Ministry of Agriculture

Russian Federation

Voronezh State Agrarian

University named after K.D. Glinka.

Department of Fatherland History

Test

in cultural studies on the topic:

Culture of Ancient Rome

Completed by: part-time student

1 course Faculty of Economics

Ivanova Natalia Nikolaevna

Voronezh - 2010

Introduction

Architecture of Ancient Rome

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

Painting of Ancient Rome

Literature of Ancient Rome

Religion of ancient Rome

Conclusion

Bibliography

The culture of Ancient Rome went through a difficult path of development, absorbing cultural traditions many peoples and different eras. She gave the world classic examples of military art, government and law, urban planning, etc.

On the formation of ancient Roman culture influenced artistic values and the traditions of the two great cultures of the ancient world: the Etruscans and the Greeks. According to the Etruscan model, round Roman temples were built. The Latin alphabet is also based on the Etruscan. The influence of the Greeks began from the 3rd century BC. after the conquest of the Greek colonies in southern Italy. The translation into Latin of the Odyssey determined the development of Roman poetry, but the source of inspiration for the poets was their own folklore.

The development of Roman civilization led to a significant growth and rise of the capital of the state - the city of Rome, which in the I-III centuries. BC. numbered from 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. Roman cities developed around the urban center, which included a forum, a basilica, baths, amphitheaters, temples dedicated to local and Roman gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, equestrian statues, schools and roads.

Ancient Rome gave the world greatest creations sculpture, architecture, painting, literature

The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and embodied it in larger cities. These layouts corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and severe discipline, the attraction to entertainment and splendor. In Roman cities, to a certain extent, the needs of the free population, sanitary needs were taken into account; front streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here. Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, livable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred to nymphs), palaces, villas and just good houses with good-quality beautiful furniture - everything that characteristic of a civilized society. The Romans for the first time began to build "typical" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which the city center was erected. The urban planning was subject to a strictly thought-out scheme.

The practical warehouse of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in the sobriety of thinking, the normative idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account all life situations, in the attraction to accurate historical facts, in the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion. Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans started new era world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into the urban, rural ensemble and landscape. The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales, in the laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. A huge conquest of the Romans was the satisfaction of the practical everyday and social needs of not only the ruling class, but also the masses of the urban population.

Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to change. Work was carried out to drain the once marshy Forum, where shopping arcades and porticos were built. On the Capitoline Hill, a temple of Jupiter was erected by craftsmen from Etruria with a pediment decorated with a quadriga. Rome turned into a large populous city with powerful fortifications, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king - Tarquinius the Proud - the main underground sewer pipe was built in Rome - the Great cesspool, which serves the "eternal city" to this day.

The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which both geographically and spiritually united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.

Under the Etruscans, this lowland was a market place, and only after the birth of the Republic did the Forum acquire the significance of a center political life. Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the Republicans built the Basilica of Aemilia and Tabularium (where the tribunal and the state archive, respectively, launched their activities), paving the entire space of the Forum with travertine slabs. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.

In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in Hellenistic cities, new plan development proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized hitherto free drawing of the ensemble of the republican forum. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of the Roman Empire to the whole world. The new Curia for holding senatorial assemblies, with marble stands for speakers, contributed to the glorification of the ideals of republican Rome in the context of the imperial form of government. In subsequent eras, Roman emperors continued to decorate the Forum. Diocletian restored the building of the Curia, destroyed after a fire in 283 AD. Septimius Severus erected an arch in his name. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Forum, however, forever remained a symbol of the greatness of republican Rome, an example for politicians and popular tribunes to follow in subsequent eras.

Sculpture of Ancient Rome

Roman sculpture, unlike Greek, did not create samples of an ideally beautiful person and was associated with the funeral cult of ancestors - the defenders of the hearth. The Romans sought to accurately reproduce the portrait resemblance to the deceased, hence such features of Roman sculpture as concreteness, sobriety, realism in details, sometimes seeming excessive. One of the roots of the realism of the Roman portrait was its technique: according to many scholars, the Roman portrait developed from death masks, which were customarily removed from the dead and kept at the home altar along with figures of lars and penates. In addition to wax masks, bronze, marble and terracotta busts of ancestors were kept in the lararium. Cast masks were made directly from the faces of the deceased and then processed in order to give them a greater natural resemblance. This led to an excellent knowledge of the characteristics of the musculature by the Roman masters. human face and his facial expressions.

During the Republic, it became customary to erect in public places statues (already in full height) political officials or military commanders. Such an honor was provided by decision of the Senate, usually in commemoration of victories, triumphs, political achievements. Such portraits were usually accompanied by a dedicatory inscription telling about the merits.

With the onset of the Empire, the portrait of the emperor and his family became one of the most powerful means of propaganda.

The Roman sculptural portrait as an independent and original artistic phenomenon can be clearly traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. - period of the Roman Republic. A characteristic feature of the portraits of this period is extreme naturalism and plausibility in the transfer of facial features that distinguish a particular person from any other person. These tendencies date back to Etruscan art.

The reign of Emperor Octavian Augustus was the golden age of Roman culture. An important aspect that influenced the formation of Roman art of this period was Greek art. classical period, whose strict forms came in handy when creating a majestic empire.

The female portrait acquires a more independent meaning than before.

Under the successors of Emperor Augustus - the rulers from the Julio-Claudian dynasty - the image of the deified emperor becomes traditional.

In the time of Emperor Flavius, there is a tendency to idealization - giving ideal features. Idealization went in two ways: the emperor was portrayed as a god or a hero; or virtue was given to his image, his wisdom and piety were emphasized. The size of such images often exceeded nature, the portraits themselves had a monumental image, the individual features of the face were smoothed out for this, which gave the features more regularity and generalization.

In the time of Trajan, in search of support, society turns to the era of the "valiant Republic", "the simple mores of the ancestors", including its aesthetic ideals. There is a reaction against the "corrupting" Greek influence. These moods corresponded to the severe character of the emperor himself.

During the time of the emperor Marcus Aurelius - the philosopher on the throne - was created equestrian statue, which became the model for all subsequent equestrian monuments in Europe.

Painting of Ancient Rome

Roman art, while developing within the framework of the ancient slave era, at the same time differed greatly from it. The formation and formation of the culture of the Romans took place in different historical conditions. The knowledge of the world by the Romans took on new forms. The artistic understanding of life by the Romans bore the stamp of an analytical attitude. Their art is perceived as more prosaic in contrast to the Greek. A striking feature of the art of Rome is its closest connection with life. AT artistic monuments reflected many historical events. The change in the social system - the change of the republic by the empire, the change of dynasties of the rulers of Rome - directly influenced changes in pictorial, sculptural and architectural forms. That is why it is sometimes not difficult to determine the time of creation of a particular work by stylistic features.

With the transfer of emphasis to the interior and the appearance of ceremonial rooms in Roman houses and villas, a system of highly artistic murals developed on the basis of the Greek tradition. Pompeian paintings introduce the main features of ancient frescoes. The Romans also used painting to decorate facades, using them as signs for commercial premises or craft workshops. By their nature, Pompeian murals are usually divided into 4 groups, conditionally called styles. The first style, inlaid, widespread in the 2nd century. BC. Imitates wall cladding with squares of multi-colored marble or jasper. The murals of the first type are constructive, emphasizing architectural basis walls, they correspond to the severe laconism of forms inherent in republican architecture. Since the 1980s BC. The second style was used - architectural and promising. The walls remained smooth and were divided by picturesquely - illusoryly executed columns, pilasters, cornices, and porticos. The interior acquired splendor due to the fact that a large multi-figure composition was often placed between the columns, realistically reproducing plots on mythological themes from the works of famous Greek artists. The attraction to nature inherent in the Romans prompted them to illusoryly reproduce landscapes on stages using linear and aerial perspectives and thereby, as it were, expand the interior space of the room. The third style, orienting, is characteristic of the era of the empire. In contrast to the splendor of the second style, the third style is distinguished by rigor, grace and a sense of proportion. Balanced compositions, linear ornament, on a bright background, emphasize the plane of the wall. Sometimes the central field of the wall stands out, where the paintings of some famous ancient master are reproduced. The fourth decorative style spreads in the middle of the 1st c. AD Splendor and decorativeness, spatial - architectural solution, he continues the tradition of the second style. At the same time, the richness of ornamental motifs is reminiscent of the murals of the third style. Fantastic and dynamic perspective-tuned structures destroy the closedness and flatness of the walls, create the impression of theatrical scenery, reproducing the intricate facades of palaces, gardens, visible through their windows, or art galleries- copies of famous originals, executed in a free pictorial manner. The fourth style gives an idea of ​​the ancient theatrical scenery. Pompeian paintings played important role in the further development of the decorative art of Western Europe.

Literature of Ancient Rome

The first steps of the Roman fiction associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical Greek literature, although they used Roman subjects and some Roman forms. There is no reason to deny the existence of oral Roman poetry that arose in a distant era. The earliest forms of poetic creativity are undoubtedly associated with a cult.

Thus arose a religious hymn, a sacred song, the model of which is the song of the Salii that has come down to us. It is composed of Saturnian verses. This is the oldest monument of Italian free meter, analogies to which we find in the oral poetry of other peoples.

In patrician families, songs and legends were composed that glorified famous ancestors. One of the types of creativity was elogies, composed in honor of the deceased representatives of noble families. The earliest example of elogy is the epitaph dedicated to L. Cornelius Scipio the Bearded, which also gives a sample of Saturnian size. From other types of Roman oral art one can name funeral songs performed by special mourners, all kinds of conspiracies and spells, also composed in verse. Thus, long before the appearance of Roman fiction in the true sense of the word, the Romans created poetic size, a Saturn verse that was used by early poets.

The beginnings of the Roman folk drama should be sought in various rural festivities, but its development is associated with the influence neighboring nations. The main type of dramatic performances were atellani.

Oki appeared in Etruria and were associated with cult activities; but this form was developed by the Oscans, and the very name "atellan" comes from the Campanian city of Atella. Atellani were special plays, the content of which was taken from rural life and the life of small towns.

In atellani, the main roles were played by the same types in the form of characteristic masks (glutton, boastful fool, stupid old man, hunchbacked cunning, etc.). Initially, the Atellani were presented impromptu. Subsequently, in the 1st c. BC, this improvisational form was used by Roman playwrights as a special genre of comedy.

The beginning of Roman prose also belongs to ancient times. In the early era, written laws, treaties, liturgical books. Conditions public life contributed to the development of eloquence. Some of the speeches delivered were recorded.

Cicero, for example, was aware of the speech of Appius Claudius Caecus, delivered in the Senate on the proposal of Pyrrhus to make peace with him. We also find indications that eulogies appeared in Rome already at an early age.

Roman literature arises as imitative literature. The first Roman poet was Livius Andronicus, who translated the Odyssey into Latin.

By origin, Livius was a Greek from Tarentum. In 272 he was brought to Rome as a prisoner, then he was released and taught the children of his patron and other aristocrats. The translation of the Odyssey was done in Saturnian verse. His language was not distinguished by elegance, and even word formations alien to the Latin language were found in it. It was the first poetic work written in Latin. In Roman schools for many years they studied according to the translation of the Odyssey made by Andronicus.

Livius Andronicus wrote several comedies and tragedies which were translations or adaptations of Greek works.

During the life of Livy, the poetic activity of Gnaeus Nevius (about 274 - 204), a Campanian native, who owns an epic work on the first Punic War with a summary of the previous Roman history, began.

In addition, Nevius wrote several tragedies, among them those that were based on Roman legends.

Since the Romans performed in the tragedies of Naevius, dressed in a solemn costume - a toga with a purple border. Neviy also wrote comedies in which he did not hide his democratic convictions. In one comedy, he ironically spoke of the then omnipotent Scipio the Elder; at the address of the Metellus, he said: "The fate of the evil Metellus in Rome is consuls." For his poetry, Nevius was imprisoned and released from there only thanks to the intercession of the people's tribunes. However, he had to retire from Rome.

Religion of ancient Rome

Early Roman religion was animistic, i.e. recognized the existence of all kinds of spirits, it also had elements of totemism, which affected, in particular, in the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. Gradually, under the influence of the Etruscans, who, like the Greeks, represented gods in human form, the Romans switched to anthropomorphism. The first temple in Rome - the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill - was built by Etruscan masters. Roman mythology in its initial development was reduced to animism, i.e. faith in the inspiration of nature. The ancient Italians worshiped the souls of the dead, and the main motive for worship was the fear of their supernatural power. For the Romans, as for the Semites, the gods seemed to be terrible forces that had to be reckoned with, propitiating them with strict observance of all rituals. Every moment of his life, the Roman was afraid of the displeasure of the gods and, in order to enlist their favor, did not undertake and did not do a single thing without prayer and established formalities. In contrast to the artistically gifted and mobile Hellenes, the Romans did not have a folk epic poetry; them religious performances expressed in a few, monotonous and meager in content myths. In the gods, the Romans saw only the will (numen), which interfered with human life.

The Roman gods did not have their own Olympus or genealogy, and were depicted as symbols: Mana - under the guise of snakes, Jupiter - under the guise of a stone, Mars - under the guise of a spear, Vesta - under the guise of fire. The original system of Roman mythology - judging by the data modified under the most diverse influences that ancient literature tells us - was reduced to a list of symbolic, impersonal, deified concepts, under the auspices of which a person's life consisted from his conception to death; no less abstract and impersonal were the deities of souls, whose cult was ancient basis family religion. At the second stage of mythological representations were the deities of nature, mainly rivers, springs and the earth, as the producer of all living things. Next come the deities of heavenly space, the deities of death and the underworld, the deities - the personification of the spiritual and moral aspects of man, as well as various relationships in social life, and, finally, foreign gods and heroes.

Along with the gods, the Romans continued to worship impersonal forces. Matzos - the souls of the dead, geniuses - spirits - the patrons of men, lares - the keepers of the hearth and family, penates - the patrons of the house and the whole city were considered to be disposed towards people. Larvas were considered evil spirits - the souls of the unburied dead, lemurs - the ghosts of the dead, chasing people, etc. Already in the tsarist era, one can notice some formalism in the attitude of the Romans towards religion. All cult functions were distributed among various priests united in colleges. The high priests were the pontiffs, who oversaw other priests, were in charge of rituals, funeral cult, etc. One of their important duties was the compilation of calendars that marked the days favorable for holding meetings, concluding treaties, starting hostilities, etc. There were special colleges of priests - soothsayers: the augurs guessed by the flight of birds, the haruspices - by the entrails of sacrificial animals. Flamnin priests served the cults of certain gods, fetial priests monitored the exact observance of the principles of international law. As in Greece, the priests in Rome are not a special caste, but elected officials.

The culture and art of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to mankind, the significance of which can hardly be overestimated. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a vast part of the world. Only for this he is worthy of enduring glory and memory of his descendants. In addition, the art of the Roman period has left many remarkable monuments in a variety of fields, from architecture to glass vessels. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to which it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of the Christian art of modern times.

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The culture of ancient Rome is briefly studied in all humanitarian courses of a civilizational orientation, however, all the diversity can hardly be seen in an overview course. In many ways, the culture of ancient Rome is briefly taught in order to only affect the cognitive interest of students, to force them to acquire knowledge themselves.

Let us pay some attention to the peculiarities of Roman culture in order to nevertheless form, albeit a flawed, but superficial impression of the heritage of ancient civilization.

Roman culture largely continued Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.

Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.

The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then they completely ceased to fulfill them, leaving only the pantheon familiar to us. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion took on a more slender outline, and the gods have long become mythology.

The Romans are also known for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. What are the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the works of these scientists, the first philosophical problems arose, many of which have not been resolved to this day.

In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved particular success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livius; in literature - Livius Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valery Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Nason, Plutarch. It is also necessary to recall the Roman law, which is used by all of Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.

A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for the inhabitants was the circus, in which gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with burning scenes of battles, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.

A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome will not even describe half of what was built in the then city-state.

The Etruscans and Hellenes left to the Romans their rich heritage, on the basis of which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the buildings were for public purposes - aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.

But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, you can add to this the rapid flowering of portraits depicted in stone - the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.

The culture of ancient Rome gave the world a rich heritage, the significance of which is difficult to assess. But we still managed to apply the main achievements.

Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome- one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World, the greatest state of Antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma - Rome), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.

The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Iran in the east to Portugal in the west. To the modern world Ancient Rome gave Roman law, architectural forms and solutions (for example, arch and dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity, as a religion, was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. official language the ancient Roman state was Latin. Religion during most of its existence was polytheistic the unofficial coat of arms of the empire was Golden Eagle(aquila).

ancient roman civilization gave the world carefully planned cities, palaces and temples, public institutions, paved roads and magnificent bridges. Their original engineering solutions not only determined the architectural appearance of the powerful Roman state, but also gave a huge impetus to the development of architectural ideas of subsequent eras.

In the II century. BC. Rome subjugated Greece, the art of Ancient Rome managed not only to inherit, but also creatively develop the best achievements of ancient Greek masters, creating its own original style. Primarily The Romans borrowed the pantheon of gods from the Greeks. The main place in the Roman pantheon was occupied by Jupiter the Thunderer, the powerful ruler of the sky, the personification of sunlight, thunderstorms, storms. The furious god of war Mars was revered as the father of the great and warlike Roman people.

In ancient Italy Mars was the god of fertility. In his honor, the first month of the Roman year, in which the rite of expulsion of winter was performed, was named March. Mars later became the god of war. The Temple of Mars was built on the Field of Mars outside the city walls, since according to the laws of Rome, an armed army should not enter the territory of the city. Mars is the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city. Mars was the guardian of Rome.

Statue of the god Mars.

Greek civilization had a great influence on the formation of Roman mythology. The vast majority of Greek gods were romanized. In Rome, they easily accepted other gods, thus trying to attract them to their side. Goddess of the home Vesta revered as the patroness of the state. The functions of Hera, Athena, Hermes, Aphrodite, Dionysus, Demeter, Artemis, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Hephaestus were performed respectively Juno, Minerva, Mercury, Venus, Bacchus, Ceres, Diana, Neptune, Pluto, Phoebus, Vulcan.

Jupiter surrounded by gods and goddesses.

In the II century. BC. The center of Rome becomes the Roman Forum (forum Romanium) - the central commercial and public square, bounded by three hills: the Capitol, the Palatine, the Quirinal.

Roman forum

The forum was built up gradually and acquired an asymmetric character. In ancient times, this area was desert swampy with numerous springs and a stream, until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this place was used for burials. In 184 BC. The first basilica was built in Rome ( the so-called Basilica Portia) - a large indoor hall for the meeting of merchants, court hearings. However, republican Rome with its narrow, up to 7 m wide streets, brick high-rise tenement houses and the cramped old Forum could not be compared with the beautiful Hellenistic cities of the East, for example, Alexandria of Egypt. Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus sought to turn Rome into a beautiful, spacious, marble city.

Two new, larger Forums were built in Rome - Caesar's Forum and August Forum, monumental buildings appeared on the Field of Mars, intended for military and gymnastic exercises, and triumphal arches.

roman basilica

The Colosseum was a three-story structure (later a fourth floor was added) with a complex system of corridors, stairs and ventilation openings. Three floors were an arcade, placed one on top of the other, the fourth was a solid wall, the building was magnificently decorated with colonnades. The first gallery was intended for the privileged class, the second - for the citizens, the third was provided to the common people, on the fourth floor there were wooden benches and places to stand. On hot or rainy days, an awning was pulled over the arena. For theatrical performances, the arena was covered with a wooden floor, for gladiator fights it was covered with sand, and for scenes of a sea battle it was filled with water. The amphitheater was designed for 56 thousand spectators. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the inhabitants of Rome and visitors the main place of entertainment spectacles, such as gladiator fights, animal persecution, naval battle(naumachia). In 1349 powerful earthquake in Rome caused the collapse of the Colosseum, especially its southern part. After that, they began to look at it as a source of obtaining building material, and not only the stones that had fallen off, but also those stones deliberately broken out of it, began to go to new structures.

The beauty of the Colosseum is in conflict with its purpose: this building was built to arrange bloody performances that amazed even contemporaries with their cruelty. The Colosseum was also a reminder of the power of the Roman Empire. The fate of a thousand people was decided inside the stone walls. Here gladiators died in battle, here criminals found their end.

At the beginning of the 2nd century in Rome, the time of the reign of the emperor comes Mark Ulpia Traiana(97-117), nicknamed " happy age". Led by an architect Apollodorus of Damascus was built Forum of Trajan - a huge area with a length of 280 and a width of 200 meters. The forum contained the largest basilica in ancient Rome - the Basilica of Ulpia, as well as the 38-meter-high memorial column of Trajan, built of marble. The column is hollow inside, its trunk was wrapped in a spiral ribbon with reliefs depicting the military exploits of Trajan.

The relief tells of two wars between Trajan and the Slavic-speaking tribes of the Dacians. The actions of the Roman army are mainly depicted: movement, construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. Individual figures are rendered very realistically, so that the relief of the column serves as a valuable source for studying weapons, armor, costumes - both Romans and Dacians of that time. At the base of the column is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife were placed.

In 125 under the leadership of Apollodorus of Damascus was built Pantheon - the temple of all gods. The Pantheon was rebuilt from a round pool that was part of the Baths of Agrippa. The gigantic cylindrical volume was covered by a spherical dome 43.2 meters in diameter. In the center of the dome was a nine-meter lighting hole. At noon, the most powerful column of light penetrates through it, the light is very palpable, it "does not spread", but remains in the form of a giant light beam and becomes almost tangible. On November 1, 609, the pagan temple was illuminated as Christian church Saint Mary and Martyrs.

At the beginning of the III century. were built in Rome Baths of Caracalla. They included many structures. In addition to pools and baths, they contained palestras - playgrounds for sports exercises, recreation facilities, libraries, and shops. The baths accommodated up to 1800 people at the same time. General dimensions thermal baths of Caracalla - 353x335 meters (11 ha).

Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla.

The main premises of the thermae included a pool with cold water, a large hall with dry hot air and a round pool with hot water. Already in the 5th century n. e. The Baths of Caracalla were considered one of the wonders of Rome. People came here not only to wash off the dirt, they rested here. Baths for the poor were of particular importance. No wonder one of the modern scientists called the terms the best gift that the emperors made to the Roman population. The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. People left with a reserve of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally.

In the hollow between the Aventine and Palatine hills was built hippodrome – circus maximus , the largest in Rome (600 mx150 m). The stands could hold about 200,000 spectators. It is believed that chariot races were first held here in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e.

Hippodrome reconstruction

The Romans achieved great success in construction aqueducts (water conduit, lat. aqua - water, duco - lead), including those made in the form of bridges over rivers. The Romans built aqueducts in the form of canals and pipes. The total length of the aqueducts of Rome was about 440 km, however, only 47 km of them were above ground, most of them were underground.

Roman aqueduct. Scheme of work.

A lot of work was applied in ancient Rome to the construction roads. A wide network of roads was created, crossing many parts of Western Europe, consisting of approximately 370 big roads, of which about 30 led to Rome. Roman roads also passed through the Alps. Roads were built in earnest. The thickness of the roadbed, which consisted of gravel, cobblestone and hewn stone, laid in lime mortar, was approximately 1 meter. Distance markers and path crossings were used. The most famous was the Appian Way, built in the 4th century BC. BC e. and having a length of about 350 km and a very large width at that time - up to 4.3 m. The resumption of the construction of paved roads in Europe after the fall of Ancient Rome occurred only in the XIII century.

Roman road today. Road building technology.

Sculpture occupies a special place in Roman culture and, above all, sculptural portrait. The Roman sculptor set himself the task of not only conveying the physical originality of the features of the depicted person, but also expressing the originality of character. Images of business people, speakers, citizens of the republic are not idealized, they are natural and realistic. The plastic realism of the Roman masters reached its peak in the 1st century BC. BC, giving rise to such masterpieces as marble portraits of Pompey and Caesar. The author of the portraits was able to express in facial features many shades of the character of the hero, his virtues and vices. In the portrait of Pompey, for example, in his frozen wide, fleshy face with a short upturned nose, narrow eyes and deep and long wrinkles on a low forehead, the artist sought to reflect not only the momentary mood of the hero, but also his inherent ambition and even vanity, strength and at the same time, some indecision, a tendency to vacillate. Around 40 BC in Rome there were tendencies to imitate the early classical masters of Greek sculpture. Portraits of this time are characterized by classical simplicity, majesty and seriousness.

The culture of Ancient Rome had a significant impact on the subsequent world and in particular European culture. The Latin language formed the basis of many European languages, the legal systems of many countries of the world are based on the principles of classical Roman law; literature, fine arts, architecture of Ancient Rome inspired and continue to inspire many generations of subsequent artists.

Questions and tasks:

1. What is the impact on roman art provided by the culture of ancient Greece?

2. Take a private tour of ancient Rome

3. Try to compose a story on the topic: "The Roman emperor in a sculptural portrait and in life (optional)

4. Tell us about the holidays and spectacles in Ancient Rome.

Educational film "Real Gladiator"

After getting acquainted with the presented materials, it is necessary to perform verification and control tasks presented here. If necessary, control materials are sent to the teacher's e-mail at: [email protected]

The culture of ancient Rome existed from the 8th century. BC. and until 476 AD. Unlike the ancient Greek culture, which is traditionally awarded the highest words and honey agaric, the ancient Roman is evaluated differently by everyone. Thus, the well-known culturologists O. Spengler and A. Toynbee do not perceive Ancient Rome as an independent and original culture and civilization, believing that it was only the final, crisis stage of Antiquity. His contribution was limited mainly to the development of the state, law and technology. In all other respects, especially in spiritual culture - religion, philosophy, science, art, literature - Rome did not introduce anything fundamentally new and original, did not go beyond borrowing and popularizing what was done by the Greeks, never rose to the heights of Hellenic culture.

At the same time, other scientists adhere to the opposite point of view, believing that Roman culture and civilization will be no less distinctive and original than others. This view seems to be more reasonable.

The Romans were in many ways similar to the Hellenes, but at the same time they differed significantly from them. It is worth noting that they created ϲʙᴏyu system of ideals and values, the main ones among them were patriotism, honor and dignity, fidelity to civic duty, veneration of the gods, the idea of ​​the Roman people being specially chosen by God, of Rome as the highest value, etc.

The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of the free person, who allowed the violation of the established laws of society. Against. they in every way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. It is worth saying that for them the public interest was higher than the interests of the individual. With all this, the Romans intensified the antagonism between a free-born citizen and a slave, considering unworthy for the former not only the occupation of a craft, but also the activities of a sculptor, painter, actor and playwright. Politics, war, the development of law, historiography, and agriculture were considered the most worthy occupations of a freed Roman. The Romans, therefore, more clearly defined the qualities of a free person, excluding from them such “servile vices” as lies, dishonesty and flattery. Rome reached the highest level of development of slavery.

Unlike the Hellenes, the Romans were much more warlike. Therefore, military prowess was for them one of the highest virtues. Military booty and conquest served as the main source of livelihood. military prowess, feats of arms and merit was the main means and basis for success in politics, for obtaining high positions and employment high position in society. Thanks to the wars of conquest, Rome turned from a small town into a world empire.

In general, the most significant achievements of ancient Rome are associated with civilization and material culture. Here, among the generally recognized achievements ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙ are such as the famous Roman law, beautiful roads, magnificent buildings, grandiose aqueducts, etc. The contribution of Rome to the development of statehood and its forms such as the republic and empire will also be very significant.

Concerning spiritual culture, here the achievements of Rome look more modest, although they certainly exist. Compared to Greek Roman religious and mythological representations become more complex and less uniform. Many Greek gods passed to the Romans, taking on new names under ϶ᴛᴏm: Zeus became Jupiter, Kronos became Saturn, Poseidon became Neptune, Aphrodite became Venus, Artemis became Diana, etc. The Romans also borrowed a lot from other religions. With all this, in their mythology, a special place is occupied by the so-called “Roman myth”, or myths associated with Rome, acting as the “Roman idea” - possession and power over the whole world, “Rome is the center of the world”, “Rome is the eternal city” .

In philosophy and science, the Romans also largely followed the Greeks. They were not so much interested theoretical studies and the search for new knowledge, how much generalization and systematization of already accumulated knowledge, the creation of multi-volume encyclopedias, which served the cause of education and enlightenment.

Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

Approximately the same picture was observed in the field of artistic culture. Many Roman painters not just imitated the Greek masters, but literally copied their works. At the same time, their merit lay in ϶ᴛᴏm, since many masterpieces of Greek art have come down to us precisely in Roman copies. Along with this, Roman artists were able to make their own and very significant contribution to the development of art.

AT sculpture they were the first to give their works unique personality traits, fill them with deep psychologism and reveal in them inner world person. Roman writers created a new genre in literature - the genre of the novel. Roman architects left behind beautiful monuments of architecture.

Speaking about the most common features and characteristics of Roman culture, it should be noted that, unlike Greek culture, it will be much more rational and grounded, aimed at practical use and expediency. This feature was well shown by Cicero using mathematics as an example: “the Greeks studied geometry in order to understand the world, while the Romans studied ɥᴛᴏ in order to measure land plots.”

On the whole, Greek and Roman cultures were in a state of strong interaction and mutual influence, which eventually led to their synthesis, to the creation unified Greco-Roman culture, which subsequently formed the basis of Byzantine culture and had a huge impact on the cultures of the Slavic peoples and Western Europe.

According to existing legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. on the Tiber River by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. From ϶ᴛᴏ the history of monarchical, or "royal" Rome begins, since it was headed by elected king, acting simultaneously as the high priest, commander, legislator and judge, and with him was senate.

The main socio-economic unit was the patriarchal family (surname) Do not forget that the most important public affairs, including the election of the king, were decided people's assembly. The basis of religious and mythological ideas was made up of many gods and cults, among which a special place was occupied by the creator of the world, the two-faced Janus, as well as Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, etc. There are also numerous religious rites, rituals and holidays, the cult of ancestors.

In the ϶ᴛᴏt period, the formation of Roman culture takes place, in the formation of which neighboring Italian cities take an active part. Etruria and Greece. The Italian influence is felt primarily in certain customs and rituals, as well as in applied arts - ceramics and jewelry of Roman masters. The influence of the Etruscan culture was very significant. The Romans did not borrow many crafts from them, the practice of building cities and the architecture of temples, the secret sciences of divination of priests, certain customs, including the custom of celebrating the victories of commanders with a triumph.

No less strong was the influence of Greek culture, from which the Romans adopted many gods, religious customs and rituals. In 510 BC, after the relentless confrontation between the kings and the senate, the last king, Tarquinius, was overthrown and an aristocratic republic was established in Rome. In the new society, the estates of patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (common people) have developed, between which an endless struggle immediately arises.

As a result of the successes and victories of the plebs, Rome by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. turns into civil society, the main features of which are the equality of political and legal rights citizens, the power of the people's assembly on all major issues, the combination of collective and private land ownership, etc.

In the ϶ᴛᴏt period, Rome significantly expands its possessions and after the victory in the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), which ended with the destruction of Carthage, it turns into a huge power. Discovered new sources of enrichment stimulate acceleration economic development. The socio-political structure of Roman society is changing, in which the nobility - circle of noble families, there is another privileged class - riders, to which rich and noble people belonged.

It is important to know that great changes are also taking place in the culture of Roman society. There has been an increase in the number educated people, the need for which is satisfied by the "import" of educated Greek slaves. It is worth saying that in order to raise the reputation of Rome in the conquered countries, the upper stratum begins to more actively master the Hellenic culture. Rich people send their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities of Greece and Asia Minor to listen to the lectures of famous orators and philosophers. Some of the latter move to Rome, as ϶ᴛᴏ, for example, did the historian It is worth saying - Polybius, who wrote the multi-volume "History", where great mission Rome.

Under Greek influence also develops literature, there will be a whole galaxy of playwrights and poets, among whom should be named Plautus and Note that Terence, whose comedies have survived to this day. From the first Roman tragedians, we know the name of Livius Andronicus, who translated into Latin "It is important to note that the Odyssey" by Homer. Among the po϶ᴛᴏ in ϶ᴛᴏ that time, Lucilius will be the most famous. who narrated verses on everyday topics, ridiculed the passion for luxury.

There is also a strong Greek influence art. Roman sculptors and painters depict scenes from Greek myths in their works. Copies of Greek sculptures are gaining immense popularity and wide demand.

It should be noted that the expansion of Greek culture did not take place without resistance from some influential Romans, who saw in it a danger to morality. At the same time, such external opposition was not very effective. Greek culture continued its victorious march across the Roman expanses, as evidenced primarily by the change in the status of the Greek language, which became not only literary, but also colloquial.

By the middle of the 1st c. BC. The Roman Republic was in a state of crisis. In all areas, and especially in politics, renewal was required, since the vast territory of the state outgrew republican forms of government.

In 27 BC Rome, formally remaining a republic, actually turned into empire with an authoritarian form of government. The first emperor, or princeps (hence the whole empire was called principate), became Octavian, to whom the senate gave the title of Augustus - "exalted by the deity", which gave his power a sacred character.

The Roman Empire lasted five centuries - until 476 AD. Of these, the first century proved to be the most prosperous and fruitful. and the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 BC) is considered golden age Roman culture.

During the period of the Empire, the main currents of the Roman philosophy Epicureanism, Stoicism and Neoplatonism. All of them, to one degree or another, continue the Greek currents, but do not remain entirely secondary, but acquire a completely independent meaning.

The main figures of the Roman epicureanism- Lucretius and Cicero - lived and worked in the 1st century. BC, under the Republic, but Epicureanism, especially in the form of simplified and crude hedonism, becomes widespread in the era of the Empire. In his famous poem "On the Nature of Things" Lucretius develops ideas about the natural origin and existence of the world and man, glorifies the human mind.

Without rejecting the existence of the gods, he believes that they are in distant spaces in a state of blissful rest and do not interfere in the affairs of people. Recognizing pleasure as the highest good of man, the philosopher specifies that it should be sought in the absence of suffering. Epicureanism called for rejoicing and enjoying life, since the main source of enjoyment would be the very fact of life. After death there will be no enjoyment, because there will be no life itself.

Cicero made a huge contribution to the development of Roman culture. It is worth noting that he was a great orator, philosopher, rhetoric theorist, writer, politician. In their writings, Cicero sought to popularize all schools and movements Greek philosophy. In his own concept, he combined mainly Epicureanism and Stoicism, preferring the former.

Roman Stoicism represented by Seneca, Epictetus and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. All three considered philosophy primarily as the doctrine of achieving moral ideal, inner spiritual ϲʙᴏboda and happiness. They saw the way to ϶ᴛᴏmu through reconciliation with external circumstances, through the pursuit of virtue and the rejection of such worldly temptations as wealth, honors and nobility. Stoicism, especially the views of Seneca, had a strong influence on early Christianity.

Roman Neoplatonism, whose founder and main figure was Plato, is a synthesis of the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, purified from scientific and rational content, with the ideas of neo-Pythagorism and Eastern mysticism. Its meaning is the doctrine of ascension human soul to merge with the One in a kind of mystical ecstasy. The influence of Neoplatonism grew as the crisis of Roman society intensified.

In the era of the Empire, it is developing very successfully the science. The most prominent scientists were Pliny the Elder. Ptolemy and Galen. The first of them, being also a writer, narrated the multi-volume "Natural History" (37 volumes), which became a real encyclopedia in all areas of contemporary science. In addition to knowledge about nature, it contains extensive information on the history of ancient art, the history and life of Rome.

Ptolemy created the world famous geocentric system of the world used to determine the position of the planets in the sky. His work "Almagest" was an encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge of Antiquity. He also owns works in optics, mathematics and geography.

The doctor Galen summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient medicine and presented them in the form of a single doctrine, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of natural science. In his fundamental work "On Parts of the Human Body", he was the first to give an anatomical and physiological description of the human body as a whole. Galen experimented on animals and came close to discovering the decisive role of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation.

In the humanities, special attention deserves the activity historians Titus Livius and Tacitus. The first will be the author of the grandiose "Roman History from the Foundation of the City" (142 volumes), in which the meaning of the "Roman myth" is revealed and the history of the transformation of Rome from a small town on the Tiber into a world power is traced. Tacitus in his main works - "Annals" and "History" (14 volumes) - sets out the history of Rome and the Roman Empire, and also provides rich information about the life of the ancient Germans.

The greatest rise in the era of the Empire is experiencing artistic culture. Among the arts, the leading position is occupied by architecture, in the development of which the architect and engineer Vitruvius played a special role. In his treatise Ten Books on Architecture, he summarized the experience of Greek and Roman architecture and developed the concept of a city with a central forum (square), as well as methods for constructing various building mechanisms.

It should be noted that forum became a very common type of Roman building. Six such forums were built. The first, the Romanum Forum, was built in the 6th century. BC, and then five more forums were added to it - Caesar. Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. The most grandiose was Trajan's forum. built by Apollodorus of Damascus and consisting of several structures: a courtyard surrounded by columns, a triumphal arch, a basilica temple.

The real flourishing of Roman architecture reaches under Augustus. According to the historian Suetonius, Augustus declared that, having made Rome brick, he would leave it marble. With ϲʙᴏ her task, he largely coped. Under him, old temples are restored and new ones are built, among which the temples of Apollo and Vesta, which were part of his palace complex, became famous. It is worth noting that he builds the ϲʙᴏth forum - the forum of Augustus, which continued the forum of Caesar and became one of the most magnificent. Under Augustus, his associate Agrippa builds the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods, which is a giant cylindrical building with a diameter of 43 m, covered with a large spherical dome. The temple has become one of the true masterpieces of architecture.

After August, the development of architecture continues. Of the created monuments, the famous Coliseum, or the Flavian amphitheater, which could accommodate more than 50 thousand spectators and was intended for gladiator fights and other spectacles.

The villa of Hadrian in Tivoli is also very remarkable. Located in a picturesque park, it is a magnificent ensemble that reproduces individual buildings and corners of Athens and Alexandria, in particular the Academy of Athens and the Lyceum. This circumstance will make the villa extremely popular today - in connection with the emergence of postmodern architecture, since it is considered the first historical monument of such architecture.

AT Everyday life Empires are in fashion terms - public baths, which become like centers of culture and recreation, as they include not only baths and steam rooms, but also libraries, reading rooms, halls for meetings, sports and games. The most grandiose and famous were the baths of Caracalla.

In the era of the Empire, favorable conditions are also developing for the development of literature, especially for poetry. To the greatest extent outstanding poets- Virgil, Horace and Ovid - turned out to be connected again with the reign of Emperor Augustus.

Virgil, who is the main figure of Roman poetry, created a collection of pastoral songs "Bucoliki" and a didactic poem "Georgics", in which advice is given to farmers and nature is sung. The peak of Virgil's work was the unfinished epic poem "Aeneid", echoing the Homeric epic. It is worth noting that it is dedicated to the wanderings of Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome.

The work of Horace is surprisingly multifaceted in terms of subject matter, genre, style and metrics. It is worth noting that he narrated lyrical poems, philosophical poems, angry satires, in which he ridiculed the vices of Roman society. In his works, epicureanism is combined with stoicism. It is worth noting that he influenced the poetry of the New Age. His treatise "The Science of Poetry" theoretical basis of classicism.

Ovid achieved great success first of all, with her love lyrics, as well as the mythological poem "Metamorphoses", which tells about the transformations of people and gods into animals, plants and stars. His poem "Fasta" tells about the Roman religious holidays.

Ovid's cheerful and ironic poem "The Science of Love", containing instructions on how to find a mistress and deceive a husband, irritated Augustus, who saw it as a mockery of his marriage law. It is appropriate to note that the disgraced poet was exiled to the city of Tomy on the Black Sea coast.
It is interesting to note that there he wrote "Sorrowful Elegies", in which he bitterly complained about ϲʙᴏe loneliness, hoped for forgiveness - but was never forgiven.

In general, during the era of the Empire Roman society as a civilization continue to evolve. At the same time, in spiritual terms, already in the 1st century. AD there were symptoms of a serious crisis. The fact is that by ϶ᴛᴏmu time the “Roman idea”, as power over the whole world, was reatized. Reaching her. Rome, as it were, has exhausted itself, it has lost the source of internal self-development. It is no coincidence that already under Augustus comes to the fore idea " eternal Rome», which is focused solely on maintaining the achieved greatness and power. But without a great inspiring goal, society is doomed to perish. Anyway. the fate of Rome convinces in ϶ᴛᴏm.

Starting from the 1st c. AD Rome appears more and more as the first historical form consumer societies. Famous slogan "bread and circuses" was a way of life not only for the landless plebs, but for all strata of society. Even among the elite of society, professed hedonism was increasingly turning into a cult of gross pleasures and entertainment. Emperors Caligula and Nero became symbols of cruelty and moral decay. It was the spiritual emptiness, the spiritual crisis that appeared main reason the general crisis of Roman society and its death. It is appropriate to note that, again, it is no coincidence that already in the 1st c. AD Christianity arose in the Roman Empire as a counter to the spiritual disintegration of Roman society.

Christianity became one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), addressed to all people, regardless of ethnic, linguistic and other affiliation. It is based on the belief in Jesus Christ as the God-man, who by his death atoned for the sins of people, bringing salvation to the world and man. Rejecting the values ​​of Roman society, among which power, strength, power, physical pleasures and pleasures came to the fore more and more, Christianity opposed them with high spiritual and moral values.

God Himself appears in it as a spiritual entity. The main Christian value is love for God- will be spiritual, it opposes physical, carnal love, declared sinful. Christianity proclaimed the equality of all people before God. It is worth noting that it acted as a defender of the oppressed, humiliated and destitute, promising them deliverance from slavery and poverty in the future. Everything ϶ᴛᴏ was in tune with the aspirations of ordinary people, made them supporters of the new religion.

Despite severe persecution by the Roman authorities, the growth in the number of Christians continued steadily, and in the 4th century. AD Christianity seeks official recognition. Wherein new religion could no longer save Roman society, whose crisis had become too deep and irreversible. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western, and in 476, after another defeat of the Romans by the German troops, the last emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed and the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Concerning roman culture, then in the best of their achievements it exists today. These include Roman law, Roman architecture and literature, Latin, which for centuries was the language of European scientists. At the same time, Christianity was still the main contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture, although it did not save Rome from destruction.

On the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, it is considered Etruscan, which preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it. In I millennium BC. e. on the territory of Central and Northern Italy, the Etruscans created a federation of city-states. Stone walls and buildings, a clear layout of streets intersecting at right angles and oriented to the cardinal points are the characteristic features of their cities. The Etruscans were the first to build buildings with a domed vault, erected from wedge-shaped beams.

Archaeological excavations have revealed numerous monuments of the Etruscan culture: tombs with wall paintings, sarcophagi, burial urns, weapons, jewelry, household utensils, terracotta and bronze sculptures. Ceramics also reached a high level - these are vessels "blackened" during firing and varnished, imitating metal products. For visual arts The Etruscans are characterized by realism - the desire to convey the most essential features of a person. This is especially noticeable in the sculptural portraits of this era, completely alien to idealization. It was thanks to Etruscan influence that the Roman portrait subsequently reached such perfection.

During the excavations, about 10 thousand inscriptions were also found, but the Etruscan language has not yet been deciphered, with the exception of only some words.

In the religion of the Etruscans, it was of great importance divination by the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, the interpretation of various signs - unusual natural phenomena. pantheon of gods basically corresponded to Greek, but the Etruscans also worshiped a variety of good and evil demons.

In turn, the Etruscans influenced the neighboring Italic peoples, and in particular the Romans: the Etruscan influence can be traced in the architecture, sculpture, and religion of Ancient Rome.

The culture of Rome during the royal period

The beginning of Roman history is traditionally attributed to 753 BC. - the time of the founding of the city. First, royal period history covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC, by the end of it, Rome was formed as a city-state of the Greek type. According to legend, seven kings ruled in Rome, and the last three were of Etruscan origin. Under them, the city was surrounded by a stone wall, a sewage system was laid, and the first circus for gladiatorial games was built. From the Etruscans, the Romans inherited handicraft and building techniques, writing, the so-called Roman numerals, divination by the flight of birds and the entrails of animals. The attire of the Romans was also borrowed - a toga, the architecture of a house with an atrium -

patio, etc.

Early Roman religion was animistic, i.e. recognized the existence of all kinds of spirits, it also had elements of totemism, which affected, in particular, the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who nursed the brothers Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city. However, gradually, under the influence of the Etruscans, who, like the Greeks, represented the gods in human form, the Romans switched to anthropomorphism. The first temple in Rome - the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill - was built by Etruscan masters.

Culture of Rome during the Republic

According to legend, Etruscan domination in Rome ended in 510 BC. - the revolted people overthrew the last king Tarquinius Proud(534/533 - 510/509 BC). Rome becomes an aristocratic slave republic. Early republic period covers VI-III centuries. BC e., at this time, Rome manages to subjugate the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula.

A major role in the development of early Roman culture was played by the conquest of the Greek cities of southern Italy, which hastened the familiarization of the Romans with a higher Greek culture. In the IV century. BC, mainly among the upper strata of Roman society, the Greek language begins to spread, some Greek customs, in particular, shaving the beard and cutting hair short. At the same time, the old Etruscan alphabet was replaced by Greek, more suitable to the sounds of the Latin language. At the same time, a copper coin was introduced according to the Greek model.

With the formation of a civil community, a republican system, the emergence of oratory. The speeches of senators in the Senate, officials in comitia (people's assemblies) required knowledge and art to convince listeners.

By the 4th century BC. The birth of theater in Rome refers to - following the example of the Etruscans, stage games were introduced, performed by professional artists (it was in Rome that the word actor appeared).

The Roman culture of the late Republican era was a combination of many principles (Etruscan, native Roman, Italic, Greek), which led to its eclecticism.

Starting from the III century. BC, the Greek religion began to have a particularly great influence on the Roman religion. Roman gods are identified with Greek ones: Jupiter - with Zeus, Neptune - with Poseidon, Pluto - with Hades, Mars - with Arrest, Juno - with Hera, Minerva - with Athena, Ceres - with Demeter, Venus - with Aphrodite, Vulcan - with Hephaestus , Mercury - with Hermes, Diana - with Artemis, etc. The cult of Apollo was borrowed as early as the 5th century. BC, there was no analogue to him in the Roman religion. One of the revered purely Italic deities was Janus, depicted with two faces as the deity of entry and exit, of every beginning. Of ancient Italian origin were domestic gods - Lara, Genius, Penatya. It should be noted that the Roman pantheon was never closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. It was believed that the new gods enhance the power of the Romans.

Greek was the first Roman poet Livy Andronicus, who translated into Latin Greek tragedies and comedies, Homer's Odyssey. His translations were very free, they allowed the inclusion of new passages, the change of names, etc. The largest Roman writer of the late III - early II century. BC - Plautus (mid-III century - 184 BC). Roman realities are reflected in his comedies, although the characters have Greek names, and the action takes place in Greek cities. A little later he wrote his comedies Terence(c. 125-159 BC), who, unlike Plautus, tried not to use Roman stories and limited himself to the retelling of Greek authors, especially Menander.

Roman poetry rose to a new, higher level in the 1st century BC. BC e. Among the many poets of that time, Lucretius and Catullus should be noted. Lucretius (1st half of the 1st century BC) owns the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", expounding the teachings of Epicurus. Catullus (c. 87-54 BC) was a master of lyric poetry, he wrote small poems that describe various human feelings.

First prose work on Latin there was work Katana the Elder(234-149 BC) "Oh agriculture". The most prominent late republican writers, masters of prose were Varro and Cicero. The main work of Varro (116-27 BC) "Antiquities of divine and human affairs" is a kind of historical, geographical and religious encyclopedia. He also wrote numerous grammatical, historical and literary works, biographies of the most distinguished citizens, philosophical works. Cicero (106-43 BC) was an outstanding statesman, excellent orator, lawyer, connoisseur of philosophy, and a remarkable writer.

Roman architecture was strongly influenced by Etruscan and especially Greek. In their buildings, the Romans sought to emphasize the strength, power, grandeur that overwhelmed a person, they are characterized by monumentality, magnificent decoration of buildings, many decorations, a desire for strict symmetry, an interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of predominantly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs.

Roman architects developed new constructive principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns, they used pillars and pilasters. In II-I centuries. BC. began to widely use concrete, vaulted structures. New types of buildings appear, for example, basilicas where trade transactions were made and judgment was held, amphitheaters where gladiatorial fights were held, circuses where chariot competitions took place, terms- a complex complex of bathhouses, libraries, places for games, for walks, surrounded by a park. A new type of monumental structure is emerging - Triumphal Arch, which was erected to commemorate the next successful military campaign and the commander who led it. Most

famous commanders began to be called emperors.

The conquest of Greece and the Hellenistic states was accompanied by the sacking of cities. A large influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying slowed down the flourishing of Roman sculpture itself. Only in the field of realistic portraiture did the Romans, who used Etruscan traditions, contribute to the development of sculpture, it was portrait statues that gained dominant importance, and it was in them that the originality of Roman art manifested itself. The Romans created the type of statue "togatus", depicting an orator in a toga, and busts, distinguished by their severe simplicity and refined veracity of images. In II-I centuries. BC e. such excellent works as Brutus, Orator, busts of Cicero and Caesar were created.

characteristic of the Roman mind was practicality, love for applied sciences. For example, high level reached in Rome agronomy(the agricultural treatises of Cato and Varro are known), the Roman architect Vitruvius (2nd half of the 1st century BC) wrote a treatise On Architecture. In Rome, there are also guides to rhetoric where the basic rules

In the IV century. AD begin to build Christian churches - basilicas. Their shape and name were borrowed from earlier ancient basilicas, which were administrative and judicial buildings. Along with the basilicas in the early Christian period, cult buildings of the centric type were built, in which the ancient traditions of the round temple found their further development.

New artistic features come out most clearly in Christian painting. In the murals of the catacombs, the visibility of the image of the scene, understanding the content become more important than the proportional development of figures, the observance of scale.

The Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as Byzantine Empire, whose culture became a continuation of the Greek, but in the Christian version. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 when the last emperor was deposed. This year is traditionally considered the end of the Ancient World, antiquity, the beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins of the Western Roman Empire, the so-called barbarian kingdoms arise, the population of which was, to one degree or another, attached to the Greco-Roman culture, which had a great influence on the development of these states.