The Horde invasion is a special page in the development of Russian culture and the formation of the core of culture - national mentality. The Mongol-Tatar conquest brought many troubles to the Russian lands. According to archaeologists, of the seventy-four Russian cities of the 12th-13th centuries known from excavations, forty-nine were ravaged by Batu. Moreover, fourteen cities did not rise at all from hell, and fifteen more gradually turned into villages.

A strong blow was dealt to the Russian cultural gene pool. Tatars captured not only beautiful and physically strong people, but also talented craftsmen, skilled artisans. It is not surprising that Russia has lost the knowledge of many technologies, skills and abilities. It is no coincidence that at the end of the 15th century Ivan III would have to invite foreign, mainly Italian craftsmen to build the Moscow Kremlin.

The intermediate position of ancient Russia between the West and the East is gradually being replaced by a preference for the East. Through the Tatars, Russians learn the values political culture China and Arab world. In the Horde, Russian princes are instilled with previously unknown values ​​of self-abasement, forms of political communication that are offensive to a Russian person (for example, “beat with a forehead”). A generation of obedient princes was created, for whom the law is the will of the khan. All this leads to profound changes in Russian national character and way of thinking. Such a long state of national dependence could not but form slave psychology in all social strata of the Russian population.

After all, the degree of democracy of the entire feudal society depended on the nature of relations within the ruling class. Naturally, the Russian princes - "servants", obliged in the new conditions to unquestioningly fulfill the will of the khan, could no longer come to terms with the independence of their squad, its former rights.

Mongolian society was permeated with a relationship of brutal submission. The power of the supreme ruler was absolute, limited by no one and nothing. Becoming "servants" of the khans, the Russian princes absorbed this spirit of the empire: the unquestioning obedience of the subjects and the unlimited power of the rulers. Residents of Russian cities were also drawn into such relations, and before Mongolian period having their own rights and freedoms. Under conditions of constant external danger, the role and importance of the prince invariably increased, which entailed the suppression of city liberties, and it was now easier to suppress, since the townspeople themselves were interested in a strong prince capable of protecting them. In Russia, there was an inexorable process of formation of a special type social connections- allegiance. Citizenship, in contrast to Western vassalage, is a service of a non-contractual nature, in which the servant is in direct and unconditional dependence on the master.

The rule of the nomads brought to Russia a cruel system of violence, terrorist and predatory methods of governing the country, humiliating human dignity and national identity of the people. For two and a half centuries of foreign domination, the value of human life and individuals, the level of well-being of the country and each family, the state public morality and social activity population. One can observe a significant degradation of ancient Russian society. Many primordially Slavic forms and cultural phenomena have been erased, having been supplanted by the phenomena of nomadic culture. Despite the fact that the patience and obedience of the people were interrupted by riots, the nomadic Mongol empire itself was perceived by Russia as a standard of state power.

special relationship developed among the Tatar khans with the Orthodox Church. Like most pagans, they honored "foreign" gods, believing that this would propitiate them. As a result, the Russian metropolitans received "labels" from the khans, which ensured the personal immunity and privileges of the clergy, as well as the inviolability of church property. Khans in fear death penalty forbade their subjects to plunder the monasteries.

Many rich and noble Russian people in this period were looking for peace of mind behind the monastery walls, changing the clothes of princes and boyars to the mantle of a monk. Everyone, preparing to die, bequeathed part of the property to the church. Therefore, it has become extremely strong and rich in two centuries.

The Church, remaining the only national institution, made it possible, under the conditions of the Tatar yoke, to realize its unity and belonging to a single faith, forming the idea of ​​the Russian people being chosen by God.

It took about a hundred years of a dependent, humiliated position for the ideas of the unity of "the entire Russian land" to arise in the minds of our ancestors. Unity - also in the fight against the "Tatars" - is the most important result of the changes in the geopolitical ideas of the Russian princes. The expansion of the political and property rights of the Muscovite dynasty gave rise to an all-Russian outlook; without this quality, it was hardly possible to win on the Kulikovo field. There is no doubt that it is precisely the motive for defending the united Russian land and Christian faith was the strongest moral factor for victory.

Art of Russia 13th - 15th centuries

The Mongol-Tatar conquest undermined the economic potential of Russia, which led to the stagnation of stone architecture, however, the construction of wooden churches did not stop during the period of the Tatar conquest.

Stone construction in Novgorod was revived already in 1292. The Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna was built. In the second half of the 14th century, the flowering of Novgorod architecture was observed, the architects retained the fundamental structure of the temple: four-pillared, one-domed, one-apse. At this time, the churches of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin, Fyodor Stratilat on the Creek, the Assumption on the Volotovo field were built. Gradually, stone architecture is being resumed in other cities of Russia: Pskov, Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov.

The invasion of the Tatars, the long isolation of Russia from Byzantium, the disunity of Russian cities contributed to the creation of regional art schools. We can talk about the features of the Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow icon-painting schools, which have originality and originality. Thus, the Novgorod school creates a red background icon. The iconography of Novgorod gravitates toward narrative, bright colorful spots, the icon is overflowing with plot details. Characteristic images of the second half of the 13th century of the Novgorod school are “The Savior on the Throne”, “St. George with Life”, “John of the Ladder, St. George and St. Vlasiy.

The Pskov school of icon painting is dominated by drama, which is conveyed by a restless linear rhythm, a combination of red and green tones. Such tension is felt in the icon "Descent into Hell".

Growth national consciousness contributed to such a significant rise in Russian artistic culture at the turn of the XIV - XV centuries, that some researchers draw parallels between the last and the European Renaissance.

The creations of the masters of the Novgorod and, especially, Moscow schools acquire both their unique face and a high degree artistic perfection. The brightest and most philosophically profound masterpieces of the Russian icon can be found in the works of Theophan the Greek and Andrei Rublev.

The famous Theophanes the Greek appeared in the 70s of the XIV century in Novgorod, where an original art school of painting had already been formed. Not only was he " a glorious sage, a zealously cunning philosopher ... a deliberate isographer of books and an excellent painter among icon painters"(Epiphanius the Wise), he got along so closely with the Russian people and so entered into Russian art that his name is inseparable from the latter.

In Byzantine art, where the principle of impersonal creativity dominated, Theophanes was probably the first and at the same time last master with such a strong personality. A stormy, disturbing world, a seething, fiery world, where everything is in motion and an uncontrollable impulse of passions, opens up to our gaze in the Feofanovskaya painting. It is difficult to imagine compositions more dynamic, more imperiously captivating the viewer into their cycle. Here is the formidable Pantocrator, and the face of Seraphim, looking out from the mighty six-wing, and the angel, under whose wings, as if under a tent, the whole world would take shelter, it seems, and the forefathers Noah, Job, Melchizedek, and Macarius of Egypt, who lived for six decades as an ascetic in wilderness, and hermits, called pillars, and others still ascetics and saints. Formally, everything seems to be in accordance with dogma. But the restless, sizzling spirit rushes out in everyone, giving rise to that tragic pathos, that great tension, which are the true content of the Feofanovskaya painting. The stern and inspired Feofanovsky ascetics are not royally wise preachers of the faith and zealous exposers of evil, but rushing seekers of truth overcome by their own passions.

The general red-brown tone, dark contours, folds of clothing, forming lightning-like zigzags at times, squirrel-like “engines” and, as a result, a nervous, extremely dynamic painting that conveys not the people themselves in all their reality. Whose figures are conditional and seem to be ghosts, and human passions, doubts, thoughts, impulses.

The ascetic severity of his images could not take root on Russian soil, but their psychological versatility met the desire of Russian artists to convey the inner world of man.

If the work of Theophan is primarily associated with art school Novgorod and only last years life and work with Moscow, then Andrei Rublev is a brilliant icon painter of the Moscow school of painting. As evidenced written sources, Rublev left the icon-painting workshop of the Trinity Monastery. He still found Sergius of Radonezh alive, whose beloved disciple Nikon subsequently ordered him the famous "Trinity", where the world of harmony and mutual love reigns. The plot of the icon is very traditional. Three beautiful young men appeared to the Biblical patriarch Abraham, and he slaughtered the calves and lavishly treated them, guessing in the marvelous wanderers the embodiment of the trinity of the beginning of the deity. Rublev concentrated everything on the main thing. In the cup, around which three angels sit, is the head of a sacrificial calf, a prototype of the gospel lamb, a symbol of the sacrificial Christ in the name of love and salvation of the human race. Among all the creations of ancient Russian artists, Rublev's angels seem to be the most incorporeal. Nothing weighs them down: neither wings nor vestments; they are extremely light, like the whole composition, in their purely planar rhythm.

Moscow painting is devoid of a pronounced dramatic hue; it quietly reflects on the problems of the world.

The culture of Russia during the Tatar yoke

Eastern customs spread uncontrollably in Russia during the time of the Mongols, bringing with them a new culture. Has changed in a general way clothes: from white long Slavic shirts, long trousers, they switched to golden caftans, to colored trousers, to morocco boots.

A great change in everyday life made that time in the position of women:

the domestic life of a Russian woman came from the East. In addition to these major features of everyday Russian life of that time, abacus, felt boots, coffee, dumplings, the uniformity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlins of Beijing and Moscow - all this is the influence of the East

Church bells, this is a specific Russian feature, came from Asia, from there the Yamsky bells. Before the Mongols, churches and monasteries did not use bells, but "beat and riveted." The foundry art was then developed in China, and bells could come from there.

The influence of the Mongol conquest on cultural development is traditionally defined in historical writings as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation set in in Russia, expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc.

While recognizing the existence of these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view.

To understand the consequences beneficial influence Mongol domination of Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongolian state as public education. It owes its origin and existence to the brute and unbridled power of the numerous and wild "horde", whose leaders had the only method of governing the conquered peoples was the most severe terror.

If we talk about the notorious "cruelty" of the Mongols, then it should be noted that among the successors of Genghis Khan on the imperial throne there were undoubtedly enlightened and humane monarchs. In the opinion of all researchers who study the issue from primary sources, "the rule of the Chingizids was useful for their subjects, and the Chingizids were above their century in education." The founder of the empire himself, in that cruel time saturated with human blood, managed to leave a saying that can be attributed to the best achievements human culture: "I respect and honor all four (Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed) and ask the one who is the greatest of them in truth to become my helper."

Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West. In the Muslim lands devastated by the war, scientists and architects lived under the Mongols, if not to Golden, then to Silver Age, and the XIV century. in China was the century of flourishing of literature and the century of brilliance - the century of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. This time can be safely called the Golden Age, especially under the enlightened Emperor Kublai, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Only after the Mongol conquest could European preachers of Christianity venture to appear in distant Asian countries. In the XIII century. In China, for the first time, papal legates appeared, who enjoyed the patronage of the Mongol monarchs. In 1299, the first Catholic church was built in Beijing, and the translation of the New Testament into Mongolian began.

In the Volga region, the remains of houses with marble lining, water pipes, tombstones, parts of silver things, Venetian glass testify to the life of the Mongol-Tatar cultural relatives of the 13th-14th centuries. And relations with other peoples of the East.

The power of the Golden Horde state tradition was not exhausted in the "great century" of the Golden Horde. A major factor is the twofold revival of the state-political tradition of the Golden Horde. The first of them can be called Timur's revival (late XIV - early XV centuries), the second - Mengli-Giveev or Crimean-Ottoman XV-XVIII centuries. Interesting information about the life and way of life of the Golden Horde capitals. The city near the village of Selitrenogo is the old Saray, the city near the Tsar's settlement is the new Saray (founded by Uzbek).

The hydrotechnical irrigation facilities of Novy Saray are remarkable. The city was crossed by canals and irrigated with ponds (water was also carried to individual houses and workshops). One of the basin systems was located on the slope of the Syrt. Fall, the water was used by the plants located near the dams. Remains of iron driving wheels were found. Old Saray in the time of Uzbek was mainly an industrial center: the ruins of furnaces, a brick factory, entire towns of ceramic workshops. Also in New Sarai, the remains of the mint, jewelry, driving shoe, tailor and other workshops were discovered. Remains of goods originating from all parts of the Mongolosphere, such as coffee, were found in the trading quarter, which rejects the opinion that coffee came into use only in the 17th century. Spruce logs are found in wooden structures (the nearest spruce forests are several hundred kilometers away from Saray). In both cities there were areas consisting entirely of brick buildings. The residential buildings of the Golden Horde city were technically well equipped and landscaped: beautiful floors and a curious heating system testify to cleanliness, warmth and comfort. In the vicinity were located palaces surrounded by gardens. On the outskirts there were tents of steppe dwellers who migrated to the city.

The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of the Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding rites is composed in the so-called "five-ton", or "Indochinese" scale. This gamut exists, as the only one, among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins, among the Bashkirs, among Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indo-China, it still dominates. This unbroken line from the East ends at the Great Russians.

The same originality is represented by another kind of art - dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in the dance - a gentleman and a lady, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. They dance alone, and when they are a couple, the presence of a lady is not necessary, two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so that the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in Western dances. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, a tendency to immobility of the head is noticeable, especially in women. In pure oriental dances legs move on toes, to the rhythm, and the body and arms dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of the movements of the body and arms, and not in the dancing of the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.

The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of the tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the "Turanian" and steppe "Horde" epic.

Many Christian burials have been found in Novy Sarai. There are also ruins dated to the ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.

The main share of the Mongol yoke on Russia belongs to the field of spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed a sigh of relief during the rule of the Mongols.

All Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not suffer any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. AT hard times Under the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity, which opposed itself to the abomination of its conquerors and oppressors, subsequently served as a powerful means of national unification and national-political liberation from the yoke of the "impious Hagarians".

The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, placing the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the conduct of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who constantly needed money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and landed property and could provide shelter to many people who sought protection from princely arbitrariness. In general, the Orthodox clergy enjoyed honor and patronage among the Mongols. In 1270, Khan Mengu-Timur issued the following decree: "No one in Russia dares to shame churches and offend metropolitans and archimandrites subordinate to him, archpriests, priests, etc." Khan Uzbek even expanded the privilege of the church: “All the ranks of the Orthodox Church, all monks, are subject only to the court of the Orthodox metropolitan, not by the officials of the Horde and not to the princely court. Anyone who robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Who dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult the church , a monastery, a chapel, that one is subject to death without distinction, whether he is Russian or Mongol. May the Russian clergy feel like free servants of God."

From the few historical facts one can judge the attitude of the Golden Horde towards Orthodoxy. Saint Alexander Nevsky, realizing that Russia was unable to fight the Mongols, began to serve the khan not out of fear, but out of conscience. Only in alliance with the Mongols could he defend himself against the onslaught of militant Catholicism against the Orthodox East. Otherwise, the fact of the transition of Russians to Latinism would have to be recorded in history. In this historical role Golden Horde was not only the patroness, but also the defender of Russian Orthodoxy. The yoke of the Mongols - pagans and Muslims - not only did not touch the soul of the Russian people, their Orthodox faith, but even saved it.

To characterize the attitude of the Mongols to other religions of their subordinate peoples, the decree of Genghis Khan, the founder of all the Golden Horde khans and the founder of the policy of absolute religious tolerance, is interesting. This decree was given in the name of the head of the Taoist religious teachings, Chang Chun, called spiritually qiu-shen-hsien. "The Most Holy Order of King Genghis, the Command to the chiefs of all places. What sketes and ascetic houses do Qiu-shen-xian have, in which they read books daily and pray to Heaven, let them pray for the long life of the king for many years. May they be delivered from all large and small duties, dues and taxes, sketes and houses of monks belonging to Qiu-shen-xian in all places, may they be delivered from duties, taxes and dues. to the authorities to punish at their discretion and upon receipt of this Command, so that they do not dare to change and oppose it. For which this certificate was given.

Having noted this, one can set as historical fact that the Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of the culture of the old world.

In preparing this work, materials from the studentu website were used.

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INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..3

1. The culture of Russia before the Mongol-Tatar invasion…………………..….4

2. Culture of Russia XVII – XVIII cc……………………………………….…7

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………....9

LITERATURE………………………………………………………………….…10

INTRODUCTION

The culture of a people is part of its history. Its formation and subsequent development are closely connected with the same historical factors which influence the formation and development of the country's economy, its statehood, political and spiritual life of society. The concept of culture includes, of course, everything that is created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, view of the world, nature, human being on human relations.

The culture of Russia takes shape in the same centuries as the formation of Russian statehood. The birth of the people went simultaneously along several lines - economic, political, cultural. Russia took shape and developed as the center of a huge people for that time, consisting at first of various tribes; as a state whose life unfolded over a vast territory. And all the original cultural experience of the Eastern Slavs became the property of a single Russian culture. It developed as a culture of all Eastern Slavs, while maintaining their regional features - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Russia, etc., then the question of Culture is considered in the work Russia XVII- XVIII centuries, which refers to the beginning of a new period in Russian history and a new stage in the history of Russian culture. Russian culture has preserved everything character traits feudal culture Middle Ages, but new elements are also outlined. It was a culture of transitional times, new trends were clearly identified only towards the end of the century.

1. The culture of Russia before the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

The culture of Russia before the Mongol-Tatar invasion includes oral folk art, which tells about the majority of epic stories related to the time of the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the time of the unity and power of Russia, the successful struggle against the steppe nomads. true hero epic epic - a hero-hero, personifying the people themselves. Favorite folk hero- Ilya Muromets, peasant son, warrior-patriot, defender of "widows and orphans". The people also sang the peasant plowman Mikula Selyaninovich. Oral poetry also existed in the princely retinue environment. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. Oral folk art continued to live and develop after the advent of written literature.
Writing, the creation of the Slavic alphabet, is also described in the culture of Russia, which is associated with the name of the Byzantine missionary monks Cyril and Methodius. According to a number of researchers, at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries on the territory of the Bulgarian kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of Greek writing and Glagolitic elements, an alphabet arose, which later received the name "Cyrillic". A lighter and more convenient alphabet eventually supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only
southern and eastern Slavs. The main genre of the early medieval written culture chronicle became - annual records of events.
Chronicles included biblical stories, legends, texts of diplomatic documents. One of the first monuments of chronicle writing
is The Tale of Bygone Years (presumably 1113), written by a monk Kievo-Pechersky Monastery Nestor (“Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began before the prince, and from where the Russian land began to eat"). Nestor narrates the history of the Russian land, starting with the settlement of the Slavs and the legendary princes Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv. The emergence of hagiographic literature. An example of such literature is The Tale of Boris and Gleb.

The genre is one of the main parts in the writings of Russian Russia. Sample: "The Journey of Abbot Daniel to the East" (1107) -
the author's description of the journey of the first known Russian pilgrim. Known as the Journey to Jerusalem or the Pilgrim. Daniel visited the holy places in Jerusalem.
Most of the written monuments of the pre-Mongol period perished during fires and foreign invasions. Only an insignificant part of the book wealth of Ancient Russia has survived - only about 150 books. The oldest literary monuments are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich (1073 and 1076). One of ancient monuments Russian literature is "The Word of Law and Grace". It was written in the 1930s and 40s.
century by the priest Hilarion, who became later first Russian metropolitan.

Painting.
From the painting of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia to the Mongolian time to
Fragments of frescoes of the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha have come down to us. The fresco of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral with the image of the Last Judgment is distinguished by the best preservation.

Architecture
. Until the end of the X century in Russia there was no monumental stone
architecture, but there was a rich tradition of wooden construction.
Some forms wooden architecture(tent churches, bell) subsequently influenced stone architecture. After the baptism of Russia, the construction of stone churches began - basically in the image and likeness of the Byzantine ones. In Russia, the cross-domed type of church became widespread. The interior space of the building was divided by massive pillars connected in pairs by arches; a "drum" was erected, ending with a hemispherical dome. First
the stone building was the Church of the Tithes, built in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century by Greek craftsmen. The church was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars in 1240. In the years 1031-1036 in Chernigov, also by Greek architects, the Transfiguration Cathedral was erected - the most "Byzantine", according to experts, the temple of Ancient Russia. The pinnacle of 11th-century architecture is St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in 1037-1054 by Greek and Russian masters. Following the Kievan Sofia were built Sofia Cathedrals in Novgorod and Polotsk. Novgorod buildings early XII century: Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral (1113), the cathedrals of Antoniev (1117-1119) and Yuriev (1119) monasteries, the Church of St. John on the Okopakh (1127), tent churches, belfries. Stone construction in the Vladimir-Suzdal land at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries began with the construction of a cathedral in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh. Construction in Vladimir reached a great rise under Andrei Bogolyubsky. City fortifications were erected, from which the white-stone Golden Gates have been preserved. In the suburban princely residence of Bogolyubovo, a castle was built, consisting of a complex of buildings surrounded by walls with white stone towers. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin. In 1158-1161, the Assumption Cathedral was built, richly decorated with carved stone. A masterpiece of ancient Russian architecture is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), which is distinguished by its perfection and lightness of proportions, harmony and aspiration upwards.

2. Culture of Russia XVII – XVIII centuries

In the 17th century in the history of Russia ends the period of the Middle Ages. The advanced countries of Europe had already embarked on the path of bourgeois development, and Russia continued to be a feudal country, although the beginnings of industry had already appeared - the first manufactories. A new reigning Romanov dynasty was established. In Russia, a class-representative monarchy has developed.

The beginning of a new period in Russian history was also a new stage in the history of Russian culture. In the 17th century Russian culture has retained all the characteristic features of the feudal culture of the Middle Ages, but new elements are also emerging. It was a culture of transitional times, new trends were clearly identified only towards the end of the century.

The formation of the Russian nation begins. Folk traditions are generalized, the interconnection of local customs is strengthened. Gradually, the interpenetration of various dialects takes place, a single Russian language is being formed.
18th century characterized in Russia by late feudalism. Attempts are being made to overcome the gap between Russia and the countries Western Europe significant changes are taking place in all areas of life. Their beginning is associated with the reforms of Peter I (I672-1725). In Russia, autocratic power is being established - an absolute monarchy.
In the XVIII century. external economic and cultural relations of Russia with Western countries are developing, contributing to its entry into the world historian- cultural process. In the second half of the XVIII century. in the depths of the feudal economy, a capitalist structure is being formed.
To late XVIII in. the process of folding the Russian nation on the basis of the already established Russian nationality with high level culture and a sense of national unity.
The main content of the historical and cultural process in this period was the formation and development of national Russian culture. New spheres of culture appear - science, fiction, secular painting, public theater, etc.

CONCLUSION

The fate of Russian culture is both beautiful and dramatic. Beautiful because it left a noticeable mark in national history. It is difficult to imagine our culture without The Tale of Igor's Campaign, Rublev's Trinity, the Moscow Kremlin, St. Basil's Cathedral, the treasures of the Armory and much more.

It is dramatic because, like any phenomenon of its time, the culture of the Middle Ages was historically doomed. With the beginning of Peter's reforms, its character changed - it lost its religious content and became predominantly secular. As if forgetting their Byzantine roots, Russian architecture, painting, decorative arts began to master Western artistic experience. Sculpture, almost unknown in Ancient Russia, was developed. The face of cities has changed. And the townspeople themselves changed - they began to dress differently, eat differently, learned new norms of command.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused great damage to the Russian state. Enormous damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Russia. The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. Russian cities were subjected to mass destruction. Simplified, and sometimes disappeared, many crafts. Tens of thousands of people were killed or driven into slavery. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongol-Tatars were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The constant struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Russia. Russia retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Russia of its own administration and church organization, as well as a lower level of cultural and historical development of the Tatars. In addition, the Russian lands were unsuitable for breeding nomadic cattle breeding. The main meaning of enslavement was to receive tribute from the conquered people.

The relatively easy conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars is explained by the fragmentation and disunity of the Russian principalities, as well as the superiority of the martial art of the Mongols.

Before the invasion The development of Russian culture in XI - early XIII century is a continuous progressive process, which on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion reached its highest level: in painting - Novgorod frescoes, in architecture - Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in literature - chronicles and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, a new psychological condition a people that might be called a "national depression". This national mood gave rise to a fairly extensive literature - "Tatar" episodes of the chronicle, legends about various events Tatar invasion, partly also included in the annals by special articles - from the time of Batu, then Mamai, Tokhtamysh, Tamerlane. The era of Tatar domination gave rise to folk epic with a new epic character - "Tatar dog". This time became a time of general decline in Russia, a time of narrow feelings and petty interests, petty, insignificant characters. In the midst of external and internal disasters, people became timid and cowardly, fell into despondency, left high thoughts and aspirations ... People closed themselves in the circle of their private interests and left there only to take advantage at the expense of others

10. Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands under the authority of Moscow. The process of centralization of Russian lands.

The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke became in the XIII-XV centuries. main national goal. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of the Russian lands. The question was being decided - around which center the Russian lands would unite.

Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east, it was covered from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west - by the principality of Tver and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of people to the lands of the Moscow principality. Moscow was a center of developed handicrafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes, which served both for trade and for military operations. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.

The first "senior prince" to receive a label from Batu was Alexander Nevsky. Despite his merits in the past, Alexander Nevsky skillfully pursued the policy of the Mongol-Tatars, especially in matters of collecting tribute, suppressing by force the speeches of other specific princes who were dissatisfied with his policies and the new system of power. At the same time, Batu, until his death in 1255, in every possible way contributed to the strengthening of the sole power of Alexander Nevsky as the sole Grand Duke of Russia and protege of the Golden Horde.

After the death of Alexander Nevsky in 1263, the process of centralization of Russian lands proceeded in the following way:

The transformation of the label for a great reign from elective to hereditary and its gradual assignment to the descendants of Alexander Nevsky;

Elevations of Moscow, where the descendants of Alexander Nevsky reigned;

Gradual expansion of Moscow, incorporation into the Moscow Principality, led by the descendants of Alexander Nevsky, other specific principalities;

The transformation of the specific Moscow principality into the Muscovite state, dominating all the principalities of northeastern Russia.

Question:

Culture of Russia in the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries).

The culture of Russia during the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries)

AT historical and cultural process XIII - XV centuries. two periods are distinguished. The first (from 1240 to the middle of the 14th century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture (due to the Mongol-Tatar conquest and simultaneous expansion by German, Swedish, Danish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords). Foreign invasions were especially detrimental to the southern and western lands.

The second period (from the second half of the 14th century) was marked by the rise of national self-consciousness, the revival of Russian culture.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatars - main topic folklore of the II half of the XIII-XV centuries. dedicated to her traditional genres(epics, legends).

The leading genre of this time is the military story. The idea of ​​all-Russian unity, having arisen in the pre-Mongolian period, intensified in hard years Mongol-Tatar invasion.

After the Mongol-Tatar devastation, Russian architecture experienced a period of decline and stagnation. Monumental construction stopped for half a century, the cadres of builders were essentially destroyed, and technical continuity was also undermined. Construction is now concentrated in two main areas: in the northwest (Novgorod and Pskov) and in the ancient Vladimir land (Moscow and Tver).

The first stone buildings in the Moscow Kremlin, which have not survived to this day, appeared at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. (Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Virgin, 1326).

Artistic centers moved from south to north, to cities that had escaped ruin (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Novgorod and Pskov), where there were many monuments of old art and living bearers of cultural traditions were preserved.

In the XIII century. there was a final crystallization of the Novgorod and Rostov schools of painting, and in the XIV century. - Tver, Pskov, Moscow and Vologda.

14th century - time of brilliant flowering monumental painting Novgorod, the development of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek, who came to Russia in the 70s of the XIV century. The works of F. Grek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by monumentality, dramatic expressiveness, and a bold pictorial manner. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, the frescoes of which have come down to us only partially.

In Moscow, Theophan the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin with a chapel of Lazarus, the Arkhangelsk and (together with Elder Prokhor and Andrei Rublev) the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, etc. A number of magnificent icons created in the circle of Theophan have been preserved. The best of them is the "Our Lady of the Don" from the Assumption Cathedral with the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the back.

The first 7 icons of the festive row (“Annunciation”, “Transfiguration”, etc.) from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral are traditionally associated with the name of the greatest artist of Ancient Russia Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - 1427/30) - a monk of the Andronikov Monastery, reliable information about little of his life and work has been preserved. The most perfect work of Rublev is the icon "Trinity", created for the Trinity - Sergius Monastery. The style of the Moscow master, deeply national in its essence, distinguished by its unique individuality, for a long time determined the style not only of the Moscow school of painting, which reached its peak under him, but of the entire Russian artistic culture.

The growth of national self-consciousness, the idea of ​​unity, the tendency to overcome regional tendencies in social thought, literature, art - all this testified to the emergence of an all-Russian (Great Russian) culture.

Culturology
Supereka S.V.
2007