throws himself at his mother with a knife. The mother runs away from her son and meets Nikolai Ugodnik in the form of an old man, who explains to her from what fate he saved her and the baby, without preventing his death. The woman understands the meaning of his words and again finds herself in the past, next to the dead child. The brother and sister, listening to the nanny’s story, begin to cry because the baby did not resurrect in the end, although the sister tries to understand herself and explain to her brother that “it’s better for him (the baby)”, that he “was predestined”. The metaphorical meaning of this parable is aimed at understanding the fate of emigrants, for whom leaving their homeland seemed tantamount to death, but death is better than “pseudo-life”.
Here, as in some other stories of the period of emigration, the emphasis is on the atypical for Gippius, "childish" vision of the world.
An infallible faith in a miracle and, perhaps, an unconscious faith in the obligatory salvation of the soul. The new heroes of her stories are children, whose own view of the world now better reflects the emigrants' hope for salvation (return to their homeland) and faith in the future. “Injustice”, “Daughters”, “Tanya”, “Vanya and Mary”, “Nadya” - in these stories, the irrational principle inherent in the author now is clearly felt, based not on facts, but on blind, “saving” faith. Intuition, not experienced knowledge, hope, illusory, but giving strength - this is now the main leitmotif of her story.
In the stories of Gippius, the theme of time, eternity, inseparable "now" and "then", "then" and "now" is increasingly heard. The author talks about time as if it was gone or its meaning was lost, after the fateful events it ceased to be important, "when it was." Now “it doesn’t matter when, probably a long time ago ...”8 Fear, death (moreover, the moral is often identical to the physical)
Existential categories typical of the artistic world of Gippius in this period of creativity. The writer takes a fresh look at her past, at her former worldview. It is no coincidence that she republishes many of her stories of the pre-emigrant period, introducing various
UDC 821.581.09Lu Xin
lu xin in russia
M. V. Mikhailova, She Xiaoling
Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov E-mail: [email protected], (She Xiaoling) [email protected]
The article discusses approaches due to historical context, to the study of the work of the Chinese writer Lu Xun in Soviet literary criticism of the 20-70s. of the twentieth century, the reasons for interest in his heritage are revealed, an analysis is given of the main achievements of Russian Lusine studies,
adjustments and changes (“Light Lake”, “Old Kerzhenets”, “Female”, “Only Two”, etc.). The emigre period of Gippius' work and, in particular, her stories are characterized by a persistent sense of catharsis, a firm and courageous confidence in God's justification of any cross carried by people.
Despite the conviction that sounded in later stories that emigration dooms a creative person to failure, Z. Gippius herself managed to maintain her literary and human dignity. Her decadent moods, "avenging" and "angry" notes of her work are gradually replaced by truly human, filled with humility and wisdom.
The language of her prose, however, remains the same. He, as before, verified and accurate. The sense of the word never leaves or fails Gippius, her ability to find the right, “sounding” phrase or phrase that sets the tone for the whole story remains unchanged. An extraordinary memory, the ability to reproduce the "past" and embody the experienced feelings and emotions in new works, to convey to the reader the entire palette of thoughts and sensations - all this makes literary heritage Z. Gippius is a valuable source of knowledge about one of the most tragic and difficult periods in the fate of Russian writers of the twentieth century. - their life abroad during the period of the first Russian emigration.
Notes
1 OsmakovaN. The uniqueness of Zinaida Gippius. URL: http://gippius.com/about/osmakova-edinstvennost-gippius. html (date of access: 08/12/2015).
2 Gippius Z. Collected. op. : in 15 vols. T. 11. Second love: Prose of emigrant years. Stories, essays, novels 1923-1939. M., 2011. S. 93.
3 Ibid. S. 275.
4 Ibid. S. 276
5 Ibid. S. 106.
6 Ibid. P.130.
7 Ibid. S. 30.
8 Ibid. S. 37.
a comparison is made with similar works of Chinese scientists.
Keywords: Lu Xun, literary criticism in the USSR, critical realism, socialist realism, classic Chinese literature.
© Mikhailova M. V., Xiaoling She, 2015
Lu Xun
M. V. Mikhailova, Shes Sanling
The article examines historically determined approaches to the study of the oeuvre of the Chinese writer Lu Xun in the Soviet literary criticism in the 20-70s of the XXth century, identifies the causes of interest in his heritage, analyzes the main achievements of the Russian Lu Xun studies, and provides a comparison with similar works by Chinese scientists.
Key words: Lu Xun, study of literature in the USSR, critical realism, socialist realism, classic of Chinese literature.
DOI: 10.18500/1817-7115-2015-15-4-85-90
Twenties of the XX century. marked by the increased interest of the Soviet cultural community in the "new Chinese literature", that is, the one that arose and strengthened after the development of the social and political May 4th Movement, which was regarded as democratic. And Lu Xun (1881-1936) becomes the spokesman for this state of mind in the perception of Soviet literary critics and readers. He was indeed one of the leading figures in modern Chinese literature, and he was also among the first writers whose works were translated into Russian and "published in the USSR as a separate collection"1, and subsequently reprinted several times. As a result, the Soviet reader got acquainted with practically the most significant texts of his artistic and journalistic works. Almost at the same time, the study of Lu Xun's heritage began, the impetus for which was the collection of his works of 1929. At first, the study of his work was limited to a description of his life path and worldview, and the approach to the writer had a distinct socio-political character, determined by the state of the ideological atmosphere in Russian society. This is clearly seen in introductory articles to various publications and reviews of published collections of his works.
In 1929, the collection "The True Story of A-Key" was published in the translation of B. A. Vasiliev, who also wrote the preface. He considered that Lu Xun "by the nature of his work" was primarily a writer of everyday life, that he "was one of the first to take, as a theme, the Chinese village, which until then had not found a place for itself in the classical literature of China"2. The same was noted by the reviewer of the collection J. Fried, who pointed out that “knowledge of the Chinese village, the ability to play with the smallest household parts, irony, restrained lyricism make the things of this writer interesting for the European reader"3. Many of these moments formed the basis of the definition that Lu Xun retained for a long time. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the 5th volume of the "Literary Encyclopedia 1929-1939" in an article about Chinese
Literature wrote about this as an established fact: "Lu Xun (Chinese Chekhov, as he is called) - a writer of everyday life, a realist, for the first time introduced the theme of the village into literature, with extraordinary brightness displayed the poverty, suffering and hopelessness of the situation of the peasant, crushed by the remnants of feudalism "4, i.e., emphasis was placed on the critical orientation of his work. But a little later, in connection with the bitterness of the class struggle in Soviet society, in the 6th volume, in an article that directly illuminates his figure, the writer was already given a class assessment: “By his ideology, L.-S. - a typical petty-bourgeois radical. Having played a significant role in the so-called. " literary revolution", for the first time introducing the motives of the village into new literature and having proved with his works the possibility of the artistic use of a living language instead of the archaic forms of the old writing, Lu-Xin in his further development lagged behind the rapid pace of Chinese revolutionary literature, remaining on an anarchist-individualistic positions. But already in 1949, A. Fadeev somewhat corrected this situation, referring to the characteristics of the writer’s artistic talent and introducing him into the circle of existence of the main trends literary process 20th century In an article entitled “About Lu Xing,” he wrote: “In spirit, he is close to Chekhov and Gorky.<.. .>He, like our classics, was a critical realist writer, that is, a writer who exposed and scourged the forces of the old society, the forces that oppressed the people and suppressed the individual " little man". Lu Xun is a master of a short story. He knows how to briefly, clearly and simply convey an idea in images, in an episode - a big event, in individual person- type"6. So, in a few sentences, Fadeev was able to reveal the most essential in the artist's heritage: the author's social vigilance, satirical colors, a special brevity of the narrative, and national coloring.
In 1953, the popular pamphlet The Great Chinese Writer Lu Xun was written, in which the author gave a brief overview of life and creative way writer, linking him, of course, "with the history of the liberation Chinese people from feudal and imperialist oppression. There arose a formula that will henceforth accompany the conversation about Lu Xing all the time: he is “the founder and the first classic realistic literature China of modern times"8.
The study of Lu Xun in the USSR received a new impetus after the appearance of the four-volume Collected Works of the writer, published in 1954-1956. Almost immediately, five monographs dedicated to him appeared: “Lu Xun” (1957) and “Lu Xun. Life and creativity” (1959) L. D. Pozdneeva, “Formation of Lu Xun’s worldview” (1958) V. F. Sorokin, “Lu Xun. Essay on life and work "(1960) V. V. Petrov," Lu Xun and his
predecessors” (1967) by V. I. Semanov. Here, not only the facts of the writer's biography were already mastered, but also the process of forming his creative method. And most importantly, it was proposed detailed analysis his artistic works from the collections "Cry", "Wanderings", "Wild Herbs" and "Old Legends in new edition". To the work of Lu Xun at that time, Soviet scientists applied the same definitions - "realism" and "critical realism" as Chinese researchers. But regarding the use of the term "socialist realism" in relation to his work, Chinese and Soviet researchers disagreed (in China, Lu Xun's name was definitely associated with this method).
L. D. Pozdneeva in his monographs (the book "Lu Xun. Life and Work" was translated into English, Japanese and Chinese, which, in turn, made it, to a certain extent, exemplary in relation to the "assessments" given to the artist), explicitly stating that Lu Xun should be considered the founder of the method critical realism in China, but added that in last years Lu Xun came to the method of socialist realism, which manifested itself in the collection Old Legends in a New Edition. Although the phrase, supposedly confirming the writer's commitment to the new method, in general, did not differ much from what was written in relation to his critical realism - "socialist realism determined the great strength of his types, allowed him to pass judgment on the negative heroes of his time and sing the glory of the people - the creator and a fighter"9, it was intended to convince the reader that the writer had moved to new ideological and aesthetic positions.
V.F. Sorokin, pointing out that Lu Xun “raised Chinese literature to the heights of critical realism, created a picture of reality that is stunning in its truthfulness,” emphasized his deep disclosure of “the class contradictions of Chinese society”10, which, of course, is possible only under the condition mastering new artistic method. The literary critic built his construction, as was usually done, on the analysis of the evolution of the image of the positive hero-revolutionary, which, in his opinion, “testifies to the establishment in his work of the late twenties and early thirties of the method of socialist realism”11. Now Lu Xun is definitely becoming "one of the founders of socialist realism in China"12.
VV Petrov was somewhat more cautious in his definitions. The literary critic is convinced that "the new revolutionary-democratic character of Lu Xun's realism" was determined in connection with the movement of May 4, 1919, and this became the most important moment in the further development of the realistic method of the writer. But "the problem of determining the creative method of "Old Legends in a new presentation" still requires careful development in
in view of the complexity of the literary material itself, and the categorical formulation of socialist realism in "Old Legends in a New Presentation" has not yet been sufficiently proven. He argued his point of view as follows: in the stories, “progressive forces are represented by lone heroes defending the interests of the people, but belonging to the ruling class, while the people themselves are shown only as a passive mass. Too little has been said about the connections of the main characters with the people. Such a depiction of the people does not yet correspond to the principles of socialist realist literature, which sings of the people as driving force history"13. The last remark in the light of discussions about the essence of socialist realism should be recognized as fair. In any case, the author of the work “Lu Xun. An Essay on Life and Work” tried to bring real observations of the texts of a Chinese writer into line with the theoretical guidelines that existed in Soviet science.
However, one should not think that Soviet researchers were limited only to discussions on the topic of whether what Lu Xun wrote corresponds to the canons of socialist realism. They tried to find and artistic originality the writer's prose, addressed not only the content of his works, but also their formal merits. Portrait characteristics heroes, their psychology, description of the environment - all this one way or another was subjected to close analysis.
In the opinion of Pozdneeva, Lu Xun is an outstanding master of artistic detail, a keen observer, which allowed him to draw a broad picture of modern China, and most importantly, to create a number of vivid images of representatives of various social strata. His characters stand in stark contrast to what the Chinese reader is accustomed to: “In place of fantasy, adventurous and chivalric novels, dramas and short stories in which “learned talents” and pampered beauties fell in love with each other, Lu Xun introduced unvarnished reality into literature. , new heroes - ordinary people"14. It was the break with the previous national tradition, the reform of the language that were able to bring the writer to a new level of aesthetic exploration of reality. Previously, the story about the hero was required, according to the old tradition of Chinese literature, to begin with the hero’s last name, the name of the ancestors and the area where he was born, that is, to give an extensive exposition, but execution and violence of any kind did not allow people from the lower classes to leave at least some traces in official documents. Therefore, in order to begin the biography of an insignificant hero, Lu Xun had to create a new form.
Laconism became this “form”: “Lu Xun’s skill with a few strokes is especially striking.
uncover social contradictions. Compactness determined and compositional features of the writer’s works: “With each new work, the reader reveals the richness composite means writer. In some stories, he focuses all his attention on some episode in the life of the hero, describing his past very sparingly.<.. .>In other works, the writer takes his hero through a series of life tests, revealing the process of changing his character in successive episodes or in pictures of the beginning of life and the end. L. D. Pozdneeva listed various techniques used by Lu Xun to sculpt the image, for example, description techniques external characteristics heroes, nature and place of action, parody, reception of contrast. She especially noted the specific technique developed by the writer for describing negative characters, - playing up the contrast "between that respectable, thoughtful mask that they usually wear and a nasty gut"17. And Pozdneeva connected these achievements with Lu Xun's studies with the classics of Russian literature - Gogol, Shchedrin, Chekhov and Gorky, who he translated throughout his life.
So, about the “Old Legends in the new edition”, she wrote: “Lu Xun selected materials for his satirical tales for a very long time. He got acquainted with such works of other writers.<.>In the thirties he studied this genre with realists - Saltykov-Shchedrin and Gorky.<.>The creation of the latter, truly realistic fairy tales coincides with the writer's attention to Russian authors.<.>If in the main solution to the problem of satire in a fairy tale one can find the writer's similarity with Saltykov-Shchedrin, then in ridiculing philosophical schools one cannot but recognize Gorky's moods. But creative perception foreign experience only helped Lu Xun to hatch his own plan and embody it in a realistic, accusatory plan. At the same time, the literary critic persistently pursued the idea that, learning from the greats, Lu Xun “did not repeat any of them”18.
V. F. Sorokin in the article “On the realism of Lu Xun” tried to identify milestones in the development of the writer’s artistic work, noting that Lu Xun’s innovation was mainly associated with “a fundamentally new method of creating artistic images"19. What was it? In new ways of revealing the character of the hero, who now acted not as the bearer of any one trait, but was drawn in many ways. The reliance on realistic typification helps the writer in this, which is unthinkable without the “depth of psychological analysis” that Lu Xun took from Chekhov and Tolstoy. It was they who aimed it at conveying the innermost thoughts and experiences of the characters. “In old Chinese literature,” the author wrote
articles, - only a short story of everyday, fantastic or historical content was known, in which the sharpness of the situation and the drama of the plot were in the first place, ”and the psychologism of Lu Xun
became "a phenomenon largely new to
""20 Chinese Literature"20.
In his monograph on Lu Xing, the writer's early publicistic speeches and his first steps in the field of fiction, including his first short story "The Past", written in Wenyang Classical Chinese and not attracting attention in China for a long time. Summarizing his observations, the author concluded that the main components of the artistic world of the Chinese prose writer are realism, distinguished "first of all by boldness and breadth of criticism", revolutionary patriotism and humanism. He also pointed to a special combination of satire and pathos in the works of the Chinese artist, who created "a whole gallery of satirical images"21 and revealed the spiritual greatness of his people. It was these features, he considered, that most of all make Lu Xun's work related to Russian classical literature.
V. V. Petrov was interested in the system of artistic images of the writer. He singled out the images of peasants, intellectuals, women, revealed their typical features, considered various artistic techniques used by the author in his works, and explored the writer's attitude to the heritage of classical Chinese and Russian literature. He welcomed the variety of images of Chinese intellectuals, which the writer is by no means idealized. On the contrary, Lu Xun “focused on criticizing their shortcomings. He condemned those who capitulated to difficulties and indulged in despondency, severely denounced conservatives with their two-faced morality. The researcher focused on the story "The Brothers", highlighting in it "the denunciation of intellectual egoism." He entered into an argument with his Chinese colleagues, who limited the meaning of this work to a biographical canvas (the main thing in their reasoning was the comparison of the events of the story with the facts of Lu Xun's life). And one cannot but agree with his statement that such a reading “crosses out the social and artistic value of this work." Petrov believed that, first of all, one should appreciate the originality of the Chinese author, his individual style, which, however, does not negate the influence of Russian literature, which is especially noticeable in the collection "Cry" and the story "Notes of a Madman". As Lu Xun himself noted, last work written under direct influence work of the same name Gogol. But Petrov concretizes this remark, pointing to "the form of narration (diary), the method of criticism of social evil (perception of the surrounding world through the eyes of a mentally ill person)". “If we talk about the influence of other Russian writers on Lu Xun,” he continued, “after
Gogol should be named Chekhov, with whom Lu Xun brings together an irreconcilable attitude to social vices, an interest in the life of a "little man", sharpness artistic analysis and observation." In addition, the influence of Leonid Andreev and Garshin is felt in the writer's stories. Petrov summarized that "Russian classical literature has played important role in the formation of the realistic method of Lu Xun, but her influence did not violate the originality of his writing style, did not mean deviations from national traditions for the sake of pseudo-Europeanization”25. The philologist supported all his observations with a characteristic literary views writer, outlined topics in literary discussions.
Concerning specifically language features of Lu Xun's works, Petrov made several important observations on the writer's style (especially felt in "Wanderings" and "Cry"), which is characterized by "careful selection of tropes, lack of verbal embellishments, laconicism in dialogues, expressiveness of detail when reproducing the portrait of heroes and the background of stories" 26. Petrov also touched upon the topic of interaction between the folk and classical Chinese languages. From the classics, Lu Xun often took “whole quotations from ancient writings, mainly from the books of the Confucian canon”27, but, pursuing the goals of artistic expression, he also turned to folk etymology, used foreign words, vulgarisms. All these facts distinguish Petrov's study among the texts devoted to the legacy of Lu Xun, which almost always bear the stamp of their time. This allowed the well-known sinologist B. Riftin to point out that the work of V. Petrov has a purely “literary character”28. And Sorokin, in his article “Studying New and Modern Chinese Literature in Russia,” emphasized the merits of V. Petrov’s book, which attracts by “the balanced and accurate characteristics, the thorough documentation of the provisions”29.
The same qualities are largely inherent in the monograph by V. I. Semanov, who considers the figure of the writer in comparison with previous literature. Using the historical-comparative method, the author compared the work of Lu Xun with the works of denunciators of the early 20th century. at different levels - ideological and thematic, figurative, linguistic - and noted both the writer's innovation and the continuity of tradition in his work. He singled out next levels for comparison: "genres", "themes, characters, ideas, moods", "principles of creating images", "description of the environment", "composition", "identification of the author's assessment", "language" - and came to the conclusion that Lu Xun drew attention to the suffering personality, focused on the search for individual, unique features in each person, on deep penetration into inner world heroes. Semanov wrote that Lu Xun, in fact, outlined
absolutely new principle images of a person based on the discoveries of Russian realistic prose of the 19th century. “Old Chinese prose,” he wrote, “including the accusatory novel, revealed the character of the hero almost exclusively through his actions. Lu Xun had first of all to overcome the inertia that had developed in national literature. This is probably why his first story "The Diary of a Madman" (you can also translate: "Notes of a Madman") was almost entirely devoted to revealing the inner, spiritual world of the hero. Lu Xun received considerable support in this radical turn from Gogol's work, which he highly valued.
Semanov also drew attention to Lu Xun's "bes-tiary" (this was practically never written about before) and to the synthesis of Eastern and Western traditions, in particular Western European aesthetics, formulating this position as follows: the writer, "on the one hand, through the head of accusatory novelists appeals to Chinese classical prose, whose authors did not openly interfere in the narrative, but on the other hand, perceives the tradition of Western classical realism, where tendentiousness was achieved mainly by a clash of characters and situations"31.
The article by L. Z. Eidlin “On the plot prose of Lu Xun”, which was published as a preface in the writer’s collection “Tales. Stories" (1971). This author also appealed to Lu Xun's special conquest - to the accumulation of classical Chinese, Western and Russian literary traditions in his heritage. He analyzed in detail the Notes of a Madman, in which he saw not only Gogol's influence, but also a typological similarity with the work of another Russian writer, Leonid Andreev. “Notes,” he noted, “surprised and even excited readers, who saw a lot of new and unusual things here. Of course, some of them remembered that a story with such a title was already in world literature, and none other than Lu Xun wrote at one time about the Russian writer Gogol.<...>But allow me, an attentive reader versed in literature will say, didn’t some other work already end with a similar appeal? Yes Yes. "Save me! Save me!" - shouts the hero of L. Andreev's story "Lie". It is worth thinking about the fact that the creation of Lu Xun, which so struck contemporaries, begins with a Gogol title and ends with a similar appeal to Andreev. And in the story “Tomorrow” he also found similarities with Andreev’s work: “At the risk of seeming importunate in the associations that again lead to Andreev, I cannot but recall his story“ The Giant ”of the early 900s, almost certainly, like many works Andreev of that time, known to Lu Xun. It has the same atmosphere of hopeless maternal grief.<...>Lu Xun's "tomorrow" is wider and more specific and deeper
Andreev's sketch, and leaves in us not only a feeling of grief tearing the soul, but also an unsatisfied thought about tomorrow<...>day." Claiming that Lu Xun is very national writer, who absorbed the Chinese tradition and is inconceivable without it, but "Chinese reality could no longer do without a look to the West, when he burst into it with both his violence and his sympathy"33. According to a modern Russian scholar, Eidlin's article is "the best that we have written about Lu Xing - an artist and a person, written - with all the inevitable brevity - colorful, subtle, associative and convincing"34.
The study of the artistic prose of Lu Xun in Russia basically coincides with the stages that it experienced in China. But it was Russian scientists who managed to inscribe the work of the great Chinese writer not only in Chinese, but also in world culture. Russia considered not only ideological meaning his works, but also their artistic originality. Lu Xun was perceived as worthy successor classical heritage of China, but primarily as the creator of modern Chinese prose, the founder of the new Chinese literary language and the first Chinese writer who was able to synthesize the achievements of national and Western literature.
Notes
1 Serebryakov E., Rodionov A. Comprehension of the spiritual and artistic world of Lu Xun in Russia // Problems of literature of the Far East. V Intern. scientific conf. : Sat. Materials: in 3 vols. St. Petersburg, 2012. P. 10.
2 Lu Xun. The True Story of A-Q. L., 1929. S. 5.
3 Fried J. [Review] The True Story of AQ // New World. 1929. No. 11. S. 255.
4 Kara-Murza G. Chinese Literature // Lit. encyclopedia: in 11 volumes. T. 5. M., 1931. Stb. 249.
5 Lu-Xin // Ibid. T. 6. M., 1932. Stb. 641.
7 Fedorenko N. Great Chinese writer Lu Xun. M., 1953. S. 3.
8 Ibid. S. 19.
9 Pozdneeva L. Lu Xun. Life and art. M., 1959. S. 516.
10 Sorokin V. Formation of Lu Xun's worldview. M., 1958. S. 191.
11 Ibid. S. 134.
12 Sorokin V. On the realism of Lu Xun // Vopr. literature. 1958. No. 7. S. 22.
13 Petrov V. Lu Xun. Essay on life and creativity. M., 1960. S. 327.
14 Pozdneeva L. Decree. op. S. 177.
15 Ibid. S. 209.
16 Ibid. pp. 209-210.
17 Ibid. S. 212.
18 Ibid. S. 515.
19 Sorokin V. On the realism of Lu Xun. S. 20.
20 Ibid. pp. 21-22.
21 Sorokin V. Formation of Lu Xun's worldview. S. 191.
22 Petrov V. Decree. op. S. 178.
23 Ibid. S. 197.
24 Ibid. S. 151.
25 Ibid. S. 153.
26 Ibid. S. 202.
27 Ibid. S. 203.
"FNKhMY", 1992^02SH2SH°
29 Sorokin V. The study of new and modern Chinese literature in Russia // Spiritual culture of China: Encyclopedia: in 5 volumes / ch. ed. M. L. Titarenko; Institute of the Far East. T. 3. Literature. Language and writing / ed. M. L. Titarenko [i dr.]. M., 2008. S. 198.
30 Semanov V. K new classic// Question. literature. 1962. No. 8. S. 147.
31 Ibid. S. 152.
32 Eidlin L. On the plot prose of Lu Xun // Lu Xun. Tales. Stories. M., 1971. S. 5.
33 Ibid. P. 10.
34 Sorokin V. The study of new and modern Chinese literature in Russia. S. 198.
UDC 821.161.109-1+929 [Mandelstam + Bely]
unassembled cycle o. Mandelstam in memory of Andrei Bely (problems of composition and genre)
B. a. mints
Saratov State University E-mail: [email protected]
The article considers a group of Mandelstam's poems dedicated to Andrei Bely and shows that this group consists of
It is an unassembled cycle associated with the archaic features of the requiem genre. An analysis of the composition of the cycle suggests that variability has become here one of the factors of cyclization. Key words: genre, composition, unassembled cycle, cyclization, requiem, variability.
Lu Xin present. the name is Chou Shu-jen. 1881, Shaoxing - 1936, Shanghai. Born into an impoverished bureaucratic family. Got a classic. and modern education, in 1902-1909 he studied medicine in Japan, where he turned to literature. Published a number of popular science works promoting the app. culture; among them stands out the article “The Power of Satanic Poetry” (“Satanic” here means “rebellious”), in which he first introduced the whale. readers of Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov, Mickiewicz and other European classics. liters. In 1909 he published (with his brother Chou Tso-jen) two collections. translations of writers, where a prominent place was occupied by Russian. authors. Popularization of Russian Literature continued until the end of his life, translating the works of Gogol, Chekhov, Artsybashev, Lunacharsky, Fadeev and others.After the revolution of 1911, he worked in the Ministry of Education of the republican government and taught at Peking universities. With the beginning of "lit. revolution" (wenxue geming) in 1918 published "Kuan ren zhiji" ("Notes of a madman") - the first story in the modern. colloquial language, denouncing the inhumanity of the feud. about-va. Together with later realistic, humanistic. stories and ingenious satirical. story "A-kyu zheng zhuan" (" True story Ah Q"), he compiled Sat. "Nahan" ("Cry"), followed by "Panhuan" ("Wanderings", 1926) and Sat. poems in prose "Ye Cao" ("Wild Herbs", 1927). These works had a decisive influence on the formation of realistic. directions in the latest Chinese. literature, the founder of which was recognized as Lu Xun.
In the same year, 1918, Lu Xun's activity as a publicist began. His works in the most various forms journalism - from political. articles and feuilletons to lit.-critical. notes and poems in prose (the author himself called them "variegated writings" - za wen) - made up 10 collections, the first of which was "Zhe Feng" ("Hot Wind", 1925). In the works of 1918-1924, themes of criticism of the old societies predominate. devices and old morality, collectively referred to as "Confucian", polemics with the defenders of the old culture, support for the struggle of students. young people for the emancipation of the individual, for their rights and protest against the suppression of this struggle by the reactionary government. Lu Xun's journalism is distinguished by genre and stylistic. diversity, masterful use of satire and irony, lexic. wealth.
After the failure of the revolution of 1925-1927, the writer settled in Shanghai and immediately found himself in the center of literature. discussions. He stood for truthful, serious literature, helping to free. struggle, against leftist ultra-revolutionary slogans. At the same time, he waged a struggle with the preachers of the "middle way", in his opinion, leading literature away from reality. In 1930 he became one of the organizers and informal leaders of the League of Leftist Writers of China (Zhongguo zui zuojia lianmeng). He actively participated in the democratic org-tions, in the worldwide anti-fascist movement, spoke in support of the USSR.
In 1928, a book of memoirs Zhao hua xi she (Morning Flowers Gathered in the Evening) was published, where in poetic. The form tells about the native places of the writer, his friends. In 1936, Gu shi xin bian (Old Legends in a New Edition) appeared, a book that sometimes combines parodic and sometimes heroic-romantic in a peculiar way. interpretations of ancient myths and legends with clear allusions to the topic of the day. But the main the genre of the Shanghai period was journalism.
At the turn of the 20-30s, Lu Xun got acquainted with the ideas of Marxism and translations of a number of Marxist works, began to communicate with prominent representatives of the communist. intelligentsia, such as Qu Qu-bo. He began to propagate the father. and world revolutionary culture, opposed the policy of the Kuomintang and its supporters in literature. IN recent months life, he joined in the organization of rebuffing the impending danger of Japan. aggression.
Being an irreconcilable opponent of the former ideology, he considered it to be “feudal” and reflecting its traditions. culture, Lu Xun advocated the succession of the positive aspects of the classic. heritage and folk creativity, to which a number of works are devoted, in particular Zhongguo xiaosho shilyue (Outline of the history of Chinese prose, 1924).
The funeral of Lu Xun turned into an unprecedented bunk. manifestation. Writer, thinker, patriot and internationalist, Lu Xun is recognized as one of the largest figures in the history of China in the 20th century. Collections of his Op., as well as Dep. the works were repeatedly published in Russian, Japanese, English. and other languages.
Sources:
Lu Xin. Collected works. T. 1-4. M., 1954-1956; he is. Chosen. M., 1989; he is. “Oh, this great and damned wall”: (From the journalism of the 20s) / Intro. V. Sorokin // PDV. 1993, no. 2, p. 158-168.
Literature:
Glagoleva I.K. Lu Xun: Bio-Bibliographic Index. M., 1977; Zhelokhovtsev A.N. Falsifications continue: Through the pages of Chinese press publications about Lu Xing // PDV. 1973, no. 2, p. 143-148; Meaning creative heritage Lu Xun for the actualization of the sphere of China's culture and the approval of world and national spiritual values // Problems of literature of the Far East: Sat. materials II Intern. scientific conference... T 1, sec. I. SPb., 2006, p. 9-229; Lebedeva N.A. Lu Xun and writers of Northeast China // PDV. 2006, no. 5, p. 156-164; Petrov V.V. Lu Xin. M., 1960; Pozdneeva L.D. Lu Xin. M., 1957; she is. Lu Xun: Life and work. M., 1959; Semanov V.I. Lu Xun and his predecessors. M., 1967; Sorokin V.F. Formation of Lu Xun's Worldview: Early Publicism and the Cry Collection. M., 1958; Toroptsev S. Lu Xun and the struggle for realism in Chinese cinema // PDV. 1982, no. 4, p. 164-176; Fedorenko N.T. Lu Xun // Fedorenko N.T. Essays on Modern Chinese Literature. M., 1953, p. 38-84; he is. Writer's skill and its interpretation: To the 90th anniversary of the birth of Lu Xun // Fedorenko N.T. Selected works. T. 2. M., 1987, p. 274-289; Bao Zhong-wen. Lu Xundi sisyan he ishu xinlong (Socio-political and aesthetic views of Lu Xun). Nanjing, 1989; Wang Jun-hua. Lu Xun xiaoshuo xin lun (A new study of Lu Xun's prose). Shanghai, 1993; Lin Chih-hao. Lu Xun Zhuan (Life of Lu Xun). Beijing, 1981; Fang Xiang-tung. Lu Xun yu ta "ma" years ren (K creative biography Lu Xun). Shanghai, 1996; Zhongxue Lu Xun tszoping zhu du (Articles on the work of Lu Xun). Beijing, 1990; Lu Xun and His Legacy / Ed. Lee Ou-fan. Berk., 1987.
Art. publ.: Spiritual culture of China: encyclopedia: in 5 volumes / Ch. ed. M.L. Titarenko; Institute of the Far East. - M.: Vost. lit., 2006 - . T. 3. Literature. Language and writing / ed. M.L.Titarenko and others - 2008. - 855 p. pp. 335-337.
A crater on Mercury is named after Lu Xun.
Lu Xun
Lu Xun or Lu Xun is the pseudonym of the writer Zhou Shuzhen (September 25, 1881 - October 19, 1936), one of the greatest Chinese writers of the twentieth century. Considered by many to be the founder of Chinese modern literature. He wrote in Classical Chinese and Baihua. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, and poet. In 1930 he became the titled head of the Chinese League of Leftist Writers in Shanghai.
He became widely known after the May 4th Movement, the hype rose around him after 1949. Mao Zedong was a great admirer of Lu Xun all his life. Although Lu Xun sympathized with leftist ideas, he never joined the CCP.
Life
Born in Zhejiang Province, Shaoxing City. The name given to him at birth was Zhou Zhangshou, then he changed it to Zhou Youcai, and eventually began to call himself Zhou Shuren (??). Zhou's family was highly educated, his paternal grandfather, Zhou Fuqing (???), held a position at the Hanlin Academy; his mother taught herself to read. However, after the bribery incident, when Zhou Fuqing tried to get an office at the academy for his son, Zhou Boyi, Lu Xun's father, the family's luck ran out. Zhou Fuqing was arrested and nearly beheaded. However, Zhou Shuren was raised by the family's senior servant, Ah Chang, who Lu Xun called Chang Ma. One of Lu Xun's favorite children's books was Classics of the Seas and Oceans. Chronic tuberculosis of the father and his premature death encouraged Lu Xun to study medicine. By avoiding Chinese traditional medicine, which due to a large number charlatans did not help his father, he decided to get a Western degree in medicine at the Sendai Medical Academy, in Sendai (Japan) in 1904.
Education
From 1898 to 1899, Lu Xun studied at the Jiangnan Naval Academy (??????), then was transferred to the School of Mining and Railways (????) at the Jiangnan Military Academy (??????) . Here he first became acquainted with Western education and science; studied German and English, read foreign scientific and fiction. Under a government scholarship program, Lu Xun went to Japan in 1902. He entered the Kobun Institute, a preparatory school for Chinese students entering universities in Japan. There he wrote his first essay in classical Chinese, practiced jiu-jitsu. He returned home in 1903 and entered into a planned marriage with an uneducated girl from a not very noble class. Perhaps Lu Xun never entered into a marriage relationship with her, but he cared for her. material well-being all of my life.
Sendai
Lu Xun entered the Sendai Medical Academy in 1904 and became the first foreign student. He developed a good relationship with a teacher and mentor - Fujino Genkuro; Lu Xun paid his respects to this man in the essay "Mr. Fujino" in his memoir Morning Flowers Picked at Dusk (Fujino paid his respects to him in an essay he wrote as Lu Xun's obituary in 1937). However, in March 1906, Lu Xun suddenly stopped his studies and left the college. In the preface to his famous collection "To Arms" (??? literally - "cry"), he tells why he left the academy. One day after class, one of the Japanese teachers showed slides of the execution of alleged Chinese spies during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. On the slide, he saw one of his friends who was accused of espionage. He was sentenced to death. And his Chinese friends came to watch this execution not out of sympathy, but as if for a performance. Lu Xun was shocked by their indifference; he decided that it was much more important to treat the diseases of the soul of his compatriots than the diseases of the body.
In 1906 he moved to Tokyo, where he came under the influence of the philologist Zhang Taiyan, and together with his brother, also a scholar, published translations of some East European and Russian stories. He spent the next three years in Tokyo, writing a series of essays in Wenyan on the history of science, Chinese and European literature, Chinese society, reforms and religion in China, as well as translations of works of art from different countries into Chinese.
Career
After returning to China, Lu Xun began teaching at the Zhejiang High School, which became the predecessor of the famous Hangzhou High School (?????????), then at the Chinese Western School of Shaoxing, his hometown, and with the founding of the republic, he soon took up the post of Minister of Education in Beijing. After a while, he also began teaching at Peking University and Beijing Women's Normal College, and began to write.
In May 1918, Lu Xun used his pseudonym for the first time when he published a short story in baihua, Diary of a Madman (Kuangren Riji????). He chose the pseudonym Lou because it was maiden name his mother. Inspired by the stories of Gogol, his story was full of criticism of outdated and wild Chinese traditions and the feudal system. This quickly made him one of the most influential writers of his time.
Another of his famous short stories, "The True Story of Ah Q" (A Q Zhengzhuan, ?Q??), was published between 1921 and 1922. Later, the story would become his most famous work. Both of these stories would later be included in the collection To Arms (??), published in 1923.
Lu Xun was the editor of several left-wing Chinese magazines such as New Youth (???, Xin Qingnian) and Sprouts (??, Meng Ya). In 1930, Lu Xun organized the Left Writers' League, which brought together the most active and influential Chinese writers of that period. Although Lu Xun stops posting own work at the end of 1925, and after moving from Beijing to Shanghai in 1927, he was actively engaged in translating Russian literature and writing small but biting satirical essays, which became his personal hallmark, he also helps many aspiring writers. Tak gives advice to the writer Xiao Hong from the northeast of China, and in 1935 her story "Shengsichan" with its preface was published.
Due to its role in the history of the rise of the Republic of China, it was banned in Taiwan until 1980. He was one of the first activists in the movement to bring Esperanto to China.
Last days
In 1936, Lu Xun's lungs were seriously affected by tuberculosis. In March of the same year, his condition worsened, with a fever and asthmatic attacks. From June to August, his condition worsened again. IN last days of his life, during a period of better health, he wrote two essays - "Death" and "This is also life." On October 18, the doctor gave him an anesthetic, and his wife spent the next day with him. He died on October 19 at 5:11 am. His remains are in the mausoleum in the park named after him, in Shanghai.
Lu Xun(real name - Zhou Shuzhen) (9/25/1881, Shaoxing - 10/19/1936, Shanghai), Chinese writer, publicist and literary critic. Founder of modern Chinese literature. In 1930-36 he headed the League of Leftist Writers of China. Born into the family of an impoverished landowner. In 1902 he graduated from the Nanjing Mining and Railway School and was sent to continue his education in Japan, where he joined the educational movement of Chinese students, acted as a translator and publicist. In the article "On the Power of Satanic Poetry" (1907), his sympathies for romanticism were manifested, which were noticeable later. Almost simultaneously, Lu S.'s interest in realism arose. In Japan and at home, Lu S. participated in the preparation of the Xinhai Revolution (1911-13). In 1913 he created the first story "The Past". In 1918, Lu S. published the first work of new Chinese literature - the story "The Diary of a Madman", a kind of version of N. V. Gogol's Notes of a Madman. Later he published the collections Cry (1923), Wanderings (1926), which included the story The True History of Ah Q. Her hero, a village day laborer, is bullied by fellow villagers and eventually dies on the chopping block on unfounded charges of robbery. This story and some stories reflected not an apologetic, but a critical attitude of the author to the people, making him related to the Russians. revolutionary democrats, A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky. Lou S.'s many stories are devoted to the intelligentsia. Here are the daredevils who are able to go to death for the sake of their people (Xia Yu from the story "The Drug"), and just smart people who understand the greatness common man("A Little Incident"), and sympathetic but pitiful old scribes ("Kung Yi-chi", "Shine"), and opportunists like Fang Xuan-cho from "Summer Festival".
A large place in the work of Lou S. is occupied by prose poems, combined in the collection Wild Herbs (1927), in which pessimistic notes often sound. And yet, Lou S.'s faith in life ultimately turns out to be stronger than longing. Some poems are written in satirical colors, sometimes close to parody ("My Lost Love").
The satirical and heroic tales of Lou S. made up the collection Old Legends in a New Way (1936), the main content of which is criticism of the ugly sides of reality. For example, in "Conquest of the Elements" the writer reworked Chinese myth about the flood, ridiculing the intellectuals who tremble for their well-being and do not think about the people. The mythical hero Yu, who, according to legend, saved China from the flood, becomes Lu S.'s personification of labor, democracy, and equality.
In his journalistic articles, Lu S. responded to the most topical events of domestic and international life: the collections Hot Wind (1925), Under a Luxurious Canopy (1926), Dissident (1932), Book of False Freedom (1933) , “It is allowed to talk about the weather” (1934), “In a patterned border” (1936) and others. Lu S. did a lot to promote Marxist aesthetics, to popularize progressive world and especially Russian and Soviet literature in China, translated the works of N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. A. Fadeev and others. “... Our continuous links with Soviet Union, - he wrote, - marked the beginning of China's extensive literary ties with the whole world ”(“ Greetings literary connections China and Russia”, 1932, see Collected Works, Volume 2, M., 1955, p. 102). In the article "Revolutionary Proletarian Literature in China and the Blood of Its Vanguard" (1931), he defends progressive Chinese writers, fights against feudal-bourgeois culture and pseudo-revolutionary writers. His " Short story Chinese narrative prose" (1923) - the first generalizing work on the most democratic kind of national literature.
The works of Lu S. have been translated into many languages of the world. A 4-volume collection of his works (1954-56) and more than a hundred separate editions of his works have been published in Russian.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
In feng shui, much attention is paid to the seven stars of the Big Dipper. These seven stars are said to represent the seven deities, which in turn represent the seven aspects of happiness. Three gods - Fu, Lu and Shou (and in Cantonese Fuk, Luk and Sau) personify the three aspects of happiness and, united, they not only enhance the manifestation of these aspects, but also "ensure" complete happiness.
Show-syn- the god of longevity. The word "Shou" or "Sau" in Cantonese translates as "Longevity" and the word "Xing" translates as "Star". This one, one of the very popular gods of the Chinese pantheon, represents a long and healthy life. He also helps the sick. Usually he is depicted with a bald, exorbitantly large skull, a long gray beard, a long staff of human height in right hand, to which the Calabash is tied, which contains the pill of longevity or the elixir of immortality, and with a peach in his left hand. Sometimes he is depicted riding a deer or a deer accompanies him, because both deer and peach are also symbols of longevity. Sometimes he is depicted surrounded by children, because children represent the young, healthy energy of life. The shou-sin is also depicted next to other symbols of longevity - next to the crane, pine and Lin-qi longevity mushrooms.
The two small photos show that Shou-shin is holding a staff in both his right and left hand. I think it doesn't matter, in any case, both of his hands are occupied.
It is said that while there were Emperors in China, there was also a custom that once a year a banquet was given in the imperial palace, to which all citizens who had reached the age of seventy were invited - regardless of their nobility and position in society. At the banquet, the emperor gave gifts to each of the centenarians, the main of which was a staff - the same as that of Shou-sin. This staff was considered family heirloom and passed down from generation to generation.
fu-xing- the god of wealth and prosperity, good luck in offspring. He personifies good luck. He is often depicted wearing a merchant's red robe with a child in his arms or a scroll in his hands.
Lu-sin- the god of power. It brings good luck in a career, in business, in exams. He is depicted in the attire of a government official with Ruyi's scepter or papyrus in his hands. It can also be distinguished by a hat with two long "pigtails". Among the three gods, he is usually placed in the middle. Sometimes he is depicted with a scroll in his hands, which may be written "heavenly official bestows happiness."
Although the images of these three gods of health, wealth and power are drawn separately and their figures can be bought separately, it is customary to depict them together and put the three figures of these gods together, because only three types of happiness together bring true satisfaction. Usually all three gods are depicted as elders and their presence in the house ensures the happiness of the whole house, the whole family.
It is customary to put the figures of Fu, Lu and Shou in a prominent, “honorable” place, where the inhabitants of the house often look. It is not recommended to put them in the bathroom, toilet, hallway, on the floor. In residential areas they are used more often than in offices.
Special attention deserves the order in which the images of Fu, Lu and Shaw should be placed. It is logical to assume that if these three gods are listed in the order of Fu, Lu, and then Shaw, then they should be placed in the same order. But it should be remembered that in China they read from right to left, which means that the tradition of placing the gods is as follows: on the right is Fu, in the middle is Lu, and on the left is Shou.
There is a shopping and office center in Singapore, which houses the offices of several well-known feng shui masters and sells feng shui attributes and tools. That's what it's called, Fu, Lu, Shaw shopping and office complex. Fu, Lu and Shou are depicted on its facade, and although the images of the gods were created by an Italian, I think that on this building they should be depicted correctly, according to tradition, although in my opinion, the order of their arrangement is not of fundamental importance.
In this photo, Fu is on the right, Lu is in the center, and Shou is on the left. Here are some more images where the gods are arranged according to tradition.
When buying modern images of Fu, Lu and Shaw separately, they are often arranged in the order of reading, i.e. Fu is on the left, Lu is in the center, and Shou is on the right.
