India surprises both with its exotic centuries-old architectural "highlights" and no less exotic ancient writings which contain the most unique knowledge about the surrounding world and the nature of man himself. Buddhist traditions have roots that go back to the distant past, but they contain truly impressive knowledge that is not so inferior to modern achievements. Among such ancient Indian knowledge is the traditional medical system Ayurveda, the foundations of which were formed in ancient times, but to this day they enjoy considerable authority in the field of medicine.
The science of long life from a Buddhist deity
The main goal of Ayurveda is to help every person live a long and disease-free life. Translated from Sanskrit, the name of this ancient system orderly medical information and recommendations sounds like “knowledge of life” (“knowledge of a long life”) or “teaching about the principles healthy life”, which most subtly defines its main purpose.
According to ancient Indian legends, Ayurveda is part of the great knowledge about the Universe and arose even before the appearance of people, and its creator was the god-healer Dhanvantari. It was he who transmitted this system of medical knowledge to earthly sages.
The first mention of this system of healing is found in the Vedas. One of the collections of these ancient Indian scriptures is devoted exclusively to medical aspects. It not only describes a variety of medicinal plants and the use of the first antibiotics (lichens with similar properties), but also provides a description of human bones. The ancient Ayurvedic treatises, which were created by the ancient Indian medical dynasties, contain information about more than 600 medicines of plant and animal origin and their areas of application, about poisons and antidotes, about operations and instruments for surgical interventions.
The art of healing with philosophical overtones
Ayurveda is a combination of medicine and philosophy. Unlike Western medicine, this practice is based on 6 philosophical ideas set out in the Vedas, which suggest a close relationship between man and the universe. Ayurveda considers a person as a whole, implying the unity of body and spirit, thoughts and feelings, and taking into account not only the physical, but also the psychological, emotional condition person, taking into account their harmonious combination. Violation of this state provokes the occurrence of diseases, therefore the main task Ayurvedic medicine - to restore this harmonious integrity. According to Ayurveda, the key to a healthy life is in the harmony of a person with himself and with nature, and one of the basic principles of healing is to change the way of life. If the human body is in balance, then no, even the most dangerous microbes, can damage it. Therefore, the first thing the doctor seeks to return the body to this state.
The ancient Indian method of treatment provides for 2 ways to fight the disease: shaman and shodhana. The first path involves only the mitigation of the signs of the disease, the second direction is responsible for eliminating the cause of the disease, which often may not be an infection at all. If in the first case the disease can continue to progress, then the second method completely excludes the progress of the disease, providing only a complete recovery of the patient.
Principles of Ayurvedic Medicine
The treatment principles of Ayurveda are very different from other medical systems. This technique assumes individual approach to every person. Treatment is based on the study of prakriti - structural features of an individual and his psychophysiological parameters. Medicinal mixtures and preparations are also selected purely individually.
Most Ayurvedic medicines are based exclusively on herbs that grow mainly in the Himalayas. The Rig Veda lists about 700 medicinal plants. Ayurveda also provides for the use of medicines of animal origin and treatment with minerals (including precious and semi-precious stones). One medicine is prepared in such a way that it can help for several ailments. It should have a strong medical effect and at the same time be well preserved for a long time. Ayurvedic texts contain more than 1000 prescriptions for medicines, but every doctor should be able to combine them based on his experience and intuition.
To cleanse the body of structures that disturb its balance, Ayurveda uses the Panchakarma technique, which means “5 actions”, since its course includes 5 areas, the main of which are diets, the use of medicinal herbs and massage using specific oils. This is the real body cleansing therapy. Religious practices (chanting of mantras, meditation and deity worship) also have a place in Ayurvedic practice. This medical system offers more than just valuable advice for diagnosis and treatment, and for many chronic diseases it can be of more help than traditional Western medicine.
Ayurveda in modern world
Ayurveda has had a significant impact on the development of traditional Tibetan medicine and medicine Arab world, and also underlies many modern methods of healing. By the middle of the 20th century traditional Indian teachings concerning health and medical aspects have become widespread in the West. By the end of the 20th century students began to study Ayurveda medical universities in the US and Israel. Such training includes a mandatory internship in India.
The main procedures of Ayurveda have entered the world medical practice, and many of its ancient practices have completely passed into modern medicine. In today's world, Ayurveda is still widespread and popular in India, where it is a state-recognized medical practice, as well as in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and causes special interest tourists seeking to get acquainted with the most ancient methods of treatment in the homeland of this alternative medicine.
People ancient india earlier than others, he began to accumulate knowledge about various diseases and ways to cure them. The great monument of literature - the Vedas - contained not only myths and legends about gods and sages, but also medical prescriptions and recommendations.
Medical representations in Vedic texts
Medical knowledge was collected in the Yajur Veda, compiled around the 9th century BC. According to them, a person in case of illness or injury should turn to the healing gods. Later, explanations of the texts made by various healers were compiled. Most famous authors- Doctors Sushruta and Charak. Many other manuals devoted to this or that section of medicine have also been preserved. The gods Shiva and Dhanvantari were considered the founders of medicine. And the raging sea, in addition to all kinds of jewelry, threw the first learned doctor to the ground.
Physicians of ancient India
Initially, only brahmins, who did not charge a fee for treatment, could heal. Gradually, a whole estate appeared - the Vedic caste, dealing exclusively with medicine. Brahmins, in the future, only taught medical art and called themselves gurus. During the training, the student followed his teacher everywhere, studying the sacred books, medicines and methods of treatment. Only after completing the education, the doctor received from the Raja the right to practice medicine.
The main features of the Indian doctors of the Vedic caste were the obligation to dress cleanly, cut their nails and beard, speak respectfully and come to the patient on demand. The doctor took a fee for his work, and only Brahmins were treated for free. The doctor was not obliged to help the incurable patient. All drugs were prescribed after a thorough examination of the patient and the establishment of the nature of the disease. In addition to the Brahmins and representatives of the Vedic caste, there were folk doctors - healers.
Medical operations in ancient India
Widely practiced in ancient India, and the surgery itself was called shalia. Some of the most famous operations at that time included the removal of stones from the urinary tract, the extraction of cataracts, the puncture of the pleural cavity, the imposition of fixative pressure bandages for fractures and wounds, stopping bleeding by cauterization, plastic surgery (for example, restoring the integrity of the nose or ear by transplanting tissue from healthy neighboring area of the body). And these are just the most common surgeries. In fact, they were known to be much more.
Hygiene and drug therapy
A large number of medical works were devoted to hygiene. They talked about keeping food fresh, the benefits of bathing and applying ointments, and brushing your teeth. A huge number of medicinal herbs were known. Sushruta alone describes 760 of them in detail. Various parts of animals were also used to prepare medicines. The properties of metals and other chemicals, as well as their compounds, were studied. Many poisons and ways to deal with them were discovered.
TOPIC: MEDICINE IN ANCIENT INDIA
LECTURE PLAN:
1. Periodization and chronology of history and healing;
2. The period of the Harappan civilization;
3. Medicine in the Vedic period;
4. Doctor in classical period.
Periodization and chronology of history and healing
The ancient civilization of India developed in the III millennium BC.
Word "India" Greek origin named after the Sindhu River in the northwest of the country. The Iranians called it Hindu, and the Greeks - Indos. Hence the name of the people - "Indus" and their countries "India".
For many decades, science has been dominated by the opinion that civilization in India arose much later than in Egypt or Mesopotamia until 1922 in the Indus Valley. Indian archaeologists have not discovered ancient cities.
Excavations have clearly shown that in India in IV - III millennia BC. there was a highly developed civilization. Cities mohenjo-daro And Harappa were apparently two capitals.
There are 3 periods in the history of medicine in ancient India:
1) period of the Harappan civilization(III - the beginning of the II millennium BC) - the period of formation of the first early slave-owning city-states;
2) Vedic period(late II - mid-I millennium BC) - the period of compilation of "sacred texts" - Vedas (Sindhi veda - knowledge, knowledge), transmitted in the oral tradition;
3) classical period(the second half of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium AD) - the time of the highest flourishing of the culture of ancient India. Characterized by the high development of agriculture, trade, original culture, the spread of Buddhism (the first of the 3 major world religions), success in literature, art, the widespread development of trade and cultural ties with the countries of the ancient world. This brought India the glory of the “Land of the Wise Men”.
period of the Harappan civilization
Harappan civilization- is highly developed urban culture(from name Harappa ). The characteristic features of the Harappan civilization are: monumental architecture, planned urban development, a high level of sanitary improvement of cities, the development of artificial irrigation, crafts and foreign trade, the creation of proto-Indian writing (which has not yet been finally deciphered).
The construction of the Harappan cities was carried out according to a predetermined plan: straight streets oriented from west to east and from south to north.
One of these cities is mohenjo-daro (Sindhi- “The Hill of the Dead”) was found at a depth of 12 m and belongs to the 25th century BC, it occupied an area of about 2.5 square meters. km and lived in it about 35-40 thousand people. Buildings of a religious and public nature were excavated in the city: a pool 7m wide and 12m long, which was used for ritual ablutions; a huge hall where representatives of the city authorities gathered, public barns for storing grain, sanitary facilities (wells, baths, sewage system).
The main streets in the city center were up to 10m wide. Along the streets there were 2 or 3-storey houses made of baked bricks. There were no windows to the street.
The poor huddled in miserable reed barracks. The remains of such shacks were discovered in Harappa near the sites for threshing grain.
Every brick house had ablution room - a small square or rectangular room with a brick floor that sloped towards one of the corners. There was a drain in this corner. The close laying of bricks with which the floor was paved prevented the infiltration of water. Downspouts exited through the thickness of the wall into the sewage system of the city.
The English Indologist A. Basham wrote that sewage systems are “one of the most impressive achievements of Indian civilization ... No other ancient civilization, even Roman, had such a perfect plumbing system.”
Each street and each alley had its own sewage channel lined with bricks. Before entering the canal, sewage and sewage passed through settling tanks and cesspools covered with tightly ground covers.
The design of the sewage system in Mohenjo-Daro was given more attention than the construction of buildings. The creation of a perfect sample of a sanitary facility speaks of high culture ancient Indian civilization.
However, in subsequent periods in the history of ancient India, the level of sanitary construction decreased significantly and no longer reached the level of the Harappan culture.
Medicine in the Vedic period
With the advent of the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, the compilation of “sacred texts” began - Vedas . Information about the healing of the Vedic period has been preserved in "Rig Veda" (veda of hymns and mythological stories), "Atharvaveda" (Veda of spells and conspiracies) and "Yajurvede" (veda of sacrificial spells”).
IN "Rig Veda" it speaks of three ailments: leprosy, consumption and bleeding, and also casually mentions the healer in the following words: "Our desires are different, the carter craves firewood, the healer craves diseases, and the priest - sacrificial libations."
During the Vedic period, medicine was closely intertwined with religion and magic. In the Rig Veda important place takes Indra - the god of thunder and the giver of rain, as well as deities associated with healing and ideas about life and death. This Ashwin twins - healer gods Rudra - lord of medicinal herbs and patron of hunters, catfish - the god of the intoxicating ritual drink of the same name. Supreme deities: Agni - god of fire and resurgent life, Surya - Sun God.
Along with good deities, there were also evil spirits and demons, bringing misfortune, illness, ruin, depriving offspring. For example, in "Atharvaveda" diseases are associated with evil spirits or are regarded as punishment from the gods, and the cure of diseases is explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells.
In the Atharvaveda, the effect of medicinal plants was explained by their healing power, which counteracts evil spirits. Ancient doctors were called - bhishaj (“exorcist”).
At the end of the Vedic period ancient Indian society finally divided into 4 main classes ( varnas ):
1. brahmins (knowing sacred teachings, i.e. priests),
2. kshatriya (endowed with power, i.e. military nobility and members of royal families),
3. vaishi (free community members, i.e. peasants, artisans and merchants),
4. shudras (disenfranchised poor).
From birth, an Indian belonged to a certain group (varna): the children of a brahman were brahmins, the children of a kshatriya were kshatriyas, and so on. Such closed social groups were called castes .Each of the varnas consisted of many castes and podcasts.
In addition, there was a fifth, lowest estate - pariahs (untouchable), used in the most unpleasant and humiliating jobs. Sudras and pariahs had no rights. They were not allowed to hear and repeat the Vedas. To engage in healing and study the Vedas had the right only representatives of three higher varnas.
Caste differences were sanctified by religion - Hinduism .
The Indians believed that a person consists of a body and a soul. Only the body is mortal, and the soul of the deceased passes into the body of another living being. Using these ancient beliefs, the Brahmans created their own religious teachings. They said that the one whose soul was previously in the body of a sinful person is forced to work hard for his master, starve and be in eternal need. This means that the poor and slaves cannot complain that they live poorly. This social structure ancient India was considered unshakable and established by the divine will Brahma - the greatest of the ancient Indian gods. And everyone who seeks to change their situation for the better or does not obey the authorities violates the will of the gods.
4) Healing in the classical period
In the 6th century BC. ancient India entered a period of intense spiritual and intellectual development. It was at this time that arose and became widespread Buddhism which became the world's first religion. Its founder Siddhartha Gautama (c.583 - 483 BC), the son of the ruler of the Shakya family from Kapilavasti was later named Buddha ("awakened").
Buddhism accepted everything basic that was in Brahminism, but, in addition, taught that life is evil, and to live means to suffer. There is no need to desire anything, to strive for anything, and then there will be no deeds for which future life would have to answer. Then the soul will cease to be reborn from suffering on earth, will be saved from evil, i.e. life and reach a blissful state - nirvana . Achieving nirvana - the main objective believer. The best way to achieve this is to become a monk.
By the beginning of our era, a highly developed system of medical knowledge had developed in ancient India - Ayurveda (the doctrine of long life). Buddhist traditions have preserved the glory of miraculous healers Jivake, Charake And Sushruta .
The main directions of ancient Indian medicine of the classical period are reflected in 2 outstanding monuments ancient Ayurvedic writing: "Charaka Samhita" (I-II centuries AD) and "Sushruta Samhita" IV century AD).
"Charaka Samhita" is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains 8 sections:
1. treatment of wounds;
2. treatment of diseases of the head area;
3. treatment of diseases of the whole organism;
4. treatment of mental illness;
5. treatment of childhood diseases;
6. antidotes;
7. elixirs against senile decrepitude;
8. drugs that increase sexual activity.
"Charaka-samhita" also contains information about 600 medicines of plant, animal and mineral origin.
"Sushruta Samhita" is devoted to surgical treatment, it describes more than 300 operations, more than 120 surgical instruments and more than 650 medicines.
In the classical period, the ancient Indian healers moved away from the supernatural that dominated the Vedic period. understanding of the causes of illness. Man was considered in close connection with the outside world. According to the ancient Indians, the world consisted of 5 elements : earth, air, fire, water and ether. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction 3 substances : air, fire and water (the carriers of which in the body were considered prana, bile and mucus). Health is the result of a balanced ratio of 3 substances, disease - this is a violation of these correct ratios and the negative impact on a person of the 5 elements.
Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed interview of the patient and the study of body heat, skin and tongue color, secretions, lung noises, etc.
Sushruta described 3 stages of inflammation :
1. minor pain;
2. shooting pains, swelling, feeling of pressure, local heat and dysfunction;
3. reduction of swelling and pus formation.
For the treatment of inflammation, Sushruta suggested local medicinal as well as surgical treatment.
Treatment tactics was determined primarily by the curability or incurability of the disease (as in other countries of the ancient world). The treatment was aimed at balancing the disturbed ratio of substances, which was achieved:
First, diet
Secondly, drug therapy (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics, etc.);
Thirdly, surgical methods of treatment.
The versatility of the skills and knowledge of the ancient Indian healer is evidenced by famous words Sushrutas: “A healer who is familiar with the healing properties of roots and herbs is a person; familiar with the properties of a knife and fire - a demon; he who knows the power of prayer is a prophet; familiar with the properties of mercury is a god.”
obstetrics in ancient India it was an independent area of healing. Sushruta's treatise contains detailed advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, C-section, used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby, as well as turning the fetus on the leg.
Surgery in ancient India was the most perfect in the ancient world. Sushruta considered surgery “a precious work of the sky (according to the legend, the first surgeons were the healers of the sky - the Ashwin twins). Still not having scientific ideas about asepsis and antisepsis, Indian healers have achieved careful observance of cleanliness during the operation. They performed laparotomy, lithotomy, herniotomy, plastic surgery, cataract removal.
They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips, lost or crippled in battle or by the verdict of the court. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European up to the 18th century.
Way rhinoplasty , described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name Indian method .
In ancient Indian texts first described cataract removal surgery (cloudy lens). And the lens in ancient India was considered one of the most important parts of the body, in which the “eternal fire” is preserved.
In ancient India, developed hygiene traditions. Great importance attached to personal hygiene, beauty and neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home. The hygienic skills of the ancient Indians are enshrined in "Injunctions of Manu":
“One should never eat food ... of the sick, nor that on which hair or insects have appeared, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.”
“It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing ceremonies far from the dwelling.”
“In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth and honor the gods.”
“Having cut hair, nails and a beard, humble, in white clothes, clean, let him always study the Vedas and deeds useful to him.”
Disease Prevention was one of the most important branches of Indian medicine. Since ancient times, attempts have been made smallpox vaccination widely distributed in India.
So, in the text of the legendary healer Dhanvantari (c. 5th century AD) it says: “Using a surgical knife, take smallpox matter either from the udder of a cow or from the hand of an already infected person, between the elbow and shoulder, make a puncture on the other person’s hand until there is blood, and when the pus enters with blood inside the body, a fever will be found.”
In ancient India, earlier than in Western Europe appeared almshouses at Buddhist temples and hospitals - dharmashala .
Important role in the development of healing in ancient India played monasteries and monks, among whom there were many knowledgeable healers, since it was considered a high virtue to provide medical assistance to the laity.
Medicine in ancient India is closely connected with religious and philosophical teachings, among which a special place is occupied by yoga. She combined religious philosophy, moral and ethical teachings and a system of exercises - postures ( asanas ). Much attention in yoga is paid to the purity of the body and a peculiar way of life. Yoga teaching consists of 2 levels: hatha yoga (physical yoga) and raja yoga (mastery of the spirit).
Among medical education centers ancient India occupied a special place Taxila . A student of medicine had to master all facets of the medical art.
For example, in the Sushruta Samhita it is written: “A doctor who is inexperienced in operations becomes confused at the bedside of a patient, like a cowardly soldier who first gets into battle; a doctor who knows only how to operate and neglects theoretical information does not deserve respect and can endanger even the lives of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with only one wing.”
In the "Charaka Samhita" is given sermon, which the teacher said to his students at the end of the training. In terms of its main provisions, it is similar to the “Oath” of the ancient Greek healers, which testifies to the uniform principles of medical ethics in the countries of the ancient world.
“If you want to achieve success in your activities, wealth and glory and heaven after death ... You must strive with all your heart to heal the sick, You must not betray your patients even at the cost of own life... You must not drink, do evil or have evil companions ... Your speech must be pleasant ... You must be reasonable and always strive to improve your knowledge ... About nothing that happens in the house a sick person should not be told ... to anyone who, using the knowledge gained, could harm the sick person or another.
medical ethics ancient India demanded that the healer, “who wishes to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, and especially avoid chatter ...”
Treatment reward it was forbidden to demand from the disadvantaged, as well as friends of a doctor and brahmins; and, conversely, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the healer was awarded all their property. For improper treatment, the doctor paid a fine depending on social status sick.
Throughout history, Indian medicine has had and continues to have a great influence on the development of medicine in various regions of the globe.
In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. in the river basin Indus formed the oldest civilization in South Asia. It goes back to the name of one of the rivers in the north-west of the country - Sindhu (Sindhu), which the Iranians called Hindu (Hindu), and the Greeks - Indos (Indos). From here came the name of the people - "Indians" and their country - "Country of the Indians". Currently, modern states are located on its territory: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal.
The heyday of the Indus culture falls on the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Its characteristic features are monumental architecture, planned development of cities, a high level of their sanitary improvement, the development of artificial irrigation, crafts, and writing.
Periodization of medical history:
1) Indian civilization (XXIII - XVIII centuries BC, Indus River valley) - proto-Indian civilization, the oldest in South Asia.
2) the Vedic period (XIII-VI centuries BC, the Ganges river valley).
3) Buddhist (V - III centuries BC) and classical (II century BC - V century AD).
characteristic features of the sanitary business of the period Indian civilization are:
1. monumental architecture,
2. planned development of cities,
3. high level of their sanitary improvement,
4. development of artificial irrigation,
5. development of crafts (ceramics, metal and stone products),
6. creation of proto-Indian writing.
By the size of the territory, the level of urban construction, sanitary improvement, etc. Indus culture significantly surpassed the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia of the corresponding period.
The construction of cities in the Indus Valley was carried out according to a predetermined plan. In different parts of the city there were wells lined with burnt bricks. Residential houses were also built of burnt bricks. Drainpipes through the thickness of the walls went into the sewage system of the city. No other ancient civilization, even the Roman one, had such a perfect drainage system.
At the same time, the splendor of the sanitary facilities of the Indus civilization does not characterize the general level of sanitary construction in Ancient India as a whole - in subsequent periods of the history of Ancient India, it decreased significantly.
Its causes, according to researchers, were internal phenomena (floods, droughts, depletion of internal resources), the penetration of more backward tribes into the Indus Valley.
Intelligence about the healing of the Vedic period are very limited. Thus, only three ailments are mentioned in the Rigveda: leprosy, consumption, and bleeding. Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts about the rituals of magical healing - the healing knowledge of the Vedic period was closely intertwined with religious beliefs and magical rites.
The Vedic religion has mythological characters, which are directly or indirectly associated with ideas about healing, health and illness. Important deities were considered Agni - the god of fire, hearth, an intermediary between gods and people, and Surya - the deity of the Sun and the all-seeing eye of the gods. The main deity of the Vedic religion was considered Indra - the god of thunder and lightning, the king (raja) of the gods, the generous patron of people; the embodiment of strength, courage and fertility. Along with good deities in ancient Indian mythology, there were also evil spirits and demons: asuras and rakshasas - enemies of gods and people, as well as pichashas - who brought misfortune, illness, ruin and deprived of offspring.
These ideas are reflected in the Atharva Veda. On the one hand, it shows the empirical experience of the people in the use of medicinal plants, the action of which was understood as healing power opposing evil spirits. On the other hand, diseases in the Atharvaveda are associated with evil spirits or are regarded as a punishment of the gods; and the cure of ailments is explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells.
ancient healers so they were called bhishaj("exorcist"). This name was retained by them for more late periods the history of ancient India, when the healer-caster turned into a healer-healer. Over time, ideas about the causes of diseases have also changed. Thus, the Yajurveda mentions the juices of the body.
Only representatives of the three highest varnas had the right to engage in healing and study the Vedas - brahmamas (knowing sacred teachings, i.e. priest), kshatriyas (endowed with power, i.e. military nobility and members of royal families - the ruling class, the historical Buddha was a kshatriya) , vaishyas (a free community member, i.e. mainly farmers, cattle breeders, merchants). Shudras and pariahs: practically had no rights. They were not allowed to listen and repeat the Vedas.
By the beginning of our era in ancient India, a highly developed traditional healing system - Ayurveda (ayurveda - the doctrine of long life).
Ayurveda, or Ayurvedic medicine, uses the natural medicines of the region, based on the national philosophical tradition. For two thousand years, it has been successfully developed and highly valued in India and beyond.
In ancient times, the outstanding figures of traditional Indian medicine were the legendary healers Charaka (I-II centuries AD) and Sushruta (about IV century AD) - the authors of two classic Ayurvedic treatises: "Charaka Samhita" (dated from I-II centuries AD), which describes the treatment of internal diseases, and "Sushruta Samhita" (dated from the 4th century AD), which is largely devoted to surgical healing.
Representation about the structure of the human body in ancient India were the most complete in ancient history. The study of corpses in ancient India was not forbidden by religion and was easily bathed in cleansing baths, touching a sacred cow or looking at the sun.
According to Sushruta, Indian healers believed that the human body consists of six members (head, torso and four limbs), seven membranes, 500 muscles, 900 ligaments, 90 tendons, 300 bones, including teeth and cartilage), which were divided into flat, round long , 107 joints, 40 main vessels and 700 of their branches (for blood, mucus and air), 24 nerves, nine sense organs and three fluids (mucus of bile and air). Some areas (palm, soles, testicles, inguinal regions, etc.) were highlighted as especially important. Their damage was considered life-threatening. At the same time, the ancient Indians did not have a clear idea about the purpose of the brain and believed that the seat of the mind is the heart (the ancient Egyptians had similar ideas).
The knowledge of Indian healers in the field of the structure of the human body played a significant role in the development of ancient Indian surgery.
Ideas about the causes of diseases in the classical period, the history of ancient India changed somewhat. Healers began to move away from the supernatural understanding of the disease that dominated the Vedic period. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world, which, according to the ancient Indians, consisted of five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water, the carriers of which in the body were considered to be three primary fluids: wind, bile and mucus (mucus is above the heart, bile is between the navel and the heart, air is below the navel). From the five elements and three fluids, seven organic products that make up the human body are formed: blood - the first source of life, muscles, fat, bones, brain and male seed.
The wind in nature is the carrier of light, coolness, sound spreading in space, quickly rushing streams. Inside the human body, the Wind controls blood circulation, digestion, excretion, and even metabolism, which involves the active movement of complex molecular biochemical complexes. Accelerating or slowing down the "movement of juices and substances" through the Wind disrupts the normal vital activity of the organism.
Bile is represented in nature by fire, and in the body it causes "natural heat", maintains body temperature and ensures the activity of the digestive organs and the activity of the heart muscle.
Phlegm in space and man was associated with all sorts of "soft" substances. It has been compared to a lubricating oil that coats all solid and rough substances and facilitates their movement and interaction.
With any disturbances in the action of wind, bile and mucus, a disease occurs. It is all the more dangerous and difficult, the deeper the harmony between the three primary elements is broken. And the doctor restores health, bringing all three primary elements into the necessary balance through strictly prescribed medical indications.
Sushruta divided all diseases into natural, related to nature (for example, air causes 80 diseases, bile - 40, mucus - 30), and supernatural, sent by the gods (leprosy, venereal and other contagious diseases, the causes of which were still impossible to understand at that time). ).
Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed survey of the patient and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, discharge, noise in the lungs, voice characteristics, etc. Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine.
Treatment of internal diseases most fully presented in the treatise "Charaka Samhita", which contains information on more than 600 medicinal products of plant, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of diseases of the head area; treatment of diseases of the whole organism; treatment of mental illness; treatment of childhood diseases; antidotes; elixirs against senile decrepitude; drugs that increase sexual activity.
Tactics of treatment in ancient India, as in other countries ancient world, was determined primarily by the curability or incurability of the disease. With a favorable prognosis, the healer took into account the characteristics of the disease, the season, age, temperament, strength and mind of the patient (they said that “fools are more easily cured, because they follow the advice more accurately”).
The treatment was aimed at restoring the disturbed ratio of fluids (substances), which was achieved, firstly, by diet, secondly, by drug therapy (vomiting, laxatives, diaphoretics, etc.) and thirdly, by surgical methods of treatment, in which ancient Indians have reached a high perfection.
Only healers were involved in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites).
The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India, in terms of its skill and effectiveness, it was the highest in the ancient world (it was famous in all countries and in the Middle Ages).
Sushruta considered surgery "the first and best of all medical sciences, a precious work of heaven, a sure source of glory". The Sushruta Samhita describes more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical instruments and at least 750 herbal medicines, among which there is not a single remedy of European origin.
Still without scientific knowledge about antisepsis and asepsis, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, have achieved careful observance of cleanliness during operations.
Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times. They were stored in special wooden boxes.
Wounds were bandaged linen, silk and woolen fabrics soaked in melted cow butter, as well as bandages made of leather and palm bark. Used for seams linen and tendon threads and horsehair.
The healers of Ancient India performed amputations of limbs, laparotomies, stone, hernia repair, plastic surgery, stitched wounds on the head, face, and even the windpipe. plastic surgery ancient Indians deserve special attention. They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in battle or by sentence. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century.
In ancient Indian texts, the operation of removing a clouded lens - a cataract - was also described for the first time. Sushruta described 76 eye diseases and their treatment.
obstetrics in ancient India it was considered an independent field of healing. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on cleanliness and proper living; deviations from the normal course of labor, fetal deformity, caesarean section (used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby), fetal rotation on a leg and embryotomy (which was recommended in cases of impossibility of turning the fetus on a leg or head) are described.
Hygienic traditions long developed in ancient India. The first attempts were made to prevent contagious diseases, including smallpox. Great importance was attached to personal hygiene, beauty, neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home, the influence of climate and seasons on human health.
Empirically developed hygiene skills are also enshrined in the "Laws of Manu":
“One should never eat food ... of the sick, neither on which the hair of insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.”
“Let him not bathe either after eating, or when he is sick, or in the middle of the night ... or in an untested pond” -
“It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing rites far from the dwelling.”
“In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, rub your eyes with collyrium and honor the gods.”
“Having cut hair, nails and a beard, humble, in white clothes, clean, let him always be engaged in the study of the Vedas and deeds useful to him,” etc.
In cities and villages, it was forbidden to throw sewage into the streets. The places and methods of burning the corpses of the dead were regulated. In doubtful cases of human death, an examination (autopsy) was prescribed; the body of the deceased was examined and covered with special oil in order to prevent decomposition. Severe penalties were also established for mixing poisons in food, medicines and incense.
Urban planning in the classical period of Indian history did not reach that high level which distinguished the ancient Indus civilization.
In ancient India, earlier than in Western Europe, almshouses (at Buddhist temples) and rooms for the sick - dharmashala (hospital) appeared.
Physician position in ancient India was not the same at the stages of history. In the Vedic period, the practice of medicine was not reprehensible. In the final period of the history of the Ancient World, with the development of the caste system and social inequality, the tendency to consider certain occupations as ritually "unclean" and those engaged in them as untouchable intensified. This applied to those caring for horses and chariots, carpenters, healers (in all likelihood, those who were involved in surgery and were associated with ritual "impurity"), conjurers, acrobats, dancers, etc. Nevertheless, in general, the practice of medicine is spoken of with great respect in the ancient texts.
An important role in the development of healing in ancient India was played by monasteries and monks, among whom there were many knowledgeable healers. All the monks had some knowledge in the field of medicine, since it was considered a high virtue to provide medical assistance to the laity.
Medicine in ancient India was closely connected with religious and philosophical teachings, among which a special place is occupied by yoga. She combined religious philosophy, moral and ethical teachings and a system of posture exercises. Much attention in yoga is paid to the purity of the body and a peculiar way of life.
Among medical education centers Taxila occupied a special place in ancient India. A student of medicine had to master all the facets of medical art: “A doctor, inexperienced in operations, comes to a patient’s bed with confusion, like a cowardly soldier who first got into battle; a doctor who knows only how to operate and neglects theoretical information does not deserve respect and can endanger even the lives of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with only one wing,” says the Sushruta Samhita.
At the end of the training, the teacher gives a sermon to his students, which is given in the Charaka Samhita.
“If you want to achieve success in your activities, wealth and fame and heaven after death, you should pray every day, rising from sleep and going to sleep, for the well-being of all beings, especially cows and brahmins, and you should wholeheartedly strive for healing sick.
You must not betray your patients even at the cost of your own life...
You must not drink, you must not do evil or have evil companions...
Your speech should be pleasant...
You must be reasonable, always strive to improve your knowledge.
When you go to the home of the sick, you must direct your words, thoughts, mind, and feelings to nothing but your sick person and his cure....
Nothing that happens in the house of a sick person should be told elsewhere, and the condition of the sick person should not be told to anyone who, using the knowledge gained, could harm the sick person or another.
The Raja gave the right to practice medicine. He also controlled the activities of healers and compliance with medical ethics.
medical ethics Ancient India strictly demanded that the healer, “who wants to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, leave the house only with a stick and an umbrella, in particular avoided chatter ... ".
Remuneration for treatment was forbidden to demand from the disadvantaged, friends of the doctor and brahmins; and vice versa, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the healer was awarded their property. For improper treatment, the healer paid a fine depending on the social status of the patient.
Unlike the great civilizations of the Middle East (Mesopotamia and Egypt), the Indian civilization (like the Chinese) did not die - it continued its progressive development after the era of the Ancient World. In the Middle Ages, Indian doctors were famous all over the world, and Indian medicine had and continues to have a great influence on the development of medicine in various regions of the globe.
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The medical knowledge of the ancient Hindus traditionally included information about the diseases of people, plants and animals. Medical writings contain detailed discussions about the youth and maturity of plants, about the treatment of their diseases during wakefulness and "drowsiness", the causes of wilting and falling leaves, about the influence of climate, wind and heat on plant health. It was prescribed to take care of the plant like a person: cover its roots with healing clay, pour water with milk. Describing the grafting of the shoots of one tree onto another is like describing surgical operations.
Traditionally, the system of medical knowledge of ancient India included veterinary medicine; medical treatises often contained recommendations for the treatment of livestock, especially cows. Many Indian drawings are known, in which hermits living in mountain huts are depicted surrounded by birds, snakes and various animals, mountains and forests.
For the first time in the century AD, hospitals were opened in India not only for people, but also for animals. Later, special writings appeared on the treatment of horses and elephants. Indian writings on veterinary medicine were translated into Arabic in the Middle Ages and spread to various countries of the East.
It was believed that the forgiveness of Varuna could bring sacrifices and magic spells, as well as the performance of "hymns of healing." Here is a fragment of one of them: “You have a hundred, a thousand medicines, O king. In your waters is the nectar of immortality, in them is the mighty power of healing. Varuna, endowed with colossal power, personified not only the forces of nature, but also justice. Appeals to him, known as the "repentant hymns" of the Rigveda, are imbued with the spirit of repentance and a thirst for forgiveness: "Do not allow me, O king, to suffer for the sins of others!" As the highest happiness, they sing of friendship with a deity who takes a person into his heavenly boat:
“When the two of us go up to the ship: Varuna and I, When we take the ship to the middle of the ocean, When we move along the surface of the waters, We will swing together on a swing ...”
"The waters are full of healing, the waters drive out sickness." says the Atharva Veda. It was believed that the demons, whose invasion of the human psyche the Indians explained mental illness, mental disorders and loss of reason, after the person's recovery, go into the water. According to Hindu beliefs, the waters of the sacred river Ganges cleanse from sins, relieve diseases.
The ancient Indian myth speaks of a golden age, when people lived indefinitely and did not eat earthly food. But one person somehow ate a substance that appeared on the surface of the earth and fell ill. Hearing his wailing, Brahma advised him to drink water, and the man was cured. Since then, Brahma has been considered the first physician, and water the first medicine.
Water treatment was characteristic of the medical teachings of different countries. Ancient authors wrote that Egyptian priests cured even serious diseases with the help of water. After the translation of Indian medical texts into Arabic, this method of treatment was widely used in oriental medicine. great ruler In India, Babur (1483-1530), in his memoirs (“The Book of Babur” or “Babur-name”), recalled how he was treated by court doctors during the siege of Samarkand: “... I fell ill very seriously, so I for four days my tongue was taken away, and they gave me water drop by drop from a piece of cotton ... Those who remained with me ... lost hope that I would survive ... After four or five days my situation improved slightly, but the tongue-tiedness remained, and also after a few days I returned to my usual state.
Ancient legends tell that Brahma himself did not invent anything during the treatment, but simply recalled the ancient medical texts told to him. So it was, for example, during the battle between the gods and demons, when Brahma was wounded in the cheek. The pain was so intense that he lost consciousness. When he woke up, he remembered the ancient medical text and cured himself.
In accordance with the natural philosophy of the Hindus, all three elements have both an organic and a cosmic aspect. For example, the wind in nature is the carrier of light, coolness; invisible, it carries within itself powerful secret forces. In the human body, the wind correlates with systems associated with movement: this is, first of all, the nervous system, as well as blood circulation, digestion, excretion and metabolism. Bile is represented in nature by fire, and in the body it regulates "natural heat" and maintains a constant body temperature. It provides the activity of the heart, the main source of "natural warmth", or "warmth within the body." So called the heat that occurs in the process of digestion and proper metabolism. Its source is "life-giving juices" obtained with food. Phlegm in human nature is associated with soft substances and is considered to be like a lubricating oil that coats solid substances.
In the Indian doctrine of "life-giving juices" that maintain body heat, the hematopoietic function of the spleen is indicated: these juices, passing through the liver and spleen, are colored in pink color and turn into blood. Further, from the blood arise the five bases of the organism - flesh, fat, bones, marrow and semen.
Vedic texts contain references to various diseases of the eyes, ears, heart, stomach, lungs, skin, muscles and nervous system. About three hundred different parts and organs are listed human body. A sudden illness is considered a manifestation of an evil inclination, coming either from demons or from worms penetrating the body. Great importance is attached to diet, with milk, honey and rice occupying a special place in dietary prescriptions. Later medical writings called milk a sacred drink, which preserved the strength and mind of a person, protected from diseases. Honey has traditionally been part of the recipes medicines curing many diseases. It was considered the main antidote for poisoning with mineral, plant and animal poisons.
In the mythology of ancient India, bees occupied a place of honor, since the god Vishnu, personifying the sky and the life of the universe, was often depicted as a small bee resting in a cup of a lotus flower. Honey as a nutritious and tasty food has attracted people's attention since ancient times. Among the Stone Age drawings, there is an image of a man surrounded by bees extracting honey from a tree hollow.
Often, extracts of medicinal plants were used for the preparation of medicines. Their parts corresponded with the three elements. Thus, stems and branches corresponded to water, since liquid juices pass through them, flowers to fire, which has light and color, leaves to air, setting the plant in motion. Healing properties Indian medicines prepared on the basis of plants were known far beyond the borders of Ancient India: they were transported to the Mediterranean by sea and land trade routes, Central Asia and China, to many other countries of the Ancient World. The best medicinal plants were brought from the Himalayas.
The harmonious combination of air, fire and water is observed only in a few people. In most, one thing predominates, but this does not yet entail a disease. Many reasons can lead to imbalance between the elements, first of all - unrighteous actions. Uncleanliness, overeating lead to contamination of the body, are the causes of many diseases, make a person defenseless against temptations.
If, due to unfavorable circumstances, one of the elements in the body begins to predominate excessively, illness sets in. The doctor's task is to restore health to the patient, bringing all the elements into the necessary balance. Carriers of air, fire and water in the human body were considered respectively prana, bile and mucus.
