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Proverbs and sayings about the house. My home is my castle. Each hut has its own toys. Being a guest is good, but being at home is better. It is not the owner's house that paints, but the owner's house. In his swamp, the frog sings. There is nothing like leather. And the mole is vigilant in his corner.

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Houses of different peoples Since ancient times, the houses of different peoples of the Earth are different. The special features of the traditional dwelling of different peoples depend on the characteristics of nature, on the peculiarity of economic life, and on differences in religious ideas. However, there are also great similarities. This helps us to better understand each other and mutually respect the customs and traditions of different peoples of Russia and the world, to be hospitable and to represent with dignity to other people the culture of our people.

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Izba Izba is a traditional dwelling of Russians. This is a wooden residential building in a wooded area of ​​Russia, Ukraine, Belarus. In Rus', a thousand years ago, a hut was built from pine or spruce logs. Aspen boards - ploughshares or straw were laid on the roof. The log cabin (from the word "cutting") was a row of logs laid on top of each other. The hut was built without using nails.

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Hut Hut, (among Ukrainians) - a dwelling with a stove or the whole building with a vestibule and a utility room. It happens log, wattle, adobe. Outside and inside the hut is usually coated with clay and whitewashed.

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Saklya There are not enough trees in the mountains to build houses, so houses are built there from stone or clay. Such housing is called SAKLYA. Saklya, dwelling of the Caucasian peoples. Often it is built directly on the rocks. To protect such a house from the wind, for the construction they choose the side of the mountain slope where the winds are quieter. Its roof is flat, so the sakli were often located close to each other. It turned out that the roof of the lower building was often the floor or courtyard of the house that stands higher. Sakli are usually made of stone adobe or adobe bricks, with a flat roof.

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Chum Chum - nomadic, portable hut of Siberian foreigners; poles made up of sugar loaf and covered, in summer, with birch bark, in winter - with whole and sewn reindeer skins, with a smoke outlet at the top. A summer hut, cold, but habitable, with a fire in the middle, also happens among Russians.

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Yurt Yurt, a portable dwelling among the Mongolian nomadic peoples in Central and Central Asia, South Siberia. It consists of wooden lattice walls with a dome of poles and felt covering. In the center of the yurt is a hearth; the place at the entrance was intended for guests; utensils were kept on the women's side, harnesses on the men's side.

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Kibitka Kibitka - a covered wagon, a covered wagon. Russian name for a portable dwelling nomadic peoples Middle and Central Asia.

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Cell Cell (from lat. cella - room), living quarters in the monastery. According to the monastic charters, most Russian monasteries were allowed to build their own cell for each monk or nun.

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Wigwam Wigwam is the dwelling of the forest Indians of North America. It entered the literature as the name of a domed Indian dwelling. When building a wigwam, the Indians stick flexible tree trunks into the ground in a circle or oval, bending their ends into a vault. The skeleton of the wigwam is covered with branches, bark, mats.

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Igloo A dwelling made of snow or ice blocks built by the Eskimos in the north, where there is no other building material other than snow. The dwelling is called IGLU. The interior is usually covered with skins, sometimes the walls are covered with skins. Light enters the igloo directly through the snow walls, although sometimes windows are made of seal guts or ice. The snow house absorbs excess moisture from the inside, so the hut is quite dry. Eskimos can build an igloo for two or three people in half an hour.

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Konak Konak is a two- or three-story house found in Turkey, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania. This is an expressive building under a wide, heavy tiled roof that creates a deep shadow. Often such "mansions" resemble the letter "g" in plan. The protruding volume of the upper room makes the building asymmetrical. Buildings are oriented to the east (tribute to Islam). Each bedroom has a covered roomy balcony and an asam steam bath. Life here is completely isolated from the street, and a large number of premises satisfy all the needs of the owners, so outbuildings are not needed.

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Tree dwellings Tree dwellings in Indonesia are built like watchtowers, six or seven meters above the ground. The building is erected on a site prepared in advance tied to the branches of poles. The structure balancing on the branches cannot be overloaded, but it must support the large gable roof that crowns the structure. Such a house is arranged with two floors: the lower one, made of sago bark, on which there is a hearth for cooking, and the upper floor, made of palm boards, on which they sleep. In order to ensure the safety of residents, such houses are built on trees growing near the reservoir. They get into the hut along long stairs connected from poles.

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Pallazo Spain: made of stone, 4-5 meters high, round or oval section, 10 to 20 meters in diameter, with a conical straw roof on a wooden frame, one front door, no windows at all or there was only a small window opening.

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Hut South India. The traditional dwelling of the Tods (an ethnic group in South India), a barrel-shaped hut made of bamboo and thatch, without windows, with one small entrance.

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Underground dwellings The dwellings of troglodytes in the Sahara Desert are deep earthen pits in which interiors and a courtyard are made. About seven hundred caves are located on the slopes of the hills and in the desert around them, in some of them troglodytes (Berbers) live to this day. Craters reach ten meters in diameter and height. Around the inner courtyard (khausha) there are rooms up to twenty meters in length. Often, troglodyte dwellings have several floors, the stairs between which are tied ropes. The beds are small alcoves in the walls. If a Berber hostess needs a shelf, she simply digs it into the wall. However, TV antennas can be seen near some of the pits, while others have been turned into restaurants or mini-hotels. Underground dwellings save well from the heat - it is cool in these chalk caves. This is how the housing problem is solved in the Sahara.

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A dwelling is a building or structure in which people live. It serves for shelter from the weather, for protection from the enemy, for sleeping, resting, raising offspring, and storing food. The local population in different regions of the world has developed its own types of traditional dwellings. For example, among nomads these are yurts, tents, wigwams, tents. In the highlands they built pallasso, chalets, and on the plains - huts, huts and huts. ABOUT national types dwellings of the peoples of the world and will be discussed in the article. In addition, from the article you will learn which buildings remain relevant at the present time and what functions they continue to perform.

Ancient traditional dwellings of the peoples of the world

People began to use housing since the time of the primitive communal system. At first it was caves, grottoes, earthen fortifications. But climate change forced them to actively develop the skill of building and strengthening their homes. In the modern sense, "dwellings" most likely arose during the Neolithic, and in the 9th century BC, stone houses appeared.

People sought to make their homes stronger and more comfortable. Now many ancient dwellings of this or that people seem completely fragile and dilapidated, but at one time they served faithfully to their owners.

So, about the dwellings of the peoples of the world and their features in more detail.

Dwellings of the peoples of the north

The conditions of the harsh northern climate influenced the features of the national structures of the peoples who lived in these conditions. The most famous dwellings of the northern peoples are the booth, chum, igloo and yaranga. They are still relevant and fully meet the requirements of the completely difficult conditions of the north.

This dwelling is remarkably adapted to harsh climatic conditions and a nomadic lifestyle. They are inhabited by peoples engaged mainly in reindeer herding: Nenets, Komi, Enets, Khanty. Many believe that the Chukchi live in the plague, but this is a delusion, they build yarangas.

Chum is a tent in the form of a cone, which is formed by high poles. This type of structure is more resistant to gusts of wind, and the conical shape of the walls allows snow to slide over their surface in winter and not accumulate.

They are covered with burlap in summer and animal skins in winter. The entrance to the chum is hung with burlap. So that neither snow nor wind gets under the lower edge of the building, snow is raked up to the base of its walls from the outside.

In the center of it, a hearth is always burning, which is used for heating the room and cooking. The temperature in the room is approximately 15 to 20 ºС. Animal skins are laid on the floor. Pillows, feather beds and blankets are sewn from sheepskins.

Chum is traditionally installed by all family members, from young to old.

• Balagan.

The traditional dwelling of the Yakuts is a booth, it is a rectangular structure made of logs with a sloping roof. It was built quite easily: they took the main logs and installed them vertically, but at an angle, and then attached many other logs of a smaller diameter. After the walls were smeared with clay. The roof was first covered with bark, and a layer of earth was poured over it.

The floor inside the dwelling was trampled sand, the temperature of which never dropped below 5 ºС.

The walls consisted of a huge number of windows, they were covered with ice before the onset of severe frosts, and in summer - with mica.

The hearth was always located to the right of the entrance, it was smeared with clay. Everyone slept on bunks, which were installed to the right of the hearth for men and to the left for women.

• Needle.

This is the housing of the Eskimos, who did not live very well, unlike the Chukchi, so they did not have the opportunity and materials to build a full-fledged dwelling. They built their houses from snow or ice blocks. The building was domed.

The main feature of the igloo device was that the entrance had to be below the floor level. This was done so that oxygen enters the dwelling and volatilizes. carbon dioxide in addition, such an arrangement of the entrance made it possible to retain heat.

The walls of the igloo did not melt, but melted, and this made it possible to maintain a constant temperature in the room of about +20 ºС even in severe frosts.

• Valcaran.

This is the home of the peoples living near the coast of the Bering Sea (Aleuts, Eskimos, Chukchi). This is a semi-dugout, the frame of which consists of whale bones. Its roof is covered with earth. An interesting feature of the dwelling is that it has two entrances: winter - through a multi-meter underground corridor, summer - through the roof.

• Yaranga.

This is the home of the Chukchi, Evens, Koryaks, Yukaghirs. It is portable. Tripods made of poles were installed in a circle, inclined wooden poles were tied to them, and a dome was attached on top. The whole structure was covered with walrus or deer skins.

Several poles were placed in the middle of the room to support the ceiling. Yaranga with the help of canopies was divided into several rooms. Sometimes a small house covered with skins was placed inside it.

Dwellings of nomadic peoples

The nomadic way of life has formed a special type of dwellings of the peoples of the world who do not live settled. Here are examples of some of them.

• Yurt.

This is a typical type of building among nomads. It continues to be a traditional home in Turkmenistan, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Altai.

This is a domed dwelling covered with skins or felt. It is based on large poles, which are installed in the form of lattices. There is always a hole on the roof of the dome for smoke to escape from the hearth. The dome shape gives it maximum stability, and the felt retains its constant microclimate inside the room, not allowing heat or frost to penetrate there.

In the center of the building is a hearth, the stones for which are always carried with them. The floor is laid with skins or boards.

Housing can be assembled or dismantled in 2 hours

The Kazakhs call a camping yurt an abylaisha. They were used in military campaigns under the Kazakh Khan Abylai, hence the name came from.

• Vardo.

This is a gypsy wagon, in fact, it is a one-room house, which is installed on wheels. There is a door, windows, a stove, a bed, drawers for linen. At the bottom of the wagon there is a luggage compartment and even a chicken coop. The wagon is very light, so one horse could handle it. Vardo received mass distribution at the end of the 19th century.

• Felij.

This is the tent of the Bedouins (Arab nomads). The frame consists of long poles intertwined with each other, it was covered with a cloth woven from camel wool, it was very dense and did not let moisture through during rain. The room was divided into male and female parts, each of them had its own hearth.

Dwellings of the peoples of our country

Russia is a multinational country, on the territory of which more than 290 peoples live. Each has its own culture, customs, and traditional forms of dwellings. Here are the brightest ones:

• Dugout.

This is one of ancient dwellings peoples of our country. This is a pit dug to a depth of about 1.5 meters, the roof of which was tes, straw and a layer of earth. The wall inside was reinforced with logs, the floor was coated with clay mortar.

The disadvantages of this room were that the smoke could only escape through the door, and the room was very damp due to the proximity of groundwater. Therefore, living in a dugout was not easy. But there were also advantages, for example, it fully provided security; in it one could not be afraid of either hurricanes or fires; it maintained a constant temperature; she did not miss loud sounds; practically did not require repair and additional care; it was easy to build. It was thanks to all these advantages that the dugouts were very widely used as shelters during the Great Patriotic War.

• Hut.

The Russian hut was traditionally built from logs, with the help of an axe. The roof was double pitched. To insulate the walls, moss was placed between the logs, over time it became dense and covered all the large gaps. The walls outside were coated with clay, which was mixed with cow dung and straw. This solution insulated the walls. A stove was always installed in a Russian hut, the smoke from it came out through the window, and only starting from the 17th century did they begin to build chimneys.

• Kuren.

The name comes from the word "smoke", which means "smoke". Kuren was the traditional dwelling of the Cossacks. Their first settlements arose in floodplains (river reed thickets). The houses were built on piles, the walls were made of wattle covered with clay, the roof was made of reeds, a hole was left in it for smoke to escape.

This is the home of the Telengits (the people of Altai). It is a hexagonal structure made of logs with a high roof covered with larch bark. In villages there was always an earthen floor, and in the center - a hearth.

• Kava.

The indigenous people of the Khabarovsk Territory, the Orochs, built a kava dwelling, which looked like a gable hut. The side walls and the roof were covered with spruce bark. The entrance to the dwelling has always been from the side of the river. The place for the hearth was laid out with pebbles and fenced with wooden beams, which were coated with clay. Wooden bunks were erected against the walls.

• Cave.

This type of dwelling was built in a mountainous area composed of soft rocks (limestone, loess, tuff). In them, people cut down caves and equipped comfortable dwellings. In this way, entire cities appeared, for example, in the Crimea, the cities of Eski-Kermen, Tepe-Kermen and others. Hearths were equipped in the rooms, chimneys, niches for dishes and water, windows and doors were cut through.

Dwellings of the peoples of Ukraine

The most historically valuable and famous dwellings of the peoples of Ukraine are: mud hut, Transcarpathian hut, hut. Many of them still exist.

• Mazanka.

This is an old traditional dwelling of Ukraine, unlike the hut, it was intended for living in areas with a mild and warm climate. It was built from a wooden frame, the walls consisted of thin branches, outside they were smeared with white clay, and inside with a solution of clay mixed with reeds and straw. The roof consisted of reeds or straw. The hut house had no foundation and was not protected from moisture in any way, but served its owners for 100 years or more.

• Kolyba.

In the mountainous regions of the Carpathians, shepherds and lumberjacks built temporary summer dwellings, which were called "kolyba". This is a log cabin that had no windows. The roof was gable, and covered with flat chips. Wooden loungers and shelves for things were installed along the walls inside. There was a hearth in the middle of the dwelling.

• Hut.

This is a traditional type of dwelling among Belarusians, Ukrainians, southern Russian peoples and Poles. The roof was hipped, made of reeds or straw. The walls were built of semi-logs, coated with a mixture of horse manure and clay. The hut was whitened both outside and inside. There were shutters on the windows. The house was surrounded by a mound (a wide bench filled with clay). The hut was divided into 2 parts, separated by passages: residential and household.

Dwellings of the peoples of the Caucasus

For the peoples of the Caucasus, the traditional dwelling is the saklya. It is a one-room stone building with dirt floors and no windows. The roof was flat with a hole for smoke to escape. Sakli in the mountainous area formed entire terraces, adjoining each other, that is, the roof of one building was the floor for another. This type of structure served a defensive function.

Dwellings of the peoples of Europe

The most famous dwellings European nations are: trullo, palyaso, bordey, vezha, konak, kulla, chalet. Many of them still exist.

• Trullo.

This is a type of dwelling of the peoples of central and southern Italy. They were created by dry laying, that is, the stones were laid without cement or clay. And if you pull out one stone, the structure collapsed. This type of building was due to the fact that it was forbidden to build dwellings in these areas, and if inspectors came, the building could easily be destroyed.

Trullos were one-room with two windows. The roof of the building was conical.

• Pallazo.

These dwellings are characteristic of the peoples who lived in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. They were built in the highlands of Spain. They were round buildings with a cone-shaped roof. The top of the roof was covered with straw or reeds. The exit was always on the east side, the building had no windows.

• Bordei.

This is a semi-dugout of the peoples of Moldova and Romania, which was covered with a thick layer of reed or straw. This is the oldest type of housing in this part of the continent.

• Klochan.

The dwelling of the Irish, which looks like a domed hut built of stone. The masonry was used dry, without any solutions. The windows looked like narrow slits. Basically, such dwellings were built by monks who led an ascetic lifestyle.

• Vezha.

This is the traditional dwelling of the Saami (Finno-Ugric people of northern Europe). The structure was made of logs in the form of a pyramid, in which a smoke hole was left. A stone hearth was built in the center of the vezha, the floor was covered with deer skins. Nearby they built a shed on poles, which was called nili.

• Konak.

A two-story stone house built in Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia. This building in plan resembles the Russian letter G; it was covered with a tiled roof. The house had a huge number of rooms, so there was no need for outbuildings for such houses.

• Kula.

It is a fortified tower built of stone with small windows. They can be found in Albania, the Caucasus, Sardinia, Ireland, Corsica.

• Chalet.

This is a country house in the Alps. It is distinguished by protruding cornice overhangs, wooden walls, the lower part of which was plastered and lined with stone.

Indian dwellings

most famous Indian dwelling is a wigwam. But there are also such buildings as tipi, wikiap.

• Indian wigwam.

This is the dwelling of the Indians living in the north and northeast of North America. Today, no one lives in them, but they continue to be used for various kinds of rites and initiations. It has a domed shape, consists of curved and flexible trunks. In the upper part there is a hole - for the exit of smoke. In the center of the dwelling there was a hearth, along the edges - places for rest and sleep. The entrance to the dwelling was covered with a curtain. Food was cooked outside.

• Tipi.

Home of the Indians of the Great Plains. It has a cone-shaped shape up to 8 meters high, its frame consisted of pines, it was covered with bison skins from above and strengthened at the bottom with pegs. This structure was easily assembled, disassembled and transported.

• Wikipedia.

The dwelling of the Apaches and other tribes living in the southwestern United States and California. This is a small hut covered with branches, straw, bushes. Considered a type of wigwam.

Dwellings of the peoples of Africa

The most famous dwellings of the peoples of Africa are the Rondavel and the Ikukwane.

• Rondavel.

This is the home of the Bantu people. It has a round base, a cone-shaped roof, stone walls, which are held together with a mixture of sand and manure. Inside the walls were coated with clay. The top of the roof was covered with thatch.

• Ikukwane.

This is a huge domed thatched house, which is traditional for the Zulus. Long rods, reeds, tall grass were intertwined and strengthened with ropes. The entrance was closed with special shields.

Dwellings of the peoples of Asia

The most famous dwellings in China are diaolou and tulou, in Japan - minka, in Korea - hanok.

• Diaolo.

These are multi-storey fortified houses-fortresses that have been built in southern China since the Ming Dynasty. In those days, there was an urgent need for such buildings, as gangs of bandits were operating in the territories. In a later and calmer time, such structures were built simply according to tradition.

• Tulou.

This is also a house-fortress, which was built in the form of a circle or a square. Narrow openings for loopholes were left on the upper floors. Inside such a fortress there were living quarters and a well. Up to 500-600 people could live in these fortifications.

• Minka.

This is the dwelling of Japanese peasants, which was built from improvised materials: clay, bamboo, straw, grass. The functions of the internal partitions were performed by screens. The roofs were very high so that the snow or rain rolled down faster and the straw did not have time to get wet.

• Hanok.

This is a traditional Korean home. Clay walls and tiled roof. Pipes were laid under the floor, through which hot air from the hearth went throughout the house.

IN Central Asia , which in everyday life is often called Central Asia or the Central Asian-Kazakhstan province, there are several species that differ from each other in many ways. These can be settled peoples and nomads, flat and mountainous areas, large and small cities, as well as belonging to a particular ethnic group. One cannot ignore the fact that Central Asia occupies a rather vast territory, where each region has its own natural conditions: to the east of the Caspian Sea lie arid plains and sandy deserts, and in the Pamir and Tien Shan regions - high mountain systems.

As for the ethnos, Central Asia is divided into the following cultural regions: northern (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), southeastern (Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and southwestern (Turkmenistan). However, all these countries have a lot in common with each other, so we decided to break them down into the following categories: portable dwellings of nomads and stationary houses of inhabitants of the plains and mountainous regions.

Portable nomad dwellings

In Central Asia, portable ones were characteristic, first of all, for semi-nomadic and nomadic groups of the population. However, such dwellings were also found among the settled peoples of southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The main types of portable dwellings in Central Asia are various yurts and huts.

The most widely used yurt is one of the most outstanding inventions of the nomadic civilization, which perfectly characterizes the features of the life of nomads. The yurt is relatively light, portable, quickly assembled and disassembled, well protected from the winter cold and the scorching sun.

Yurts: types and design features

In Central Asia, one could most often find a Turkic-type yurt, which had two subtypes - Naiman and Kypchak. The latter subtype was characterized by a hemispherical "" in the form of a wide but low dome circle and a large bending angle of the dome poles. Kypchak yurts were common among the Pamir and southern Kirghiz, most of the Kazakhs, almost all Turkmens and semi-nomadic Uzbeks.

In the Naiman yurts, the circle was small, but high, and the poles had a rather slight bend. The Naiman yurts outwardly looked very much like the Mongolian yurts, with the difference that the Mongols used completely straight poles to build their own. The Naiman subtype of yurts was less widespread than the Kypchak one, and mostly existed among the Altai and Semirechye Kazakhs, Ersari Turkmens and Chovdurs, Khorezm Uzbeks and Karakalpaks. Later, such yurts appeared among the northern Kirghiz, with the exception of the population of the Talas Valley.

In addition to the wooden frame, the construction of the yurt was made up of a felt covering (in some cases, mats). Felt covering existed in two versions. In the first case, it consisted of three parts: a small round or diamond-shaped felt to cover the upper circle, rectangular covers for and trapezoidal covers for the dome. The second option, found only among the Kirghiz and Kazakhs in the Kypchak-type yurts, consisted of felt for the upper circle and several large felts covering the yurt from the dome almost to the ground. There was an unfilled space up to 25 cm between the ground and the felt. The second type of felt covering could coexist with the first and be used as a summer one.

In addition, in Central Asia there were huge non-separable mobile yurts, which were installed on platforms with wheels and pulled by dozens of draft animals.

As for the inner space of the yurt, it was strictly divided into certain zones. In the center there was a hearth, which was considered a sacred center, and behind the hearth, opposite the entrance to the yurt, there was a place of honor - the owner of the house usually sat here, less often - a particularly respected guest. In the right male half yurts received guests, and the owner of the house kept his horse equipment and some livestock items there. In the left female half, a matrimonial bed was set up, closer to the door stocks of provisions and kitchen utensils were stored.

Caucasoids

Language affiliation:

Turkic group of the Altaic family (Azerbaijanis), Armenian group of the Indo-European family (Armenians) and Kartvelian family (Georgians)

Main occupations:

Arable farming. Draft animals are oxen or buffaloes. The basis of agriculture is cereals, grain crops (barley, millet, wheat). Legumes and vegetables are cultivated (tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, spinach, onions, garlic, herbs, etc.). Distinctive feature- horticulture and viticulture. Animal husbandry is developed. Stall and distant. Breeding of large and small cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, poultry. Crafts: pottery, blacksmithing, weaving and more. etc. Carpet weaving.

Dwellings:

A feature of housing complexes is the large number of residential and outbuildings. Among Azerbaijanis, houses were fenced with adobe duval, hiding family life from prying eyes.

Cloth:

Diversity and variety of colors and buildings. Khevsur (men's and women's clothing in Georgia). Men's underwear - a shirt made of coarse woolen fabric or coarse calico of red-brown color, was decorated with buttons, fabric crosses sewn in the form of a triangle, as well as yellow, red, white and black braid. Outerwear (chokhu) made of homespun wool of red, less often blue color was sheathed with colorful braid of red and orange calico. Women's chokha, in addition to embroidery on the back, was decorated with a piece of woolen fabric with small coins and beads. Women wore large round earrings in their ears. No less remarkable is the Khevsurka headdress and the way it is worn. The basis is in the likeness of a kokoshnik (sataura) made of woolen or linen fabric, decorated with embroidery and beads, worn over black scarf, tied up, so that its end hung over the right ear.

In men's complexes - a cherkeska, a cloak, a hood, a hat, legs, soft dudes or boots.

Food:

The basis of nutrition is plant foods. Yeast bread - pita. Pies - khachapuri. Shashlik.

Social organization:

Peasant land communities are characteristic of all the peoples of Transcaucasia. Family relations, extensive family unions (patronymy) were intertwined in the structures of the community in a complex way. Firm ideas about the power of older men, about the sacred principles and duties of kindred mutual assistance, about obligatory blood feud. Atalism. Kunachestvo (twinning).

Beliefs:

Various forms of Christianity and Islam. Archaic beliefs and rituals. Syncretism of Islam and local traditional religions.

Culture:

28. Peoples of Central Asia

The vast territories of Eurasia, bounded in the east by the Pamirs, in the west by the Caspian Sea, in the north by the Aral-Irtysh watershed and in the south by the borders of Iran and Afghanistan, are called Central Asia.

Anthropological characteristic:

Caucasoids

Language affiliation:

Turkic peoples of the Altai family (Turkmen, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, etc.)

Main occupations:

Irrigated agriculture based on irrigation systems. Water was supplied to the fields through canals and ditches.

The main crop grown is cotton. Horticulture (apricots, peaches, pomegranates, etc.). Viticulture. Wheat. Agricultural implements are primitive and inefficient. The main arable weapon is a wooden plow with an iron or cast iron tip. The earth was harrowed with a wooden board fixed in it with stone, and later with iron teeth. Draft animals are bulls, horses, and in some areas camels. An important agricultural tool is the ketmen.

mobile livestock. Transhumance cattle breeding. Horse breeding.

Home crafts and crafts. Fractional specialization in craft. In accordance with the specialization, artisans united in workshops. The craft was inherited. Absence national specifics in craft.

Dwellings:

Clay buildings are widespread in Central Asia. The basic design of the settled house is the same. Built from raw bricks.

The house consists of one room, a kitchen and a small covered terrace.

Cloth:

The basis of men's clothing is a loose-fitting shirt and trousers with a wide step. Women's clothing differs from men's clothing in some details of the cut, the length of the shirt and its color. Men's suit sewn from white fabric, women's - from colored. Outerwear was a robe with long sleeves. Quilted quilted robes prevailed in agricultural areas, and quilted robes made of woolen fabrics prevailed among the pastoral population. In cold weather, sheepskin coats were worn.

Social organization:

Main cell neighborhood community. Within the community, water and land were distributed among families.

According to Sharia, in addition to communal property, there are privately owned lands - mulk. Waqf is a form of land ownership.

Beliefs:

Shamanism, later replaced by Islam

"114.. S. T. Makhlin Interior of the traditional dwelling of the peoples East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics Dwelling is one of the forms of protecting a person from the action of external nature. ..."

S. T. Makhlina

Interior of a traditional dwelling of peoples

East Asia in Historical and Cultural Dynamics

A dwelling is one of the forms of protecting a person from the action of external nature.

Occurs at the earliest stages of economic activity. Initial

form - natural shelters, shelters from bad weather - caves and sheds

rocks in the mountains, shrubs, large hollows and spreading branches on tall and thick

trees. Such types of housing, created by nature, served for man as a model for all his buildings. They depended on the geographical location or, more precisely, natural conditions a habitat. Here it must be borne in mind that the geographical environment, climate, landscape determine a lot in the development of the type of dwelling.

The climate determines the state of the earth's resources, the appearance of the region, flora and fauna, the degree of human presence, the features and forms of its life activity. The landscape determines the area in which a person lives - on the shore of a lake, river or sea, on a mountain slope, in a gorge or steppe, in open space or in a forest, in the middle of swamps or desert, influencing a person's worldview.

The nature of the area influences the formation of national and ethnic features, the character and thinking of the people, influencing the adaptive adaptive function, adapting the surrounding nature to man and, above all, man to nature. This was very well shown by G. D. Gachev 1. In geographical determination, natural living conditions also become important - the absence or presence of a good hunt or a forest rich in food, the presence or absence of appropriate raw materials for making shelters from rain, wind or snow, also become decisive in the formation of the type of housing.

Just as significant are the weather conditions and the peculiar phenomena of nature - the stability or variability of the weather, diversity or relative uniformity. weather phenomena, features of their sequence, frequency, strength of impact on a person. So, frequent rains or their absence, strong cold or warm winds, storms or storms, tropical downpours, of course, affect how the home will be.

The same important factor determining housing is the originality of natural phenomena, the elements of nature. Whether a person lives near a constantly smoking volcano or in a valley of geysers where simums rage, or a long polar night with northern lights is replaced by a never-setting sun ... this will determine the formation of a certain dwelling. Finally, natural attractions that exist in a particular area, picturesque bays and fiords on the coast, weathered caves in the mountains...

Gachev G.D. National images of the world: Cosmo psycho logos. M., 1995.

The interior of the dwelling of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics Even at an early stage of human development, the features of activity and culture were reflected in its first structures - huts, caves, dugouts (essentially being the same caves in the flat terrain). Already in those days, one can trace the zones of activity on the undivided area of ​​​​the house of our distant ancestors: the hearth is the “kitchen”, the place around it is the “dining room”, the couch is the “bedroom”, etc. One of the first forms of dwelling was the wind barrier, still common Australian traditional dwelling. Then a hut appears, which develops in forest areas, and a domed hut - in the steppe and semi-desert regions. In the forest-steppe, in the African savannas, a type of cylindrical-conical hut with a vertical round wall covered with a conical roof develops (such, for example, is the African traditional dwelling). In the northern regions, chum or Indian tipi appears.

In the steppe regions of the hot and temperate zone, a yurt appears. Rectangular dwellings were especially developed in agricultural areas. They are of various shapes West Africa, in Melanesia, Indonesia, Indochina.

Such dwellings received a special line of development in the northern cold temperate zone, where they are connected with the dugout. Subsequently, with the raising of the ceiling of the roof of the dwelling above the ground, walls arise - first from logs, and then from boards.

A special line of development is represented by dwellings that arose from caves. The stone is imitated by clay - there are Central Asian cities and villages in Central and Western Asia, North. Africa, in the Caucasus, in the Crimea, in Western and Central China, on the plateaus of Central and South America. The most ancient dwellings of this type were in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, ancient persia, in the ancient cultures of China, Anau and Tripoli. A special way of development is pile dwellings, ascending to dwellings on trees. In antiquity, stone, wood, clay served as the main materials for the construction of housing. The first dwellings were round, oval in shape. Then they became quadrangular.

Gradually, the dwellings turn into a complex complex. With the stratification of society, types of dwellings get a difference - from palaces to huts.

In the Middle Ages, this stratification continued: the castles of feudal lords and peasant dwellings, the city house of an artisan and merchant, and a monastery appeared. The transformation of the medieval feudal urban dwelling in the era of the formation and development of capitalism was dictated by the development of technology and new social conditions. At first, small houses and mansions of 2–3 floors predominated. The workers lived in huts in the village or on the outskirts of the city, renting a bed, a corner or a room. Then they began to build separate cottages.

From the second half of the XIX century. multi-storey buildings with water supply appear, then they are gasified, filled with electrical equipment, etc. amenities. But social stratification continues up to our time. People's housing has absorbed the experience of generations, responding to cultural stereotypes of life.

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The 20th century began to intensively dynamize all elements of the dwelling. In the middle of the century, the principles of “Clip on” (a generalized concept of connection, attachment on a clamp, related to the well-known term “clips”) and “Plug in” (plug-in connection, when to a special socket providing connection to power supply systems, etc.) appeared. The book by A. Ryabushin 2 highlights the main innovations in the principles of housing formation, which appeared in the projects of architects of the 60–70s. In addition to Clip on and Plug in, Ryabushin highlights the principle of metabolism. Metabolism is a short-term cycle of quantitative changes, leading to metamorphism, and the completion of a short-term cycle with a qualitative leap. The book also gives a description of the mobile home, which became widespread in the 20th century. - dwellings in the car, mobile settlements and the so-called "instant city". The main goals of these projects are to evoke strong positive emotions in a person by acting directly on his senses by physical, chemical and mental means available to modern technology. Given the need to save space for housing in those years in our country, universal blocks could turn the kitchen into an office, then freeing up space for a bedroom or a reception for guests with dances. It is clear that such a dream was typical for a person living in a room of modest size in a communal apartment.

Based on the noted patterns, the traditional dwellings of East Asia have a special specificity. This vast area covers the People's Republic of China, Japan, the Korean People's Democracy Fourth Oriental Readings in Memory of O. O. Rozenberg, the Republic of Korea, and the Mongolian Republic.

The variety of types of housing among the peoples of East Asia is associated with the peculiarities of economic cultural types life, with a way of life. The land of businessmen, leading a settled way of life, has developed permanent, long-term dwellings. Collapsible and portable dwellings predominate among pastoral nomads. The design of the house and the traditional set of its building elements are also influenced, as already mentioned, in addition to the specifics of the economic structure, the characteristics of the natural environment.

A feature that distinguishes the dwellings of most peoples of East Asia - a frame-and-pillar structure, when the main weight of the roof falls on a frame of pillars and beam ceilings, while the walls do not carry loads and may be absent altogether - is characteristic of the Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Thai and Mon Khmer peoples. The Uyghurs of Xinjiang, the Tibetans and the Zu have houses with load-bearing walls built of raw stone or hewn stone.

Among the agricultural peoples of East Asia, dwellings are differentiated depending on the level of the floor above the ground. At first, semi-dugouts were widespread among manual farmers of the temperate zone, which were replaced by Ryabushin A. Futurology of the dwelling. 60–70s. M., 1973.

The interior of the dwellings of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics of 117 land dwellings came. Among the farmers of the warm zone, piled buildings with the floor raised above the ground prevailed. This was dictated by the humid climate and the abundance of poisonous reptiles.

The location and presence of the hearth is also one of the important elements for classifying East Asian dwellings. In pile houses of the warm zone, the hearth serves only for cooking. As a rule, a fire is made in a flat box filled with earth. In the land houses of the southern Chinese and Japanese, portable braziers are used during the cold season, but there is no permanent hearth. The northern Chinese and Koreans have spread specially heated beds.

As for the portable dwellings of pastoral nomads, their design changed. At first, these were huts, the skeleton of which was built from willow branches.

From above, such huts were covered with felt. Then, approximately in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. a yurt appeared. “The main type of dwelling of the nomadic pastoralists of the highlands is a tent made of felt or coarse woolen fabric (most often black), stretched over a frame of poles”3. It should be noted that in the features of the design of the dwelling, mutual influences of peoples are visible. So, under the influence of the Chinese, many Thai peoples switched from pile dwellings to ground dwellings. In turn, the Chinese in the south of the country began to use split bamboo. Kan (specially heated couch) was borrowed by the Chinese from the Tungus-Manchurian peoples in the 10th-12th centuries.

A rural peasant dwelling in northern China was a squat adobe house with a thatched roof. Attached to it were annexes for pets. Houses were usually not fenced. Near the house stood a pile of dry kaoliang for fuel and as fodder for livestock.

The interior of the house is very simple. Paper was inserted into the window frames.

Therefore, with strong gusts of wind, it was torn, and cracks gaped everywhere.

The floor was earthen, along the walls there was a clay sleeping bed (kan).

At night, the kan was covered with felt or a mat, on which they slept. They covered themselves with a thick cotton blanket. During the day this bed was used as a seat. Here they received guests, talked with friends, the wife sewed. Directly at the entrance to the Chinese house was the kitchen, which adjoined one or two rooms.

In the corner of this kitchen was a small oven where food was cooked in a cauldron.

The stove was connected to a chimney that ran under the floor of the rooms.

In the south of China peasant house built from bamboo. Household items were also made from bamboo: beds, tables, chairs, couches, bookcases, and curtains, curtains, yokes, and brooms, fans, umbrellas, etc.4 The first joint property of the young was a pillow, bedding. The presence of vases was considered obligatory, because the flower vase symbolizes Ethnology. Textbook for higher institutions. M., 1994, p. 144.

See: Sidikhmenov V. Ya. China: pages of the past. M., 1987, p. 319–320.

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world. Equally necessary in the family was considered a mirror, which was a sign of marital relations. If one of the spouses died, they said:

"The mirror is broken." A kettle and cups were also among the essentials for a young family, since tea was considered an everyday drink and an obligatory type of treat 5.

Wealthy Chinese in the hallway always had a large black coffin (coffins), representing the wealth of the owner.

In contrast to the Chinese traditional dwelling, Korean traditional houses are framed, the supporting basis of which was a system of pillars supporting a massive roof and beams connecting them. The distance between the pillars was approximately 6 chkhonki, or 1.7–1.8 m. The rectangular space, surrounded by pillars on four sides, was the measure of the living area. Her name is pyeong. This traditional measure of living area in Korea is 3.3025 square meters. m. Traditional peasant house - 2-3 rooms, adobe wood, heated with coal or wood.

Ondola - an old heating system with underfloor heating. They are heated by chimneys laid under them. (In Russia, this system is known under the Chinese name "kan".) This system is quite cumbersome and difficult to operate, so that in modern houses it requires additional efforts of the city dweller. There are still a few areas of traditional residential buildings left in Seoul.

Traditional Korean furniture was made of wood, richly decorated with brass details that played both a constructive and decorative role. But often products were found from copper, bronze, iron, tin. From the Fourth Oriental Readings in Memory of O. O. Rozenberg, metals were used to make handles, locks, keyhole decorations and corner overlays typical of Korean furniture. The furniture was decorated with carvings, bone and mother-of-pearl inlays. Calligraphic inscriptions were often depicted.

A favorite theme of jewelry was the image of 10 items symbolizing longevity. They were the sun, the moon, the river stream, the clouds. Also, the symbols of longevity included plants and animals - pine, bamboo, turtle, crane, deer. These 10 signs included a mythical plant. It was considered the herb of eternal youth, called pullochho. More often than others, images of a deer, pine, and crane were used.

Furniture designed to store clothes and documents was very imaginative. These were cabinets, chests and chests of drawers. The cabinets were different types such as the tiered zhang cabinet and the yigorizhan cabinet. The latter was as tall as a man, similar in design to the familiar double-leaf cabinets. It contained clothes that given time not worn for years.

The chests were also of several types: a non-chest (such chests were placed one on top of the other in two or three rows) and a chest for bedding pantaji. Linen was removed for the day. Chests for storing documents Ibid., p. 332, 363.

The interior of the dwellings of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics of 119 mungap were 25–30 cm high, representing a low cabinet with 1–3 vertical sections arranged in a row, each of which had a two-leaf, or less often, a single-leaf door. They could also contain numerous drawers. The surface of the mungap was also used as a desk, working at them, sitting on the floor. Bookcases resembled vertical wardrobes. In addition, bookcases were also common, square and high - 160–180 cm. Since they ate while sitting on the floor, the dining tables were low. In rich houses, everyone sat at a separate table. There are many varieties of them (up to 60), but most often they are rectangular, with four legs.

The desks were just as low. They slept on the floor - on a thin hard blanket covered with a mattress sheet, the head was placed on a hard pillow of a rectangular or cylindrical shape. A mandatory piece of furniture is a screen. Each type of screen was used in certain rooms.

Screens with drawings on the themes of ancient Chinese bronze items and books were placed in the classrooms. At the head of a woman who did not give birth to sons, screens were placed with images of children and their games. In the Nursing Parents' Room - with the "ten symbols of longevity". Susok (stone of longevity) also served as decoration. This is a picturesque piece of rock or natural stone on a wooden stand, 20 to 40 cm high. In addition, in ancient times, they learned to grow dwarf trees in Korea. We have a widespread misconception that this is just a Japanese tradition. The walls were covered with wallpaper, even in the poorest houses. The ceiling of living rooms was also pasted over with wallpaper. The doors were sliding, as were the windows. Since in Korea there is an increased desire for cleanliness, as well as the predominance of white in clothes, here and now, and in the old days, they often washed. The traditional Korean iron was a small but massive cast-iron skillet with a wooden handle. Smoldering coals were placed in it. A small iron with a long handle, heated in a brazier, was also used for more thorough ironing.

Modern Korean housing is syncretic in nature. True, houses of traditional design have been preserved only in the villages. But in the way of life of the Korean dwelling, traditional features have been preserved, this is especially evident in the interior. The traditional specificity was most fully reflected in the heating system, which has a huge impact on the life of the inhabitants of the dwelling. However, modern Western influences have undoubtedly affected both the external appearance and the internal features of the Korean dwelling.

In modern Korea, residential buildings can be divided into four main types.

If in the West the ideal housing should be in a house in the suburbs, then in Korea it is considered prestigious to live in the city center. Almost all Korean residential buildings are distinguished by a large number of underground premises, in which there are parking lots, shops, tea houses, restaurants, and various consumer services enterprises.

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The first type is apahty. Apakhty are multi-apartment residential buildings of a modern type, 10–20 storey, built from the 1960s to the end of the 1980s. At that time, there was no car boom yet, so at first there were no parking lots in these houses. But gradually they began to be located in the basement, and they are considered an integral part of the apartment. They are located in separate neighborhoods. Living in them is considered very prestigious. However, at first, when they began to build multi-storey buildings, they did not arouse enthusiasm among the residents.

Many considered elevators an unnecessary luxury. Living at an unusual height was scary. In this case, it was impossible to use the courtyard of the house. However, the convenience of these apartments soon became clear. Each house has a guard on duty. At night, the gates and the gate are closed, which makes such a dwelling safer. Near the house there is always a playground with slides, horizontal bars, Swedish walls. For the inherent care of children in Koreans, this is also an attractive side of such houses. It must be remembered that Koreans are city dwellers in the first generation. Therefore, in the suburbs, where there is no such crowding, vegetable gardens are arranged next to the house, where all kinds of spices are grown. The total area of ​​an apahta apartment ranges from 15 to 40 pyeong, the average apartment is 100 square meters. m. It must be taken into account that this area includes a kitchen, an entrance hall, a bathroom and an underground garage, so that in practice the apartment turns out to be 50–60 sq. m. m. More modest apartments have been built recently. The layout of these apartments resembles American standards: a large hall room (in Korean it is called “big room nata” - “mower”) and several (from two to five) bedrooms - 6–12 sq.m. The entrance door is always single, metal. The hall opens into a large room, the Fourth Oriental Readings in Memory of O. O. Rosenberg (“mower”), in the corner of which there is usually a kitchen. In the 60s, it was fenced off, often located directly at the entrance, next to the bathroom. In some large modern apartments, separate rooms are made for kitchens. Near the entrance door on the floor there is a shallow recess - 30–40 cm in size, intended for the street shoes of the hosts and guests. It is called "a place for shoes" - in Korean - "sinbalzhang". They walk barefoot in the house.

The bedrooms are modestly furnished. Some of them may have a bed, but they usually sleep on the floor. The ceiling in such apartments, in keeping with tradition, is low - no higher than 2.2 m. An integral part of the apartment is a balcony or loggia, usually glazed. In addition, the apartment must have a "multi-purpose room" with an area of ​​3-5 square meters. m used as storage.

The second type of houses is yonrip. They are the same apartments, but low-rise - they do not exceed 5 floors, and if there are a huge number of apartments in the apartments, then in Yonrip - no more than 20. They began to be built in the 1970s. The prototype of such houses were American "row houses" and "town houses", but with significant differences. If in an American house each apartment is located on several floors, then in yonrip (translated as “standing in a row”) apartments are no different from apakhta. But, like houses, the apartments in them are much more modest, representing, as it were, inferior apartments. A subspecies of such houses is billa (from English villa). These are expensive comfortable yonrips for the rich, even very rich people, and are quoted higher than apahts.

The third type is tasede chuthaek. These are multi-family relatively small houses, representing a subspecies of yonrip. They have only 2-3 floors, one staircase, 2-5 apartments, not counting the master's one. The equipment, the area - everything is more modest than in yonrip.

The fourth type is an individual house. They are divided into two types: traditional and European. Most representatives of the middle urban strata live in European-style houses. The European-style house has stone or brick walls, the traditional one has a load-bearing structure made of wooden beams. However, European-style houses are usually heated with ondal.

Their layout is Western. Furnishings according to the Korean tradition are sparse, with low furniture and sliding windows and internal doors predominating. They have bathrooms, which the traditional house did not have. The first European house was built in Korea in 1884, but until 1910 it was designed only for foreigners. Korean elite furnished in late XIX V. several rooms in European style. But in the late 50s of the XX century. European-style houses began to appear in Korean cities. Rather not even European, but American. That's why a modern Korean house differs little from a house in California or Indiana. These houses, as a rule, are surrounded by a high blank fence, but some houses have facades facing the street. The roofs of Seoul houses are usually flat and are actively used by their inhabitants - food is stored here, clothes are dried, small warehouses are set up and miniature gardens are laid out.

The situation in the Korean house is simple. The main items are a dining table, chairs, cabinets. Chairs and armchairs came to Korea from China, but they did not become widespread in traditional life, although the cabinets were supplied with desks, chairs, and armchairs, remaining part of the interior in a Chinese way. Until now, Koreans prefer to sit on the floor at home.

In a richer house, the hall can have sofas, armchairs, and other European furniture.

Poor houses may not have chairs or tables. The kitchen equipment includes - gas or electric stove, refrigerator, microwave oven.

In addition to pan-European items, there are rice cookers, a container for dry rice, etc. Furnishings depend on the type of heating. If the house has steam or water heating, then the furniture approaches the European-style interior. Ondola dictates traditional interior design. Today, there are many designs of heated floor - water, steam, electric.

From time immemorial, there was little furniture in the Korean house, and the whole life of its inhabitants passed on the floor. Because of this, low tables 30-60 cm high are used, often from expensive woods with mother-of-pearl inlay. In a modern interior, they can serve as a stand for vases. Their traditional purpose is functional - they read or write behind them, sitting on the floor, they place snacks, fruits or drinks for guests. Sometimes they play the role of trays with 122 Makhlin S. T.

feet according to tradition. In winter, they sit, as a rule, not directly on the floor heated by ondol, but on hard cushions (70 x 70 cm), called panson. The floor in a modern house is covered with linoleum. Most of it is yellow, imitating the oiled paper that was used to cover the traditional floors of Korean houses. Mats are laid on top of the linoleum. They sit with their legs folded "in Turkish". The palms are placed on the knees. Women sit to the right of the elder, men to the left. In a formal setting, they do not sit down until the elder allows this. Much of the furniture of traditional life is a thing of the past. Non and pantazhi chests have practically disappeared from use.

Tall cabinets, not very common in the old days, became predominant. But mungap, chests of drawers for papers, and bookcases have survived, despite the fact that they work at European tables, sitting on chairs. All types of furniture continue to be decorated with traditional ornaments, even those that came from the West - "walls", high writing and dining tables. European-type beds have only recently become popular, especially among young people, although the bulk of the population still sleeps on the floor. True, now even in a traditional bed they began to use duvet covers and sheets. Lighting is electric, preference is given to fluorescent lamps. Koreans do not like twilight, so there are few table or wall lamps. As a rule, there are few books, but a lot of various equipment. Listening to music is the most beloved pastime in all walks of life. Paintings may hang on the walls of the apartments of wealthy citizens, but oil painting popular among representatives of the elite strata, but the Fourth Oriental Readings in Memory of O. O. Rozenberg are widely distributed over traditional silk embroidery. Since there are many Christians in Korea, icons hang in their homes or, more often, quotations from the Holy Scriptures in Korean or ancient Chinese are copied in calligraphic handwriting.

There are many flowers in the apartments of Koreans, but, as a rule, they are collected in European bouquets, because the art of arranging flowers, unlike Japan, has not received much development here. There are many photographs in elaborate frames in the homes of Koreans. Screens, susok, dwarf trees remain from the past in modern interiors. Many houses have aquariums with ornamental fish. Windows, as in the old days, sliding. Most of them have three frames, one of which is inserted with a fine metal mesh that protects against insects, the second with window glass, and the third with frosted glass that protects from immodest glances. But the doors are now made in Europe.

A characteristic accessory of Korean life, like thousands of years ago, is a fan to ensure thermal comfort. There are two types of fans - more ancient ones, shaped like large leaves of trees, and folding ones, well known in Europe since the 17th-18th centuries, when they were imported from the countries of the Far East.

A characteristic feature of the Korean home is exceptional cleanliness, which is due to the fact that they sit and sleep on the floor. Koreans are not lovers of baths, therefore showers are more common in houses, most of the bathrooms are combined.

The toilet was brought to Korea from the West, the first toilets in houses appeared after 1941. They are of two types - Japanese and American. A special characteristic of Korean speech usage is the absence of taboo vocabulary related to the toilet and natural needs, therefore they often contain sacred objects - quotes from the New Testament can be hung above the urinal or on the doors of toilet cubicles. Bathrooms often include a washing machine. In apakhty there is a separate room for her. Since the washing machine is relatively cheap, it is found in almost every urban family. Now modern electric irons are widespread. After World War II, almost every family had a sewing machine. Now they are almost gone. Preference is given to ready-made clothes, because material wealth has grown. The accessory of any house - the telephone - appeared in Korea in 1896. In Mongolia, residential buildings arose in hoary antiquity. Since the Mongolian tribes led a nomadic way of life, they lived in “kurens” (khuree), a ring, wherever the tribe moved. This was facilitated by the main dwelling of the Mongols ger. Such a dwelling was widespread among the Turkic and Mongol-speaking tribes. These were yurts, wagons. The structure of the kuren was preserved until the 20th century, becoming the basis of the urban planning of the Mongols. Several yurts united in a nomadic camp, sometimes numbering up to a thousand yurts of Ainals (families).

The French traveler Wilhelm Rubruk, who visited Mongolia in 1253, wrote that “they put the house on wheels. The logs of the house are wicker rods converging upward, from which the neck rises ... and covered with white felt, more often the felt is also impregnated with lime, bone powder, so that it sparkles brighter, and sometimes black felt is taken near the neck, decorated with beautiful, various paintings. In front of the entrance, they hang felt, varied from the variegation of fabrics, and sew colored felt, making up vines and trees, birds and animals. The width between the wheels of the wagon of such a yurt reached 6 m, 22 bulls pulled such a wagon a yurt. The carts were different. In addition to the above, there was a different type. It is called mukhlag tereg.

It was a square covered wagon with a door. Camels were harnessed for its transportation. A rich Mongol had from 100 to 200 such wagons. Each of the 26 spouses of Batu Khan owned such a wagon yurt, richly and colorfully decorated, and practically represented a palace. In addition to ordinary yurts, they used large yurts that could accommodate thousands of people.

The Mongolian yurt is a product of the centuries-old practice of nomads. It is easy to carry, quickly disassembled and assembled. It is warm in winter and cool in summer. In it, as a rule, there is nothing superfluous. It differs See more: Lankov A. N. Korea: weekdays and holidays. M., 1987, p. 103–130.

Cit. according to the book: Tsultem N. Architecture of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, 1988.

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special simplicity and mobility for migrations. The weight of an average yurt is 300 kg.

The wooden parts make up a third of the total weight. They serve approximately 10-15 years. Felt felt mats - 3-4 years. The most ancient images of the Mongolian dwelling are carved on the rocks and are currently known in several aimaks - among the petroglyphs of the Gobialtai aimag in Tsagan Gol (a gorge in the spurs of the Mongolian Altai). They even show a twisting wisp of smoke. The Mongolian yurt is constructed from the folding lattice walls of the khan, long poles of the uni, the upper rim of the toono, the door of the khaalga, which are assembled, fastened together, then covered with felt, cloth and covered with hair ropes. The size of the yurt depends on the number of khans. It is difficult for a family to fit in the smallest four-hanna yurt, so six-khan and eight-khan yurts are more common. When installed, these khans are fastened together with rawhide straps. At the same time, an opening is left for the entrance, which always faces south. This is the difference between the Mongolian yurts and the Turkic ones, which are most often directed to the east. The old Mongolian yurt had a felt door. The modern one is equipped with a richly ornamented wooden door that opens outwards. The monk Iakinf Bichurin in his notes about Mongolia described a felt door, which was a felt sheathed, quilted with woolen threads. The upper ends of such a door were tied to the roof. It was opened by simply throwing the felt up. Until now, reindeer herders use the simplest type of yurts - urts (uras, chum). Among the Buryats, such a yurt is called “buheg”. In such a yurt, the heads of the poles are tied into a bundle. The ends of these poles are placed and the Fourth Oriental Readings in memory of O. O. Rosenberg are covered on the outside with skins and felt. After the frame is installed, the skeleton of the roof is being constructed:

to the khans, to those places where the slanting poles of the lattices intersect, they tie long wooden poles. The other end of the pole is fixed in the hole in the smoke circle - toono. Sometimes, for stability, it is placed on two vertical supports. In order to cover the yurt with felt, it is first fixed on wooden lattice walls - khans. Then they tightly cover the yurt with a white cloth and fasten it with a woolen rope. The smoke ring is closed with special felt. Three of its corners are firmly attached to the yurt. The fourth corner is left free and a long rope is tied to it, with which the smoke hole is closed and opened. Thus, two tasks are solved at once: lighting and ventilation: a round hole transmits light from above, illuminating the central part of the yurt - the table and the hearth. The utility kitchen and beds remain in the shade. Another stream of light enters the yurt through the open door. In summer, during hot hours, the bottom of the yurt is opened by lifting up the felt and fabric 8. The interiors of such yurts are as follows: the most honorable side is the northern one.

It is opposite the entrance, as the Mongols put the yurt with the door to the south. Thus, the sun's rays, falling through the upper hole, determine the daily Novgorodova EA In the country of petroglyphs and edelweiss. M., 1982, p. 15–16.

The interior of the dwellings of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics of 125 time in accordance with the 12-year cycle of the lunar calendar that is widespread here. Thus, exactly at noon, daylight falls on the very center of the northern part of the yurt. The left half of the yurt is for women (here, as a rule, you can see babies behind the closed canopy); right - male. Chests, caskets, beds and other household items are placed along the wall in a semicircle. Guests are assigned a seat in the male half. There is a hearth in the center under the toon. To the left of it are kitchen utensils, buckets, dishes, to the right of the boiler - milk treats, a waterskin with koumiss, horse harness, accessories for livestock farming. The round shape of the yurt allows maximum use of the area. In larger yurts, additional vertical supports are placed to support the dome. They are called "bagana". Sheds, vestibules are sometimes attached to the yurt, protecting from cold and strong winds. Sometimes two yurts are fixed together. The decoration of all types of yurts used symbolic ornaments, allegorical images of animals, animals, which were applied in color to silk, brocade, felt, and leather. In addition, appliqués on bedspreads were used, pleasing the eye with multicolor and well-thought-out interaction of elements. Konduisky palace of the XIV century. - an example of what Mongolian khans had on the territory of the country several settled residences along with nomadic ones. Genghis Khan had such residences in the basins of the Tola, Selenga, Khanuy, and Ider rivers. Near the Kerulen River, in the tract Delyun Boldok, there was the palace "Aurgyn Ordon". In addition, there were seasonal residences. Since the 17th century in the construction of cities, the architecture of the yurt prevails, despite the fact that here we still see a mixture of Tibetan, Chinese and Mongolian styles. The basis was still the Mongolian style.

In addition to yurts, maikhan tents were used and are used for housing.

These are a kind of tents, which are assembled from two racks and one crossbar, a covering is stretched over them, the ends of which are stretched and nailed on the outside with pegs.

Gradually, the features of the construction of the yurt changed, because the living conditions changed. Settlement does not require dismantling and carrying yurts. Therefore, they began to be placed on special foundations or piles. Logs and bricks began to be used for construction, the shape acquired not only a round, but also a square, multifaceted look. A five-walled yurt is 2 m high and 20–25 m in diameter. Such a structure requires a larger roof. Previously, the yurt was assembled from the poles of the uni and the skeleton, in the summer it was covered with cloth, in the winter - with felt. Subsequently, the felt was replaced with wood. The yurt was covered with thick boards and sheet iron. In a log house just above the walls on the sunny side, they began to make shutters for windows. However, housing structures inherited and widely used in planning the traditional Mongolian system - Khuree. In the XX century. dwellings began to be transformed under the influence of new trends associated with political and economic changes. The classical European style appeared (around the 40s.

126 Makhlina S. T.

XX century). Issues of the plumbing system, heating, sewerage, etc. were resolved.

Special seismic conditions, hot and humid climate contributed to the creation of a rational construction system for the dwelling of the Japanese traditional house. Main construction material- tree. The building system is frame, the walls do not have support functions, the floor is raised high above the ground, the roof is sloping, with a wide overhang. The removal of the roof and the location of the house are subject to such a calculation as to protect the house from rain and hot sun and at the same time make the most of the heat of the direct rays of the low autumn and winter sun, when it is quite cold in a Japanese house, which is practically not heated. This scheme was used for a palace, and for a Buddhist temple, and for a residential building, and for a tea house. These frame-pillar or frame-piled structures, crowned with a heavy, far-protruding roof, when the planes of the walls do not perform load-bearing functions, have survived to this day.

A characteristic property of Japanese architecture is the obligatory linking of the building with the surrounding landscape. Therefore, in the late Middle Ages, dwarf gardens arose in the courtyards of houses or even on the windowsill, where the “ideal landscape” is represented by miniature details - a small mound is a high mountain, an artificial pond is the sea, etc.

A traditional Japanese interior was formed on the basis of a folk peasant dwelling. These elements were reworked in the master's layer, but they determined the constructive foundations of even the most ceremonial rooms, forming a reference interior. Of course, he never fully incarnates, but still the Fourth Oriental Readings in memory of O. O. Rosenberg follow him.

The main material of the reference interior is polished unpainted wood and paper. The stable part that defines the interior is the floor. It is completely covered with tatami, which fit snugly against each other. Tatami are thick mats made from rice straw. They have a strictly defined size - 6 feet 3 inches in length and half as wide. From above, they are sheathed with greenish smooth straw of the “igusa” grass, which is bred on special plantations. The edges of the tatami are lined with a strip of fabric. Under the tatami there is a slatted base of the floor. When cleaning the tatami, they lift and shake off the dust under them. Twice a year, the tatami is removed, taken out into the street, aired, knocked out, and the rubbish accumulated at the base of the floor is raked out. The tatami surface is constantly kept clean. The floor covered with "tatami" is divided into several sections by wooden beams, which are smoothed flush with the "tatami". They correspond to the same beams in the ceiling. Fusuma move along the grooves of these bars. These are wooden frames, glued on both sides with thick cardboard. Instead of handles, metal recesses are cut into the cardboard - “hikite”. Since the ceiling is often higher than the "fusuma", which has a standard height, the gap between the upper beam and the ceiling is filled with an openwork "ramma" partition.

The Interior of the Dwellings of the Peoples of East Asia in Historical and Cultural Dynamics 127 Grooves run along the periphery of the floor, and they correspond to the same grooves in the ceiling. Sliding checkered frames - “shoji” move along these grooves. They are made from lightweight planks and outside lined with translucent paper. They can be moved to one side, and if lifted, they can be removed completely. Shoji has no handles. They are taken for one of the thick slats. In order to take these frames from the outside, the frame section is pasted over not from the outside, but from the inside. Behind the shoji slots there is a wider slot for amado wooden plank shields that slide in at night or in rainy or cold weather. "Shoji" go behind each other - each of them has its own separate groove. "Amado" are located in the same groove and are joined end to end. When fully closed, the extreme "amado" is locked with a wooden lock with a deadbolt. To push the “amado” apart, the extreme shield must be removed from the grooves and put into a special box built into the end of the wall and protruding above its plane. Between the "shoji" and "amado" is a veranda. It is not wide and its floor is made of wooden beams.

The end wall is not made sliding, but deaf. She arranges shelves for “oshiire” cabinets, pushed in by the same “fusuma” as in the room. There is almost no furniture, and bedding and utensils are put away in closets. Unlike a European dwelling, which is divided into rooms that have a specific functional purpose, a Japanese dwelling can be divided into different layouts several times a day. You can turn the dwelling into one room, or divide it into small rooms. On hot days, you can completely open the house, with the exception of a blank end wall.

Aesthetically neutral, restrained in color, geometrized background of the interior makes the three-dimensional object placed in it clearly perceived and therefore acquiring a weighty character. At night they put a sleeping mattress, during the meal they put a table, which is then cleaned in storage. In furnishing, the bed is almost never found, even now. They eat sitting on the floor in front of a very low table. So the floor serves as the main place of departure for everyday functions.

They sit either on mats or on “zabuton” padded or woven straw or grass pillows, bending their legs under them. Thick wadded sleeping mattresses are spread out on the floor. They are covered with wadded almost square futon blankets. A small pillow is placed under the head. In the old days, a wooden lacquered stand with a soft roller was placed under the head. Now it is consumed by women wearing the ancient hairstyle.

The ideal interior was only available to the wealthy.

For an ideal interior, a view of the garden from the room is required.

A characteristic and central detail of the interior is the "tokonoma". This is a niche where exquisite decorations are placed - a scroll with a painting, a vase with flowers.

Nearby there may be another niche with z-shaped shelves on different levels on which are placed art objects. Another ceremonial front element of the Japanese interior is the Buddhist altar “butsudan”, 128 Makhlina S.T.

placed against the wall. In addition, the interior also includes a non-sliding "seinzukuri" window, designed for reading with good lighting.

The floor in the bathroom is plank, in the restroom - plank or mat. The old latrine in a peasant dwelling was under the same roof and on the same level as the living quarters. The old Japanese bath is very distinctive.

This is a large barrel, in the side of which a vertical pipe is placed.

Hot coals are placed in the furnace under it. Thus, the water is heated, as in a samovar. The Japanese bathe in very hot water. In the villages, baths are taken according to seniority - first the head of the family, then everyone else. The guest is given priority. Wash thoroughly with soap before bathing. For washing, a hanging washbasin is used.

There are no stoves in a traditional Japanese dwelling, with the exception of settlements in Hokkaido. Heated in winter with portable hibachi braziers

from metal, clay or porcelain, which are filled with coals. In Hokkaido and northern Honshu, iron stoves are used. The “irori” hearth cut into the floor is widespread, similar to the adobe hearths of piled dwellings in Southeast Asia. But if there they are fired with firewood and a spark arrester screen is hung over them, then the “irori” are fired with charcoal and does not give sparks, but the screen (“hidana”) is still hung above it and is used, as in pile houses, for drying products. Very small "hibati" in a faience case - "anka" were placed under the blanket to heat the bed. There are also kairo pocket braziers, about the size of a cigarette case. They burn a charcoal dust cigarette in a paper wrapper. "Kairo" are compatible only with the national bone of the Fourth Oriental Readings in memory of O. O. Rozenberg mom, in which they are laid in the sleeves or in the belt.

Currently out of use. The traditional type of heating technique is "kotatsu". This is a recessed hearth cut into the floor, similar to "irori". A kind of table is placed above it, which is covered with a large wadded blanket. Family members sit around him, hiding their legs under the covers or even lowering them into the recess of the hearth and wrapping themselves in a blanket to the waist. In addition to the “hori kotatsu” or “kiri kotatsu” cut into the floor, “oki kotatsu” are also used. These are ordinary "hibachi", which are placed on the floor, but a table is placed above it, as well as above the "kiri kotatsu". The upper surface of the kotatsu table is usually not solid, but slatted.

While eating or working, a smooth square board is placed on top of the blanket. In many ways, such a device resembles the Central Asian "sandal". A. S. Arutyunov explains this similarity by the partial similarity of natural conditions (Japan is located at the same latitudes as Afghanistan, Syria, Tunisia, South Turkmenistan and Turkey). In addition, the development of contacts that began as early as the 4th–5th centuries.9 Arutyunov S.A. The modern life of the Japanese. M., 1968, p. 94–95.

The interior of the dwelling of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics 129 After the revolution of 1868, which opened the way to Europeanization Japanese life, for a long time European styles dominated the construction of public buildings. Now they are developing buildings that meet modern requirements.

But the house, as a rule, is a synthesis of traditions from different eras and regions of Japan. On the other hand, reinforced concrete buildings are being built, but they also use the motifs of traditional Japanese art.

On present stage In the Japanese dwelling, the penetration of features of Western and Japanese origin is observed, transcultural trends in the modern interior can be traced especially clearly. In buildings of the first type, mainly of a business nature, some motifs and principles of Japanese national architecture are used, but they are formally stylized. They are located in business districts.

The second group consists of houses overlooking the highways of cities. Structurally, they are close to the traditional Japanese dwelling. They are timber-framed and have two floors. Unlike a traditional Japanese dwelling, they do not have an element of piles, since a bench is located on the first, lower floor, so that the floor continues the plane of the sidewalk in level. The top floor is usually residential. The interior is done mainly in Japanese style or mixed, although from the outside the house looks like a western one - both in the structure of the roof and in the plastering of the walls. These buildings do not have transparent shoji frames. In the lower floors, the doors are glazed, but they approach the type of western doors. The roof in such houses is not made of tiles, but covered with roofing iron. But relief thickenings are made on the slopes, imitating a relief seam. The population of these houses is the petty bourgeoisie - the owners of workshops and shops. Part of the living quarters is rented out to workers. An intermediate type between the first and second group of buildings is occupied by the so-called "apato" - (from apartments). They are multi-storey, like the buildings of the first group, their structures are also close to this type of buildings, but the external architectural design has features of the second type - windows and doors are traditional. Apatos fall into two categories. These are either separate buildings, consisting of very comfortable apartments, as a rule, they are quite expensive. The second category is "danti" - standard houses built with maximum cost savings. As a rule, they are located in vast areas of new buildings. Dear apato (mansion) is inhabited by the bourgeoisie and wealthy intelligentsia - artists, writers, lawyers. Danti is home to the civil servants and highly paid workers. According to the data of S. A. Arutyunov, collected in 1966, the issue of providing apartments in Danti is decided by lot 10.

The third group of buildings are the structures of intra-block passages.

They completely preserve the Japanese architectural style. The most typical Ibid., p. 74.

130 Makhlina S. T.

the house of this group is a light frame structure, sometimes without a foundation.

The pillars of the frame do not break into the ground, but are placed on flat stones - bases.

This keeps them from rotting. The lower crown of the frame of the house and the beams on which the floor is laid are arranged half a meter or a meter above the ground. Thus, the dwelling acquires the features of piled tropical buildings. The roof is gable or four-slope, covered with tiles. The overhang of the roof is made wide, protruding a meter from the wall. This protects the rooms from rain and sun. End walls are immovable. The rest, especially if they are facing south, consist of shoji - light sliding frames pasted over with transparent paper. They slide along the top and bottom grooves. These houses are rectangular in plan, small in size - 20-25 square meters. m. Such houses can be very expensive - they are inhabited by representatives of the middle and big bourgeoisie. They are usually built on individual projects. But there are many such houses, using the old housing stock, which are inhabited by representatives of the petty bourgeoisie. They can be owned by indigenous workers who rent them out to families of workers and low-paid intellectuals.

Another type of urban dwelling - "naked" - for workers. They were built in the 1940s-1950s. They have survived to this day, representing a long building, divided into apartments of two, three and even one room.

The cheapest are single-story, two-story are more expensive.

Naturally, the Japanese give preference to houses of the third type, which preserve traditional ideas. “The upper strata of society strive to create special conditions for themselves, to surround their life with accessories that are inaccessible to the majority of the population. At the early stage of society's contact with the culture of the West, it looked like a fast pace and hypertrophied dimensions of modernization - the same, say, the famous 300 "Cadillacs" of King Saud and the no smaller "stable" of the ruler of Kuwait. In the subsequent period, the conservation of expensive accessories of the former life became widespread. For example, Japanese national house, which is now inaccessible even to the middle strata, is turning, especially if we take into account the price of land, into an expensive decoration for the life of the upper strata”11. However, over time, this trend is becoming more widespread. If at the end of the 50s. such houses were single, then by the middle of the 60s. their construction became massive.

The architecture and decoration of the Japanese house is characterized by simplicity and economy. The Japanese do not paint their houses on the outside. Therefore, soon the wooden parts turn gray, which is why they have a dull color. Internal wooden parts are polished. The wood takes on a golden brown hue.

The appearance of the interior from this takes on a calm and soft look. The kitchen is located there, with. 77.

The interior of the dwelling of the peoples of East Asia in the historical and cultural dynamics 131 under the same roof with living rooms, but the floor in it, as a rule, is located below the floor level of the living rooms. They make it plank.

Very close in type to the third group of houses in countryside. They differ only in a variety of sizes and thick thatched roofs with a trimmed edge. However, in areas where strong winds are frequent, roofs are made of shingles, which are ballasted with stones and logs or covered with roofing iron (as, for example, in Hokkaido).

Japanese settlements in Hokkaido are isolated farmsteads, similar to American farms. They are distinguished by high iron roofs, attics, barns and silos are located nearby. Inside the residential building, traditional Japanese furnishings are preserved. True, the open hearth here is often replaced by a makeshift stove. In most Japanese wealthy estates, utility rooms are located in the yard or along its perimeter - sheds, a barn, a current for drying and threshing grain. There is also a "kura" - a two-story building with almost blank walls - stone or adobe. "Kura"

serves as a pantry for spare utensils. At the same time, it protects it from fires. A bathtub is often placed in a separate annex. It is clear that the estates of the poor do not have outbuildings.

In a Japanese house, the location of certain elements and details of the situation, depending on the countries of the world, is of great importance. The points of an old Japanese compass have a symbolic meaning associated with the elements and animals. North denotes water and at the same time it represents the rat. East is associated with wood. And he also denotes the following animals: a bull, a tiger and a hare. South is fire. Animals of this side of the world - a dragon, a snake, a horse. West - metal and sheep, monkey, bird, then dog and boar. Construction has always been associated with these signs. But in modern industrial construction there is no such possibility. When they build an individual house, they must take into account the recommendations of fortunetellers.

The interiors are usually dominated by traditional features, despite the abundance of objects associated with technological progress. This includes the use of new materials (plastic, glass), new equipment, household appliances.

But it all adapts to the traditional style. In most modern Japanese dwellings, you can find both "shoji", and "fusuma", and "rama" and "toko noma". But in many modern homes, the space is enclosed on all sides by walls. Then the window is structurally reminiscent of "shoji". The internal space has permanent partitions, in which "fusuma" or their modernized counterparts act as simple interior doors. A modern interior is actually not as empty and spacious as it should be according to the standard. The bed is not always made for the day. Dining table "tsukue"

in the interval between meals, it is placed on its side against the wall. It is now more massive than the traditional low individual tables for each person "Zen" used in good society.

132 Makhlina S. T.

If earlier they wrote with a pen, sitting on the floor, at the “seinzukuri”, now they use modern writing instruments. Chairs and high tables are required to work with them. These pieces of furniture, even folding ones, are found in many houses, even in the countryside. There are already many such items in more prosperous families. This leads to the fact that the floor area covered with "tatami" is reduced. The area of ​​​​a bare wooden floor or covered with linoleum is expanding. If for a European there is one type of surface - the earth and the floor of the dwelling, on which they walk in shoes, then the Japanese already distinguishes three types of surface: impure, semi-clean and clean. The unclean surface is earth and parquet. They walk on them in shoes. A semi-finished surface is a polished floor, a carpet, on which they walk only in slippers, but do not sit.

A clean surface - mats on which you can sit, lie, and you can only walk in socks (less often - barefoot). In the latrine, wooden sandals are used, standing there, as the floor there is considered an unclean surface.

The Japanese specificity in this regard is that it must be at the same level of cleanliness at which the furniture surface is maintained in a European dwelling - tables, seats, shelves.

In a modern house, the bathroom, even if it is Japanese, is equipped with a mirror, additional taps with a sink. The level of the premises is below residential, but above the ground. Nearby is a small dressing room with a slatted floor and shelves for linen. These rooms are separated by shoji-type plywood doors.

In general, changes in the interior of a Japanese house occur under the influence of constructive techniques characteristic of the Western interior. The Fourth Oriental Readings in memory of O. O. Rosenberg enter everyday life, a desk and a chair, which are not characteristic of a traditional Japanese interior.

In modern apartments, food is taken in the kitchen. In large apartments, often in the living room there are musical instruments, a sideboard, guests are received here, which is not accepted due to the impossibility of adequately giving attention to the guest in a traditional interior. Therefore, more often guests are invited to the restaurant. There is an interaction of different trends in the modern Japanese interior.

A special place in the everyday culture of the Japanese is occupied by tea houses. The tea house is a place called chashitsu in Japan, for a special ritual in Japan - cha no yu. Usually this term is translated as a tea ceremony. This ceremony was a meeting of the host and one or more guests (no more than five) for a joint tea party. But this ordinary everyday procedure was turned into a canonized action that unfolded in time and took place in a specially organized environment, the architectural space of which was furnished with special artistic and plastic objects.

For the first time, tea drink began to be consumed in China in the Tang era (7th-9th centuries). Initially, it was used for medical purposes. Drinking tea gradually becomes more common (Song era), especially among Zen Buddhists. Priest Eisai, having returned from China to Japan in 1194 and founded one of the schools of Zen Buddhism here, began to grow tea for a religious ritual at the monastery. Gradually the drinking of tea spread first to the Zen monasteries and then beyond, as the health benefits of tea were constantly mentioned. Drinking tea became a favorite pastime of the samurai aristocracy, among whom such tea parties lasted from morning to evening. The tea master (chajin) had to be a well-educated person, representing a special type of medieval, as we would say, "intellectual", well trained in all areas of artistic creativity, but not necessarily coming from a high family. The founder of the tea ceremony in a new form, which had little in common with the court game of tea, to which he devoted his whole life, is Murata Shuko, or Juko (1422-1502). This tea ritual had deep spiritual foundations that corresponded to the Zen concepts of life and inner perfection.

Soon, the tea ceremony he created became widespread throughout the country. Gradually, the followers of Juko perfected the tea ceremony. In the XVI century. especially for the tea ceremony, they began to build tea houses (chashitsu), which were not intended for housing. The tea house in appearance resembled a hermit's shelter or a fisherman's house made of simple and conventional materials- wood, bamboo, straw, clay. He was guided by the cardinal points, as a rule, he was surrounded by at least a small garden, hidden from view behind a fence, which contributed to his privacy. Gradually, a type of chashitsu - a tea house - developed, in which a veranda was an early form, which was later abandoned. It was replaced by a bench in the garden. A special hanging shelf appeared in front of the entrance to the house, where swords were left (previously they were placed at the entrance on the veranda).

The entrance to the tea room is made lower - Sen no Rikyu (1521–1591), who formalized the tea ceremony, which had its own aesthetic program, arranged a square opening of about 60 cm so that everyone, regardless of rank, had to bend down to step over threshold, thus demonstrating equality in this ceremony. By design, the tea house repeated the traditional Japanese dwelling. The interior retained two main elements typical of the living quarters of the military class: a niche (tokonoma) and a tatami-covered floor. The size of the tea house was 4.5 tatami. A hearth was placed in a square recess of the floor (0.5 tatami in size), which was used in winter. The height of the ceiling was equal to the length of the tatami, but in different parts of the room it was different: the lowest ceiling was located above the owner's place. The walls and ceiling were made of wood, sometimes painted, sometimes covered with patterned wicker panels of bamboo and reed. In the very first tea houses there were no windows, but over time they appeared. Great importance was attached to their shape and size. Since the person was sitting on the floor, the windows were positioned so as to illuminate the space above the floor. Sometimes windows were provided for a tea ceremony held at night or at dawn - then they were made in the roof, giving overhead light. Two main centers formed 134 Makhlina S.T.

tea house interior space: tokonoma (vertical surface) and hearth (horizontal surface). Tokonoma was located directly opposite the guest entrance. A vase with a flower or a scroll placed in it was a sign of the ceremony, defining its main ideas. Gradually, the evolution of the ritual is divided into two directions: one continued all the traditions of the established style, the second was an exquisite and refined pastime of the elite of society. The rules of the ceremony varied depending on the time of year and time of day. Half an hour before the appointed hour, the guests had to gather and wait on a special bench. The ceremony began with the guests entering the tea garden, where, having passed through it in silence, the guests washed their hands and rinsed their mouths at a vessel of water (warm in winter, cold in hot weather). If the ceremony was scheduled for dark time days, the owner took out the lamp. Then the guests entered the tea house, leaving their shoes at the entrance.

The last guest with a light knock pushed the door, thereby notifying the owner that everyone had already arrived. After that, the host appeared in front of the guests from the utility room (mizuya). The guests were seated on the tatami mat facing the host. The main guest was located at the niche where there should have been a picture or a vase with a flower and an incense burner. Breeding of the hearth could take place in the presence of guests or before their arrival. Then the owner began to bring in the necessary utensils in strict order - a vessel with clean water, a cup, a whisk, a spoon, a tea caddy and a vessel for used water and a bamboo ladle. The ceremony itself depended on what kind of ceremony would be performed: koi cha (thick tea) or usu cha (liquid tea). When the tea drinking ended, the time for admiring the Fourth Oriental Readings in Memory of O. O. Rosenberg began with utensils and a conversation was possible, although it was considered more important to achieve internal contact between the participants. The tea ceremony was an implementation of four principles: harmony, reverence, purity and silence. Each of them could be interpreted both in a philosophical sense and in a practical one.

in Russia at the end of the 19th century. tea houses were considered brothels in China and Japan, which corresponded to reality, because gradually the medieval ritual became vulgarized, and instead of geishas who were present at tea ceremonies, oiran, peasant girls from poor families, began to serve in them 12.

Today, in the 21st century, all traditional differences are beginning to smooth out. In all the countries that were discussed, modern construction principles prevail, leveling the features of the dwelling. However, the ethnic differences that have been formed over a long time continue to be preserved in the interior. Transcultural trends enrich the expressive features of interior art and contribute to the deepening and complexity of its national features.

Nikolaeva N. S. Art culture Japan XVI century. M, 1986, p. 55–106.

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