov, of course, like this ambiguity around the name of Vasilkov.
Telyatev: He has been to London, Constantinople, Tetyushi, Kazan; says he has seen beauties, but never like you.<...>He was a prisoner of the Tashkent people for a very long time.
Glumov: Because he is so wild, that everyone lives in the taiga, with the Buryats.
Nadezhda Antonovna also found herself in doubt about where Vasilkov came from.
Nadezhda Antonovna: Judging by your name, were you born in Greece?
Vasilkov: No, I'm in Russia, not far from the Volga.
And then Vasilkov continues that he lives in the village, "otherwise everyone is on the road." It is extremely important for us that Savva Gennadich Vasilkov is a provincial from the banks of the Volga. We know that A.N. Ostrovsky repeatedly visited the banks of the Volga, studied in detail the folklore, language, traditions, life and customs of the inhabitants of this area. He considered the Volga people to be industrious and active. It is interesting to note that Vasily (Vasilkov’s valet. We note, among other things, the commonality of the generating basis of the name of the valet and the surname of Vasilkov), emphasizing the commonality of their case, says “maybe you and I saw need together, maybe they drowned together in the river in our case” (hereinafter, italics are ours - O.K.).
Despite the "provinciality" of the common people, A.N. Ostrovsky admired him, seeing in every hard worker a real Russian peasant.
Such is Vasilkov. He is really a hard worker. However, he is not just a worker. Thanks to his abilities, he was able to graduate educational institution and understand the specialty. (So, for example, “on the Isthmus of Suez, earthworks also interested me in engineering structures.” He is smart, prudent and hardworking. He studied his business both in Russia and abroad. He knows how to make a fortune and how to competently increase it. money is not "mad", they are "labor".
And with such values of his, Vasilkov comes to a big city, to Moscow. Moscow demands a fortune. It is shameful for a beggar to live here.
In the second act, Lydia says to her mother:
Lydia.<...>After all, we will not leave Moscow, we will not leave for the village; and in Moscow we cannot live like beggars! .
Hope Antonovna.<...>If we stay in Moscow, we will be forced to reduce our expenses, we will have to sell silver, some paintings, diamonds.
Lydia. Oh, no, no, God forbid! Impossible, impossible! All Moscow will know that we are ruined.
Note that in the last remark of Lydia, Moscow is not a city, but the name of the Moscow people, townspeople. Lydia is afraid of public opinion, she is not so much afraid of poverty as what people will say. She doesn't care where the money comes from. She needs to know how to spend it.
In the third act, Vasilkov argues: “If you could spend your whole life driving around Moscow, sometimes with visits, then in the evenings and concerts ... without doing anything; if it were not ashamed to live like this and there would be funds for this. For Vasilkov, these are dreams. He, perhaps, would like to live like this, but for him, a man who earns his own bread, this is unacceptable.
But in the fourth manifestation of the same action we read:
Lydia.<...>Exhausted. (Sits down on an armchair.) Traveled all over Moscow. That is, we conclude that Lydia lives exactly the way Vasilkov would be ashamed to live. And not only the young Cheboksarova leads such a life. There are a majority of such playboys in Moscow, not without reason Telyatev says that he must soon be taken to the Resurrection Gate (where the debtor's prison was located). Yes, and Kuchu-mov, who only splurges with his wealth, actually lives in the care of his own wife. However, to the offer to shoot with Vasilkov, he replies: “Neither, nor, nor, young man! I will not fight with you; my life is too dear to Moscow to put it against yours, perhaps completely useless. Kuchumov sincerely believes that rich people who play cards and visit merchant clubs are more important for Moscow society than individuals like Vasilkov.
Vasilkov, however, also successfully gets along in Moscow. Yes, but now he does not burn through his capital, but tries to earn it. Hence the places he visits are appropriate: the stock exchange and the meeting, where among the rich people there is a conversation about business.
Luxurious Moscow, which requires the waste of the capital of its inhabitants, is presented to us by the following institutions and locations: the already mentioned Petrovsky Park (also known as Petrovka in the text of the comedy), a theater, a coffee shop, a merchant club, a hotel, an English (club), Troitsky (restaurant). In the ninth scene of the third act, Glumov and Telyatev agree that home-cooked meals are much worse than in hotels or clubs. And for unstoppable spending, there is an opportunity to get into the Resurrection Gate and the Moscow Pit.
The remarks of Glumov, who is going to go to Paris with his confidant, are also curious. Paris, the city of dreams, appearing before us in a halo of luxury and wealth, beauty and pathos, really beckons. But it also requires funds, like any other Big City like Moscow. But will Glumov really end up in Paris?
A few years after the publication crazy money» A.N. Ostrovsky will write "Dowry". One of her heroes invites another to go with him to Paris. He wonders what he will do there without knowing French. And further:
Vozhevatov. What a capital (of France)! What are you, in your mind! What Paris are you thinking about? We have a tavern on the square "Paris", that's where I wanted to go with you.
Tavern "Paris". Isn't that where Glumov is going to go? And, perhaps, Telyatev, saying goodbye to Glumov, also recalled this place: “Farewell, Glumov. Bon Voyage! Remember me in Paris:
there, at every crossroads, my shadow still wanders.
Also ephemeral, in our opinion, is America, where Kuchumov's man leaves with all his money. Telyatev immediately (not without irony) notes that it would not be enough to get that kind of money even to Zvenigorod (we have already talked about Kuchumov's financial condition earlier).
In the last line of the play, Telyatev sums up his reflections on the life of people around him in Moscow: “Would you like to lend me money? Don't go, don't. They're gone, by God, they're gone. Moscow, Savva, is such a city that we, the Telyatevs and the Kuchumovs, will not perish in it. We will have both honor and credit without a penny. For a long time to come, every merchant will be happy to consider that we are having dinner and drinking champagne at his expense.
In order not to die in Moscow, you need to be able to count money. How to learn this, Vasilkov explains in the last action of Lydia, offering her his help. We will not consider Vasilkov's remark in full here. Let us note only those spatial milestones that Lydia needs to go through in order to change her views: the village - provincial city- Petersburg. Telyatev notes that Lydia will have "a brilliant prospect from a village basement to a St. Petersburg salon." But, perhaps, only such a path can teach a girl who does not think about anything to appreciate labor and the means acquired by this labor.
Concluding our conversation about the scene of the comedy, we note that with all the variety of proposed spatial solutions, “the playwright in all cases subordinates these solutions to the task of the most complete, unconstrained, and at the same time internally expedient development of a single dramatic action” .
The peculiarities of the organization of time and place of action of the play "Mad Money" are caused by the very originality of the plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, their everyday content and everything that allows you to call them "plays of life".
Bibliography
1. Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. Research different years. -M.: Hood. lit., 1975. - 504 p.
2. Mosaleva G.V. "Unread" A.N. Ostrovsky: poet of iconic Russia: monograph. - Izhevsk: Udmurt. un-t, 2014. - 296 p.
3. Ostrovsky A.N. Complete Works: in 12 volumes / ed. ed. G.I. Vladykina and others. T. 3. Plays (1868-1871). - M.: Art, 1974. - 560 p.
4. Ostrovsky A.N. Complete Works: in 12 volumes / ed. ed. G.I. Vladykina and others. T. 5. Plays (1878-1884). - M.: Art, 1975. - 543 p.
5. Kholodov E.G. Mastery Ostrovsky. - M.: Art, 1967. - 544 p.
Artistic space and time are an integral feature of any work of art, including music, literature, theater, etc. Literary chronotopes are primarily of plot significance, they are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. The pictorial significance of chronotopes is also undoubted, since plot events are concretized in them, and time and space acquire a sensually visual character. Genre and genre varieties are determined by the chronotope. All temporal-spatial definitions in literature are inseparable from each other and emotionally colored.
Artistic time is the time that is reproduced and depicted in a literary work. Artistic time, in contrast to objectively given time, uses the variety of subjective perception of time. A person's sense of time is subjective. It can “stretch”, “run”, “fly”, “stop”. Artistic time makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time. Time in fiction perceived due to the connection of events - causal or associative. Events in the plot precede and follow each other, line up in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if it does not say anything about time. Artistic time can be characterized as follows: static or dynamic; real - unreal; the speed of the movement of time; perspective - retrospective - cyclical; past - present - future (in what time are the characters and action concentrated). In literature, the leading principle is time.
Artistic space is one of the most important components of a work. His role in the text is not limited to determining the place where the event takes place, plot lines are connected, characters move. Artistic space, like time, is a special language for the moral evaluation of characters. The behavior of the characters is related to the space in which they are located. The space can be closed (limited) - open; real (recognizable, similar to reality) - unreal; own (the hero was born and raised here, feels comfortable in it, adequate to the space) - alien (the hero is an outside observer, abandoned to a foreign land, cannot find himself); empty (minimum of objects) - filled. It can be dynamic, full of diverse movement, and static, “immobile”, filled with things. When the movement in space becomes directed, one of the most important spatial forms appears - the road, which can become a spatial dominant that organizes the entire text. The motif of the road is semantically ambiguous: the road can be a concrete reality of the depicted space, it can symbolize the path of the character's internal development, his fate; through the motif of the road, the idea of the path of a people or an entire country can be expressed. Space can be built horizontally or vertically (emphasis on objects stretching up or on objects spreading out). In addition, you should look at what is located in the center of this space and what is on the periphery, what geographical objects are listed in the story, what they are called (real names, fictitious names, proper names or common nouns in the role of proper ones).
Each writer comprehends time and space in his own way, endowing them with their own characteristics, reflecting the worldview of the author. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unlike any other artistic space and time, much less the real one.
So in the works of I. A. Bunin (cycle " Dark alleys”), the life of the heroes takes place in two non-overlapping chronotopes. On the one hand, the reader unfolds the space of everyday life, rain, corroding melancholy, in which time moves unbearably slowly. Only a tiny part of the hero's biography (one day, one night, a week, a month) takes place in a different space, bright, saturated with emotions, meaning, sun, light and, most importantly, love. In this case, the action takes place in the Caucasus or in a noble estate, under the romantic vaults of “dark alleys”.
An important property of literary time and space is their discreteness, i.e. discontinuity. With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature is able not to reproduce the entire flow of time, but to select the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps. Such temporal discreteness served as a powerful means of dynamization.
The nature of the conventionality of time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. Conventionality is maximum in lyrics, as it is closer to the expressive arts. There may not be space here. At the same time, lyrics can reproduce the objective world and its spatial realities. With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, it is characterized by the interaction of the present and the past (elegy), past, present and future (to Chaadaev). The very category of time can be the leitmotif of a poem. In drama, the conventionality of time and space is set mainly for the theatre. That is, all actions, speeches, inner speech of actors are closed in time and space. Against the backdrop of drama, the epic has broader possibilities. Transitions from one time to another, spatial movements occur due to the narrator. The narrator can compress or stretch time.
According to the peculiarities of artistic conventionality, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract and concrete. An abstract space is a space that can be perceived as universal. The concrete not only binds the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but also actively influences the essence of the depicted. There is no impassable boundary between concrete and abstract spaces. Abstract space draws details from reality. The concepts of abstract and concrete spaces can serve as guidelines for typology. The corresponding properties of time are usually associated with the type of space. The form of concretization is thin. time are most often the binding of the action to historical realities and the designation of cyclic time, the time of the year, the day. In most cases, the worst time is shorter than the real time. This is the law of "poetic economy". However, there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of a character or a lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery, moves. In literature, there are complex relationships between the real and the thin. time. Real time in general can be equal to zero, for example in descriptions. Such time is eventless. But the time of events is not uniform. In one case, literature records events and actions that significantly change a person. Is it plot or plot time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable being, repeating itself from day to day. This type of time is called chronicle-everyday. The ratio of eventless, eventful and chronicle-everyday time creates a tempo organization of the art. the time of the work. Completion and incompleteness are important for the analysis. It is also worth mentioning the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventurous, biographical, etc.
Bakhtin in his heresy singled out chronotopes:
Meetings.
Roads. On road (" high road”) intersect at one temporal and spatial point the spatial and temporal paths of the most diverse people - representatives of all classes, states, religions, nationalities, ages. This is the point of tying and the place where events take place. The road is especially beneficial for depicting an event driven by chance (but not only for such). (remember Pugachev's meeting with Grinev in "Kap.dochka"). Common features chronotope in different types of novels: the road passes through one's own country, and not in an exotic foreign world; reveals and shows the socio-historical diversity of this home country(therefore, if one can talk about exotic here, then only about "social exotic" - "slums", "scum", thieves' worlds). In the latter function, the "road" was also used in journalistic travels of the 18th century ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by Radishchev). This feature of the “road” distinguishes the listed novel varieties from another line of the wandering novel, represented by the ancient travel novel, the Greek sophistic novel, the 17th-century baroque novel. A function analogous to the road in these novels is played by the "foreign world", separated from its own country by sea and distance.
Castle. TO late XVIII century in England - a new territory for the accomplishment of novel events - the "castle". The castle is saturated with the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (hence, the historical figures of the past), traces of centuries and generations were deposited in it in a visible form in various parts of its structure, in the setting, in weapons, in the specific human relations of dynastic succession. This creates a specific plot of the castle, deployed in Gothic novels.
Living room-salon. From the point of view of the plot and composition, meetings take place here (not random), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the characters are revealed. Here - the interweaving of historical and public-public with private and even purely private, alcove, the interweaving of private-everyday intrigue with political and financial, state secrets with an alcove secret, a historical series with everyday and biographical. Here, visually visible signs of both historical and biographical time are condensed, condensed, and at the same time they are closely intertwined with each other, merged into single signs of the era. The era becomes visually visible and plot-visible.
Provincial town. It has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic. Flaubert's kind of town is a place of cyclic household time. There are no events here, but only repeated "occurrences". Day after day, the same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated. Time here is eventless and therefore seems to have almost stopped.
Threshold. This is a chronotope of crisis and life turning point. For Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of stairs, front and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of streets and squares that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place. that define a person's entire life. Time in this chronotope, in essence, is an instant, as if having no duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time. These decisive moments are included in Dostoevsky's large, all-encompassing chronotopes of mystery and carnival time. These times coexist in a peculiar way, intersect and intertwine in Dostoevsky's work, just as they coexisted for many centuries on the people's squares of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (essentially the same, but in slightly different forms - on the ancient squares of Greece and Rome). In Dostoevsky, on the streets and in mass scenes inside houses (mainly in living rooms), the ancient carnival-mystery square seems to come to life and shine through. This, of course, does not exhaust Dostoevsky's chronotopes: they are complex and diverse, as are the traditions that are renewed in them.
Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L. N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in interior spaces noble houses and estates. The renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was also lengthy and gradual, quite biographical. The word "suddenly" is rare in Tolstoy and never introduces any significant event. After biographical time and space, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, and even the chronotope of the labor idyll (when depicting peasant labor) are of significant importance for Tolstoy.
The chronotope as the primary materialization of time in space is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and effects, etc. - gravitate towards the chronotope and through it are filled with flesh and blood, join artistic imagery. This is the pictorial meaning of the chronotope.
The chronotopes we have considered have a genre-typical character; they underlie certain varieties of the novel genre, which has developed and developed over the centuries.
The principle of the chronotopicity of the artistic and literary image was first clearly revealed by Lessing in his Laocoon. It establishes the temporary nature of the artistic and literary image. Everything that is static-spatial should not be statically described, but should be involved in the time series of the events depicted and the story-image itself. So, in the famous example of Lessing, the beauty of Helen is not described by Homer, but her effect on the Trojan elders is shown, and this action is revealed in a number of movements, deeds of the elders. Beauty is involved in the chain of depicted events and at the same time is not the subject of a static description, but the subject of a dynamic story.
There is a sharp and fundamental boundary between the depicting real world and the world depicted in the work. It is impossible to mix, as it was done and is still sometimes done, the depicted world with the depicting world (naive realism), the author - the creator of the work with the author-man (naive biographism), recreating and renewing the listener-reader of different (and many) eras with passive listener-reader of his own time (dogmatism of understanding and evaluation).
We can also say this: we have two events in front of us - the event about which the work is told, and the event of the story itself (in this latter we ourselves participate as listeners-readers); these events take place in different times(different and in duration) and on different places, and at the same time they are inextricably united in a single, but complex event, which we can designate as a work in its eventful completeness, including here its external material reality, and its text, and the world depicted in it, and the author-creator, and listener-reader. At the same time, we perceive this fullness in its integrity and inseparability, but at the same time we understand the whole difference of its constituent moments. The author-creator moves freely in his time; he can begin his story from the end, from the middle, and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time in the depicted event. Here the difference between depicted and depicted time is clearly manifested.
10. Simple and detailed comparison (short and irrelevant)).
COMPARISON Comparison is a figurative allegory in which the similarity between two phenomena of life is established. Comparison is an important figurative and expressive language tool. There are two images: the main one, in which main point statements and auxiliary, attached to the union "as" and others. Comparison is widely used in artistic speech. Reveals similarities, parallels, correspondences between the original phenomena. Comparison fixes different associations that arise in the writer. Comparison performs pictorial and expressive functions or combines both of them. The form of comparison is the combination of two of its members with the help of unions "like", "as if", "like", "as if", etc. There is also an allied comparison ("In iron armor, a samovar // Noises as a house general ..." N.A. Zabolotsky).
11. The concept of the literary process (I have some kind of heresy, but in response to this question, you can blather everything: from the origin of literature from mythology to trends and modern genres)
The literary process is the totality of all works that appear at this time.
Factors that limit it:
The presentation of literature within the literary process is influenced by the time when a particular book is published.
The literary process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. ("Young guard", " New world" etc.)
The literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant effect on L.P.
"Liberal terror" was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations- writers who consider themselves close on any issues. They act as a certain group, conquering part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, "divided" between them. Issuing manifestos expressing general mood one group or another. Manifestos appear at the moment of the formation of a literary group. For literature of the early 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (symbolists first created, and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group, immediately determine what it stands out for. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classic version - anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than literary movement which he represents.
literary process.
With the help of artistic speech in literary works, the speech activity of people is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speech carrier”. This applies primarily to lyrical heroes, actors dramatic works and narrators of epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of the image. Literature not only designates life phenomena with words, but also reproduces speech activity itself. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic word pictures, which are related to their “immateriality”. Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus of people's spiritual life, a form of intense action. Literature differs qualitatively from other forms of art in the ways and means of comprehending the emotional world. Literature uses a direct depiction of mental processes with the help of the author's characteristics and the statements of the characters themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; the visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no limits. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive principle artistic activity. Hegel called literature " universal art". But the visual and cognitive possibilities of literature were especially widely realized in the 19th century, when the realistic method became the leading method in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with such a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other kind of art. The unique quality of fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that it is in the sphere of literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, that trends in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.
Analysis of artistic space and time
none piece of art does not exist in the space-time vacuum. It always has time and space in one way or another. It is important to understand that artistic time and space are not abstractions and not even physical categories, although modern physics also gives a very ambiguous answer to the question of what time and space are. Art does deal with a very specific spatio-temporal coordinate system. G. Lessing was the first to point out the importance of time and space for art, which we already spoke about in the second chapter, and theorists of the last two centuries, especially the 20th century, proved that artistic time and space are not only a significant, but often defining component of a literary work.
In literature, time and space are the most important image properties. Miscellaneous images require different space-time coordinates. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" we encounter with unusually compressed space. Small rooms, narrow streets. Raskolnikov lives in a room that looks like a coffin. Of course, this is no coincidence. The writer is interested in people who find themselves in an impasse in life, and this is emphasized by all means. When Raskolnikov gains faith and love in the epilogue, space opens up.
Each work of modern literature has its own spatio-temporal grid, its own coordinate system. At the same time, there are some general patterns in the development of artistic space and time. For example, until the 18th century, aesthetic consciousness did not allow the author to "intervene" in the temporal structure of the work. In other words, the author could not begin the story with the death of the hero, and then return to his birth. The time of the work was "as if real". In addition, the author could not disrupt the course of the story about one hero by an "inserted" story about another. In practice, this led to the so-called "chronological inconsistencies" characteristic of ancient literature. For example, one story ends with the hero returning safely, while another begins with loved ones mourning his absence. We encounter this, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. In the 18th century, a revolution took place, and the author received the right to “model” the narrative, not observing the logic of lifelikeness: a lot of inserted stories, digressions appeared, chronological “realism” was violated. Contemporary author can build the composition of the work, shuffling the episodes at his discretion.
In addition, there are stable, culturally accepted spatial and temporal models. The outstanding philologist M. M. Bakhtin, who fundamentally developed this problem, called these models chronotopes(chronos + topos, time and space). Chronotopes are initially permeated with meanings, any artist consciously or unconsciously takes this into account. As soon as we say about someone: "He is on the verge of something ...", as we immediately understand that we are talking about something big and important. But why exactly on the doorstep? Bakhtin believed that threshold chronotope one of the most common in culture, and as soon as we “turn it on”, the semantic depth opens up.
Today term chronotope is universal and denotes simply the existing spatio-temporal model. Often at the same time, “etiquettely” refers to the authority of M. M. Bakhtin, although Bakhtin himself understood the chronotope more narrowly - precisely as sustainable model that occurs from work to work.
In addition to chronotopes, one should also keep in mind the more general patterns of space and time that underlie entire cultures. These models are historical, that is, one replaces the other, but the paradox of the human psyche is that a model that has “obsolete” its age does not disappear anywhere, continuing to excite a person and giving rise to artistic texts. In different cultures, there are quite a few variations of such models, but there are several basic ones. First, this is a model zero time and space. It is also called motionless, eternal - there are a lot of options here. In this model, time and space lose their meaning. There is always the same thing, and there is no difference between "here" and "there", that is, there is no spatial extension. Historically, this is the most archaic model, but it is still very relevant today. Ideas about hell and heaven are built on this model, it is often “turned on” when a person tries to imagine existence after death, etc. The famous “golden age” chronotope, which manifests itself in all cultures, is built on this model. If we remember the ending of The Master and Margarita, we can easily feel this pattern. It was in such a world, according to the decision of Yeshua and Woland, that the heroes ended up in the world of eternal good and peace.
Another model - cyclic(circular). This is one of the most powerful spatio-temporal models, supported by the eternal change of natural cycles (summer-autumn-winter-spring-summer...). It is based on the idea that everything returns to normal. There is space and time there, but they are conditional, especially time, since the hero will still come to where he left, and nothing will change. Easiest illustrate this model with Homer's Odyssey. Odysseus was absent for many years, the most incredible adventures fell to his lot, but he returned home and found his Penelope still just as beautiful and loving. M. M. Bakhtin called such a time adventurous, it exists, as it were, around the heroes, without changing anything either in them or between them. them. The cyclical model is also very archaic, but its projections are clearly perceptible in contemporary culture. For example, it is very noticeable in the work of Sergei Yesenin, in whom the idea of the life cycle, especially in adulthood, becomes dominant. Even the dying lines known to everyone “In this life, dying is not new, / But living, of course,, not newer ”refer to the ancient tradition, to the famous bible book Ecclesiastes, built entirely on a cyclical model.
The culture of realism is associated mainly with linear a model where space seems to be infinitely open in all directions, and time is associated with a directed arrow - from the past to the future. This model dominates everyday consciousness modern man and is clearly visible in a huge number literary texts recent centuries. Suffice it to recall, for example, the novels of Leo Tolstoy. In this model, each event is recognized as unique, it can only happen once, and a person is understood as a constantly changing being. Linear model opened psychologism V modern sense, since psychologism implies the ability to change, which could not be either in the cyclic (after all, the hero must be the same at the end as at the beginning), and even more so in the model of zero time-space. In addition, the linear model is associated with the principle historicism, that is, a person began to be understood as a product of his era. An abstract "man for all time" simply does not exist in this model.
It is important to understand that in the mind of a modern person, all these models do not exist in isolation, they can interact, giving rise to the most bizarre combinations. For example, a person can be emphatically modern, trust a linear model, accept the uniqueness of every moment of life as something unique, but at the same time be a believer and accept the timelessness and spacelessness of existence after death. In the same way, literary texts can reflect different systems coordinates. For example, experts have long noticed that in the work of Anna Akhmatova there are two parallel dimensions, as it were: one is historical, in which every moment and gesture is unique, the other is timeless, in which any movement freezes. The "layering" of these layers is one of the hallmarks of Akhmatov's style.
Finally, modern aesthetic consciousness is increasingly mastering another model. There is no clear name for it, but it would not be a mistake to say that this model allows for the existence parallel times and spaces. The meaning is that we exist differently depending on the coordinate system. But at the same time, these worlds are not completely isolated, they have points of intersection. 20th century literature actively uses this model. Suffice it to recall M. Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita. Master and his beloved die in different places and for different reasons: Master in a lunatic asylum, Margarita at home from a heart attack, but at the same time they are die in each other's arms in the Master's closet from Azazello's poison. Different coordinate systems are included here, but they are interconnected - after all, the death of the heroes came in any case. This is the projection of the model of parallel worlds. If you have carefully read the previous chapter, you will easily understand that the so-called multivariate the plot - the invention of literature in the main twentieth century - is a direct consequence of the establishment of this new spatio-temporal grid.
