33. Socio-economic relations in the neighboring community.
Primitive neighborhood community.
By a primitive neighborhood community, we mean a socio-economic structure consisting of separate families leading an independent economy, united with each other by territorial-neighborly ties and joint ownership of the main means of production (land, pastures, fishing grounds). Combination private property individual families with the collective and constitutes the dualism inherent in the neighboring community.
The characteristic features of the primitive neighborhood community are: the presence of a common territory, public property and communal land ownership with private land use, the presence of communal governing bodies, various forms of cooperation and mutual assistance between community members, their joint performance in wars and matters related to intercommunal relations, the presence of a certain ideological (religious) unity of community members, the interweaving of territorial ties with disintegrating consanguineous, in public sphere- coexistence of the community with late birth institutions.
Like any neighboring community, the intertwining and struggle of collective and private property are inherent in the primitive community.
The stage of formation of the neighboring community is characterized by replacement of ties based on kinship with neighboring-territorial ones, which at first are fancifully intertwined with them or even clothed in a consanguineous shell. Examples include the preservation of the totem name of the ancient tribal community for the neighboring community, the spread of blood relationship terms to fellow villagers, especially relatives, the use of tribal sanctuaries for rituals of communal significance among the Cheyenne, Crow, Tlingit, Iroquois, Hopi, Comanches and other tribes of North American Indians, or the institution of doha among the peoples of the Lower Amur (the extension of exogamous prohibitions to a group of unrelated clans connected by neighborly relations).
This intertwining ancestral and neighborly ties, which is extremely diverse in specific societies, raises the question of the criteria that make it possible to distinguish a tribal community at a later stage of its development from a neighboring one and the nature of transitional forms between them.
The main features that characterize any neighboring community are the presence of separate family groups that independently manage the economy and dispose of the produced product, so that each, on his own, cultivates the fields allotted to him and the harvest is assigned to them individually, and collective ownership of the main means of production. The families represented in the community may be related and unrelated - as long as they are economically isolated, this is of no fundamental importance.
One cannot agree with the researchers who resolutely oppose patronymy to the neighboring community and believe that the latter can exist only as a territorial association of unrelated families. The facts say otherwise. In the mountainous regions of Northern Albania at the beginning of the last century, all members of the neighboring community considered themselves descendants of one ancestor and avoided marrying each other. Neighbor communities, consisting of patronymic related families, were not uncommon in the Caucasus back in the 19th century, they are also known in Southeast Asia and other places.
At the initial stages of the formation of a neighboring community, communal ownership of land coexists with tribal ownership, sometimes even occupying a subordinate position. On some islands of the New Hebrides archipelago, villages, although they consist of subdivisions of several genera, do not yet form communities and do not have landed property. On the islands of Trobriand, Shortland, Florida, San Cristobal, Santa Anna, Vao, Fate and others, a neighboring community has already arisen and communal ownership of land coexists with tribal and individual loan land use, and on the island of Amrim the land belongs to the entire community as a whole, but distributed among the various clans.
In terms of stages, such a community is transitional from tribal to purely neighboring. It can be considered an early stage of the neighborhood community or a transitional type; we do not see much difference between these two points of view. The main criterion that allows it to be singled out is not so much the coexistence of communal property with private property (this is natural for any neighboring community), but rather the interweaving of family ties with neighboring ones. The transition from such a community to a neighboring one to a large extent depends on the fate of the late clan, on the time when it finally ceases to exist. Since the clan most often survives to a class society, it is obviously this early stage of the neighboring community that is most characteristic of its existence in a decaying society. primitive society, and the term "primitive neighborhood community" seems quite acceptable for its designation.
Such a community is neighborly, because it has its main feature - a combination of private and collective property. The fact that it is inherent in the era of the decomposition of primitive society is also evidenced by archaeological material. In Denmark already in the settlements bronze age within each village, the boundaries of individual plots and communal pastures are clearly visible. Something similar is observed even earlier in Neolithic Cyprus.
However, such a community is not just a neighbor, but a primitive neighbor, since collective property in it is represented by two forms: communal and tribal. Such a combination of two forms of collective property can persist for a very long time, and not only in decaying primitive societies, but even in early class societies, as can be seen from numerous African examples.
At present, the universal nature of not only the neighborhood community as a whole, but also its early stage - the primitive neighborhood community, which can be traced both in patriarchal and late maternal and non-clan societies can be considered proven. Thus, the later forms of tribal organization of the era of the decomposition of primitive society are basically simultaneous with the primitive neighboring community. They coexist, differing not only in their functions, but also in their structures: while the clan is based on the principle of consanguinity, the community rests on territorial-neighborly ties.
Although clan and community as forms of social organization complement each other, creating a double line of defense for the individual, there is a certain struggle between them for a sphere of influence. The final victory of the neighboring community over the clan is already determined by the fact that it is not only a social organization, which has practically become late genus, But organization of socio-economic, wherein social connections are intertwined and determined by production.
The neighboring community perishes when collective property becomes an obstacle to the further development of private property. By general rule this occurs already in class societies, although there are known exceptions, usually associated with a lack of land (for example, in Micronesia and Polynesia). The main means of production are gradually being transferred into private ownership. The emergence of allod in agricultural societies is well traced on the example of early medieval Western Europe. However, even after losing its production functions, the community can be preserved as a social organization as an administrative-fiscal or territorial self-governing unit.
The neighborhood community can also persist for a long time in class societies based on subsistence farming. Sometimes it is deliberately conserved by the ruling classes. However, such a community, despite the similarities of internal structures, differs from the primitive one. In the primitive neighboring community, exploitation is only in its infancy, while in the class community it prevails. The community is either exploited as a whole, or singles out from its environment as exploiters. and exploited.
The tribal community and the neighboring community are successive stages in the development of society. The tribal community appeared earlier and subsequently, as the development social relations, gradually transformed into a neighboring one. How does a tribal community differ from a neighboring one, and what do they have in common? Let's look at historical examples.
The emergence of a tribal community
The exact date when the tribal community replaced the previous one social formation- "human herd", does not exist. According to the most common hypothesis, this happened between 50 and 100 thousand years ago. This process was slow and different regions planets flowed unevenly. It is known that tribal communities also existed among the Cro-Magnons (people modern type), and among the Neanderthals, who later, unable to withstand species competition with their more highly organized rivals, died out. What united people, what is the difference between a tribal community and a neighboring one?
Experts identify three parameters that characterize this way of organizing society:
- blood relations;
- collective work;
- collective consumption.
In conditions where labor productivity is low and coordinated actions are needed to obtain food a large number people, only large groups can survive. Quite early it became clear that marriages within the community had a detrimental effect on the health of descendants, so there was a ban on marrying one's close relatives, and wives began to be taken from other clans. These were already prerequisites for a more complex organization of society. The following fact speaks of the coherence of the actions of close clans: in the 8th millennium BC (this Upper Paleolithic) people create quite complex structures, such as a wall (presumably to protect against floods) and a tower eight meters high - its remains are in the city of Jericho (Israel).
Comparison
neighborhood community is more complex shape organizations. It arises when the productivity of labor rises sharply and when the products necessary for survival are obtained, the labor of one family becomes sufficient. This is due to the improvement of tools and technologies for tillage. However, a complete separation of the family from the community does not occur, since a number of tasks (primarily repulsing an attack from outside and some especially laborious work) can only be performed together.
Members of the neighboring community are not blood relatives, and each family is entitled to its share of community property. Each family also cultivates its part of the arable land on its own, uniting with neighbors only when it is necessary, for example, to clear a piece of forest, pave a road or build a river crossing. The neighborhood community arose already in historical time, but, of course, the spread here is quite large. Among the Eastern Slavs, the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring community was completed only by the 7th century AD. And the city of Rome, for example, by this time already had about one and a half thousand years of history, and the oldest of Egyptian pyramids over three thousand years.
The liquidation of the neighboring community in our country took place only about a hundred years ago. The beginning was laid by the famous Stolypin agrarian reform, about which its initiator spoke so directly that one of its main tasks was the "destruction of the community." In the changed historical conditions the community has become a brake on development Agriculture so her days were numbered. Some believe that arising from Soviet power collective farms served logical development traditional Russian community, but the principles of labor organization there were completely different. Collective farms, rather, were state-owned agricultural enterprises fulfilling state orders.
South American Indians living in a tribal community
Having figured out what is the difference between the tribal and neighboring communities, it remains to add that both of them have not completely died out. Appearing as a way of organizing society in certain historical conditions, they are preserved where these conditions have not changed for thousands of years. These are some areas of Africa, South America and Australia, whose natives do not want to give up their usual way of life. And while maintaining the status quo, this situation will last indefinitely.
During the period under review, there is a gradual transition from tribal communities to neighboring ones. The reason for this transition was the strengthening of the economic functions of the family within the clan. The development of production, the emergence of new technical advances led to the fact that the family could independently provide for their existence. Family ties sometimes begin to burden the family, since the family required the sharing of property, disinterested mutual assistance, in extreme situations- Equal distribution. This ran counter to the beginning accumulation of private wealth. Many families sought to isolate themselves from their relatives. However, the complete isolation of the family was impossible: there was a need for collective labor for the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems, for cutting down forests for arable land, for transhumance grazing, etc., so families cooperate with their neighbors. Family ties are gradually being replaced by neighboring, territorial ones, hence the name - primitive neighborly community (synonym territorial). In a primitive neighborhood community for a long time intertwined family and neighborhood ties. For example, kindred could maintain common cults and help each other, even if they were separated geographically. Often, neighbors began to be treated as relatives (rites of twinning, indemnification, adoption).
It is important to note that collective ownership of land continued to exist in the primitive neighboring community. Private ownership of land is established late, as a rule, already in a class society and in the presence of a state. The whole community owned the land; the property of the family were considered tools, cattle, yard with all its buildings. Many transitional forms from collective ownership of land to private ownership have been recorded. For example, among the majority of Melanesians or some peoples of Africa, the family had the right to own communal land only so long as this land was cultivated by it. Among other peoples of Melanesia, allotment lands were already reserved for the family even in those cases when they were not cultivated. And among the ancient Germans, the land actually became the property of individual families, although it was considered to belong to the community.
During the period of the primitive neighborhood community, the formation of private property took place, which accumulated in the form of food products, tools, weapons, handicrafts, and livestock. According to ethnology, wealth accumulated among representatives of the tribal elite, as well as among the most industrious and successful community members. The accumulation of private property ran counter to primitive ideas about the need for equality and mutual assistance, so for a long time traditions were preserved that prevented the accumulation of surpluses. For example, forced redistribution of excessive, according to fellow tribesmen, wealth could be applied. So, among the reindeer herders of the North of Siberia in the XVII-XVIII centuries. the maximum size of the herd per family was determined, according to custom, at one hundred heads, while the surplus was simply taken away either by relatives or neighbors. It was also practiced to liquidate accumulated wealth in the event of the death of their owner - or their direct destruction or distribution of property to participants in the funeral ceremony. This concerned primarily the leaders and could act integral part funeral ritual. Many owners deliberately redistributed their accumulated wealth. For example, the Indian tribes North America existed potlatch- a specific holiday with the distribution of wealth. The organizer of the holiday presented the collected wealth for everyone to see, from blankets to boats and slaves, and then distributed them all to those invited. At the same time, both the size of the distributed wealth and the very fact of their distribution served as a subject of special pride. It is important to note that the organizer of the potlatch could count on reciprocal gifts during holidays of the same kind, which were then arranged by his former guests. Quite often, reciprocal gifts surpassed the initial ones in their total value. On the islands of Melanesia, the role of potlatch was played by prestigious feasts, at which food supplies, sometimes accumulated over months, were eaten by guests in one sitting. At the same time, it was a matter of honor for the organizer of the feast to invite as many companions as possible.
The most important characteristic feature of the primitive neighborhood community is the emergence of classes. With the advent of private property, property and social differentiation becomes more noticeable. As a result of social inequality, exploitation - gratuitous appropriation of the results of someone else's work. Exploitation could be intracommunal and intercommunal. The main types of exploitation were enslavement, military robbery, indemnities, tributary, slavery. The main source of slavery was military raids, frequent in the era of the primitive neighboring community. This period was characterized patriarchal slavery- "simple", "primitive" slavery, when slaves were considered the younger members of the family, lived with the owners under the same roof, ate at the same table. The treatment of slaves was quite mild, slaves were used mainly in household may have personal rights and property. Sometimes slavery was not for life and did not immediately begin to be inherited.
During this period, society is born classes - large groups of people who differ in their place in the system of production and in the distribution of the results of labor. Classes gradually took shape not only economically, but also socially and ideologically. Three classes are outlined: wealthy community members who claimed power and all sorts of privileges; ordinary and poor community members who did not have privileges; slaves who were personally not free and limited in their rights.
During the period of the primitive neighboring community, the process of folding the state and law begins, which is called politogenesis. The reasons for the formation of the state can be called the following: the complication of social production, property and social stratification gave rise to contradictions and conflicts; a strengthening of power was needed to ensure control over the economy and social sphere. Character traits the folding of the state: the role of the leader in society is increasing; power is inherited; the leader has permanent assistants - a prototype of future managers, judges; there are taxes in favor of the authorities; there is a division of the population not according to tribal, but according to the territorial principle. The ways of folding the state are called the following: the aristocratic way, when the tribal nobility takes control into their own hands and claims the nobility of origin and the transfer of power by inheritance; a military path, when a military leader, who could be of noble and ignoble origin, is at the head of the community. The leader relied on a squad, which over time could turn into an army. Wars during the period of the primitive neighboring community become regular, as military raids made it possible to quickly enrich themselves. L.G. Morgan proposed the term military democracy"- the primacy of the military leader with his retinue while maintaining such collective authorities as the people's assembly and the council of elders. The third is the plutocratic way of the emergence of the state (from the Greek "plutos" - wealth); it is associated with the nomination of big men - rich and influential people. Bigmen, as a rule, used enslaving forms of exploitation of their fellow tribesmen, and their power was not inherited. There is also the formation of law. Law is a set of norms that express the will of the ruling class and are protected by the state. Law is separated from morality - a set of norms protected by force public opinion and customs. The most ancient law is called customary law, since it was not written down and ancient customs served as its source.
The neighborhood community is a traditional form of human organization. It was divided into rural and territorial communities.
Family and neighborhood community
The neighboring community is considered the latest form of tribal community. Unlike a tribal community, a neighboring community combines not only collective labor and consumption of surplus product, but also land use (communal and individual).
In a tribal community, people were related by blood. The main occupation of such a community was gathering and hunting. The main occupation of the neighboring community was agriculture and cattle breeding.
neighborhood community
Under the neighborhood community it is customary to consider a certain socio-economic structure. This structure consists of several separate families, genera. This society is united by a common territory and joint efforts on the means of production. This means of production can be called land, various lands, pastures for animals.
Main features of the neighborhood community
– common area;
– common land use;
- communal governing bodies of such a community;
A sign that clearly characterizes such a community is the presence of separate families. Such families conduct an independent economy, independently dispose of all the produced product. Each family independently cultivates its territory.
Although the family is economically isolated, they may or may not be related by family ties.
The neighboring community opposed the tribal community, it was the main factor in the decomposition of the tribal structure of society. The neighboring community had a very big advantage, which helped the neighboring community to eradicate the tribal structure. The main advantage is not only the social organization, but the socio-economic organization of society.
The neighborhood community was replaced by the class division of society. The reason for this was the emergence of private property, the emergence of excess product and the increase in the population of the planet. Communal land is transferred to private land ownership, in Western Europe such land ownership became known as allod.
Despite this, communal property is still preserved to this day. Some primitive tribes, in particular the tribes of Oceania, retain the neighborhood structure of society.
Neighborhood community among the Eastern Slavs
Historians call the neighboring community of Eastern Slavs the Vervy. This term was removed from Russkaya Pravda by Yaroslav the Wise.
Verv is a community organization on the territory Kievan Rus. The rope was also common in the territory of modern Croatia. For the first time, the rope is mentioned in Russkaya Pravda (a collection of laws of Kievan Rus, created by Prince Yaroslav the Wise).
Vervi was characterized by circular responsibility. This means that if someone from the community commits a crime, then the entire community can be punished. For example, if someone in the vervi committed a murder, but all members of the community had to pay the prince a fine called vira.
General military service was established on the rope.
During its development, Verv was no longer a rural community, it was already several settlements, consisting of several small villages.
In the personal possession of the family in the vervi, there were household land, all household buildings, tools and other equipment, livestock, a plot for plowing and mowing. The public ownership of the ropes included forests, lands, nearby water bodies, meadows, arable land, and fishing grounds.
On early stage development, the rope was closely connected by blood ties, but over time they cease to play a dominant role.
Old Russian neighborhood community
The ancient Russian community, according to the chronicle, was called Mir.
The neighborhood community or the world is the lowest link social organization Rus'. Such communities often united into tribes, sometimes tribes, during the threat of attack, united into tribal alliances.
The earth has become a land. For the use of patrimonial land, peasants (communes) had to pay tribute to the prince. Such a fiefdom was inherited, from father to son. Peasants living in a rural neighborhood community were called "black peasants", and such lands were called "black". All issues in the neighboring communities were decided by the people's assembly. To participate in it could be united in unions of tribes.
Such tribes could wage wars among themselves. As a result, a squad appears - professional equestrian warriors. The squad was led by the prince, in addition, she was his personal guard. In the hands of such a prince, all power in the community was concentrated.
Princes often used their military force and authority. And thanks to this, they took away part of the residual product from ordinary community members. Thus began the formation of the state - Kievan Rus.
The earth has become a land. For the use of patrimonial land, peasants (communes) had to pay tribute to the prince. Such a fiefdom was inherited, from father to son. Peasants living in a rural neighborhood community were called "black peasants", and such lands were called "black". All issues in the neighboring communities were decided by the people's assembly. Only adult men, that is, warriors, could participate in it. From this it should be concluded that the form of government in the community was military democracy.
For a long time they kept their patriarchal way of life. The people were divided into tribes, a separate tribe consisted of clans. A clan was a number of families united by family ties, owning common property and managed by one person - a foreman. Therefore, in Slavic tribes the concept of "senior" means not only "old", but also "wise", "respected". tribal foreman - a middle-aged man or old age- had great power in the family. To make more global decisions, for example, defense against an external enemy, the foremen gathered in the veche and developed a common strategy.
The collapse of the tribal community
Starting from the 7th century, the tribes began to settle, while occupying vast territories. The following factors contributed to this process:
The emergence of private ownership of agricultural implements and products of labor activity;
Ownership of own plots of fertile land.
The connection of childbirth was lost, the patriarchal tribal community is being replaced by new form social structure- neighborhood community. Now people are not bound common ancestors, but the contiguity of the occupied territories and the same methods of farming.
The main differences between the neighboring community and the tribal
The reason for the weakening of family ties was the gradual estrangement of kindred families from each other. The main differences of the new social structure consisted of the following:
In the tribal community, everything was common - mining, harvest, tools. The neighboring community introduced the concept of private property along with public property;
The neighboring community connects people with cultivated lands, the tribal community - by kinship;
In the tribal community, the elder was the elder, while in the neighboring community, the decisions were made by the owner of each house - the householder.
Neighborhood lifestyle
Regardless of the name of the ancient Russian neighborhood community in each individual case, they all had many similar administrative and economic features. Each individual family acquired its own dwelling, had its own arable land and mowing, separately fished and went hunting.
Each family owned meadows and arable land, dwellings, domestic animals, and tools. Forests, rivers were common, and lands belonging to the entire community were also preserved.
Gradually, the power of the elders was lost, but the importance of small farms increased. If necessary, people did not go to distant relatives for help. The homeowners of the whole district came together and decided at the meeting important questions. Global interest forced to choose the one responsible for solving the problem - an elected elder.
Scholars have not come to a consensus on the name of the Old Russian neighborhood community. Most likely, in different lands it was called differently. Two names of the Slavic neighboring community have survived to our times - zadruga and verv.
The stratification of society
The neighboring community among the Eastern Slavs gave rise to the formation of social classes. The stratification into rich and poor begins, the allocation of the ruling elite, which strengthened its power through spoils of war, trade, exploitation of poorer neighbors (farm labor, and later slavery).
From the wealthiest and most influential householders, the nobility begins to form - a deliberate child, which consisted of such representatives of the neighboring community:
Elders - represented the administrative authority;
Leaders (princes) - exercised complete control over the material and by human resourses communities during wartime;
Magi - spiritual power, which was based on the observance of communal rituals and on the worship of pagan spirits and gods.
The most important issues were still decided at the meeting of the elders, but gradually the right to make decisions passed to the leaders. The princes in the neighboring community relied on their squad, which over time acquired the features of a professional military detachment.
The prototype of statehood
Tribal nobility, successful merchants and the wealthiest community members became the nobility, the ruling class. Land has become a value worth fighting for. In the early neighborhood community, the weaker landowners were driven from the right plots of land. During the period of the emergence of statehood, the peasants remained on the land, but on the condition that they would pay taxes. Wealthy landowners exploited their poorer neighbors and used slave labor. Patriarchal slavery arose at the expense of prisoners captured in military raids. A ransom was demanded for captives from noble families, the poor fell into slavery. Later, ruined peasants became slaves of wealthy landowners.
The change in the form of social structure led to the enlargement and consolidation of neighboring communities. Tribes formed and tribal unions. The centers of the unions were cities - well-fortified settlements. At the dawn of the emergence of the state system, the Eastern Slavs had two major political centers - Novgorod and Kyiv.
