temperament called a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of human mental processes, their strength, speed, occurrence, termination and change. These are differences between people in terms of depth, intensity, stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace, energy of actions, and others. The properties of temperament are not among the actual personal qualities person. They are biologically determined and are innate. Manifestations of temperament can be seen in higher animals. Nevertheless, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, determines his actions, his personality. It acts as a link between the organism and the personality. The history of the doctrine of temperament. Hippocrates ( 5th century BC BC) described four types of temperament, based on the physiological ideas of that time. Later, the Roman physician made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of temperament. Galen(2nd century AD), German philosopher I. Kant (late 18th c) German psychologist W. Wundt (late XIX c.), German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, American sociologist W. Sheldon, Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov and other researchers. As theoretical basis research in differential psychophysiology actedthe concept of the properties of the nervous system, developed by I.P. Pavlov.Certain combinations these properties were recorded as types of nervous system or types of higher nervous activity. Analysis of the relevant experimental situations on dogs showed that each conditioned reflex procedure reveals some basic property of the nervous system. Pavlov singled out such basic properties three: strength of the nervous system - the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The working capacity of the cells of the cerebral cortex, their endurance depends on this property; mobility of nervous processes(rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa). According to this property of the nervous system, different people individual differences are especially pronounced; balance of the nervous system (degree of compliance of the excitation force with the braking force). The peculiarity of combinations of these properties form specific types of higher nervous activity. Were: strong - balanced - mobile; strong - balanced - inert; strong - unbalanced; weak. Types of NS (or types of GNI), according to Pavlov, were considered as the physiological basis of temperament. Estimates of the degree of severity of the studied properties of temperament (the strength of the process of excitation, the strength of the process of inhibition, the mobility of nervous processes) are as follows: 1. Sanguine (labile type of GNI). Strong, optimally excitable. Balanced, fast type. All parts of the brain work in harmony, in harmonious interaction. In a sanguine person, positive conditioned reflex connections are formed quickly and are stable. The intensity of reactions corresponds to the strength of stimuli. Conditioned inhibitory reactions are also formed quickly, they are strong and stable. Strong nerve cells cortex and normally excitable subcortical areas provide good adaptability to the requirements environment. The activity of the cortex is characterized by high mobility. This is a living temperament that does not cause difficulties in education. Speech reactions are formed quickly and correspond to age norms. The speech of a sanguine person, as a rule, is loud, fast, expressive, with correct intonations and stresses, balanced and smooth. It is accompanied by lively gestures, expressive facial expressions and emotional upsurge. 2. Phlegmatic (inert type of GNI). Strong, optimally excitable, balanced. Slow type. In a phlegmatic person, positive conditioned reflexes are formed at a normal speed, they are strong and durable, like inhibitory conditioned reactions. Adequate interaction between the cortex and the subcortical region ensures the control of the cortex over innate reflexes. The phlegmatic relatively easily adapts to the social environment. Learns to speak, read and write quickly. His speech is somewhat slower than that of a sanguine person, she is calm, even, without pronounced emotions, gestures and facial expressions. 3. Choleric (excitable type of GNI). A strong, highly excitable, unrestrained, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation in the subcortical regions. Choleric is characterized by strong conditioned reactions that are strongly influenced by subcortical regions. Increased subcortical activity is not always sufficiently regulated by the cortex. Conditional connections are formed more slowly than in the previous types, which is associated with increased excitability of the subcortical centers, which inhibit the centers of the cortex. The conditioned inhibitory reactions of the choleric person are unstable. Children of this type usually study satisfactorily, but they have difficulty in adapting their reactions and emotions to the requirements of the school. Their speech becomes moderately fast, but uneven and is more difficult to form than that of a sanguine and phlegmatic person. 4. Melancholic (brake type VND) Weak, low excitable, unbalanced type, characterized by a general low excitability of the cortex and underlying departments. The reduced activity of the cortex in melancholics is combined with the weak activity of the subcortical centers, which is especially expressed in reduced emotions. Gets tired quickly and stops responding to too strong or prolonged stimuli. Unconditioned reflexes are also weak. Conditioned reactions are formed slowly, after many combinations of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli. The intensity of conditioned reactions often does not correspond to the law of force. The melancholic is characterized by the predominance of external inhibition. Speech is quiet and slow. A weak type of the nervous system is fertile ground for the occurrence of disturbances in the activity of the cortex (especially in childhood). Usually in differential psychophysiology, based on the idea of primacy neurophysiological level, properties of the nervous system are considered as an independent variable, psychological - as dependent. However, there are numerous data indicating the possibility of reverse effects.
B.M. Teplov also considered the type of the human nervous system to be a genetically determined factor, which in turn depends on a combination of the basic properties of the nervous system. The properties of the nervous system, according to Teplov, include: 1. The strength of the nervous system in relation to excitation, that is, its ability to withstand intense and often repetitive loads for a long time without revealing transcendental inhibition. 2. The strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition, that is, the ability to withstand prolonged and often repeated inhibitory influences. 3. The balance of the nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition, which manifests itself in the same reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory influences. 4. Lability of the nervous system, assessed by the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process of excitation or inhibition.
V.D. Nebylitsyn proposed a 12-dimensional classification of the properties of the human nervous system. It includes 8 primary properties (strength, mobility, dynamism and lability in relation to excitation and inhibition) and four secondary properties (balance in these main properties). It is shown that these properties can apply to the entire nervous system (its general properties) and to individual analyzers (partial properties).
V.M. Rusalov further developed the ideas of the Teplov-Nebylitsyn school and proposed a three-level classification of the properties of the nervous system. It includes: General, or systemic, properties that cover the entire human brain and characterize the dynamics of its work as a whole. Complex properties, manifested in the features of the work of individual "blocks" of the brain (hemispheres, frontal lobes, analyzers, anatomically and functionally separated subcortical structures, etc.). The simplest, or elementary, properties.
Temperament depends on personality traits, how impressionability The same stimuli have a greater effect on an impressionable person than on an insufficiently impressionable one. Emotionality -Emotional person attaches great importance to what is happening to him and around him. He has a stronger expression of all kinds of bodily reactions associated with emotions. An emotional individual is one who is almost never calm, constantly in the grip of any emotions, in a state of increased excitement or, on the contrary, depression. Impulsiveness. An impulsive person first reacts, and then thinks if he did the right thing, often regrets premature and wrong reactions. Anxiety manifests itself in emotional experiences: anxiety, fear, apprehension, fear.
The type of nervous activity, and above all the strength and mobility of nervous processes, has a significant impact on the formation of an individual style of activity and communication. The individual style of activity can be considered as the result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system to the conditions of the activity performed. This device should provide the best results in the activity at the lowest cost. In human communication, the discussed properties of temperament relate to the verbal and non-verbal interaction of a person with a person. In an individual with elevated activity speech, facial expressions, gestures, pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people tend to have stronger voices. Pace their speech, as well as the tempo of emotionally expressive movements, is rather high. excitable people easily get in touch, quickly adapt to communication. braked individuals stop communication more easily, are less talkative, they hardly switch in communication from one topic to another, from one person to another and give the impression of being annoying. Productivity communication is the ability to communicate and perceive information per unit of time. It is greater in highly active individuals than in people who are inactive and have a low pace.
The properties of temperament are hereditary, therefore, they are extremely difficult to change. Proceeding from this, a person's efforts should not be aimed at changing, but at identifying and understanding the features of his temperament. This makes it possible to identify those characterological properties that are inherent in one or another type of higher nervous activity.
TYPES OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY- a set of basic properties of the higher parts of the central nervous system (strength of nervous processes, their mobility and balance), characterizing congenital individual characteristics higher nervous activity of man and animals.
The concept of "types of higher nervous activity" was introduced by IP Pavlov. He believed that the strength of nervous processes is determined by the level of performance of nerve cells, the degree of balance - by the ratio of excitation (see) and inhibition (see), and mobility - by the speed of their occurrence and termination. The combination of these properties, their ratio characterizes the nervous system specific person or an animal and determine the type of its higher nervous activity (see).
Initially, four main types of c were identified in experiments on dogs. n. e. The first type (strong, balanced, mobile) is characterized by strong processes of excitation and inhibition, balanced among themselves and characterized by high mobility. In animals with this type of c. n. both positive and negative conditioned reflexes (see) are quickly developed, to-rye are easily converted from one to another. At the same time, animals adequately respond to conditioned signals and their rapid change, easily withstand a change in the stereotype, are active, sociable, and easy to train.
The second type (strong, balanced, inert) is characteristic of animals with strong processes of excitation and inhibition, which are also balanced among themselves, but proceed slowly. Conditioned reflexes in animals with this type of c. n. etc. are developed slowly and are remade with difficulty. The developed stereotype is persistent, its destruction is accompanied by strong emotional stress; the animals themselves are usually slow.
The third type (strong, unbalanced, unrestrained) is characterized by strong processes of excitation and inhibition, but excitation processes predominate. In animals with this type of c. n. e. positive conditioned reflexes are quickly developed and negative ones are slowly developed; animals are distinguished by fussiness, a low threshold for the occurrence of an orienting-exploratory reaction (see), aggressiveness, and are difficult to train. In such animals, an experimental neurosis is relatively easily formed (see Experimental neuroses).
Animals with the fourth type c. n. (weak) are distinguished by the weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition. They hardly develop positive and negative conditioned reflexes, and the developed reflexes are characterized by fragility, instability (under the influence of even minor changes environment, positive conditioned reflexes are easily inhibited, and negative ones are disinhibited); alteration of conditioned reflexes is extremely difficult. Such animals are cowardly; they most often register experimental neuroses (I. P. Pavlov called animals with this type of V. N. D. “suppliers” of experimental neuroses).
There is a certain analogy between Pavlovian types in. n. and four types of temperament known since the time of Hippocrates (see). So, a strong balanced mobile type c. n. e. corresponds to the sanguine temperament, strong balanced inert - phlegmatic, strong unbalanced - choleric, weak - melancholic temperament. Hippocrates' ideas about temperaments were widely used by psychologists to characterize the individual predisposition of people to "spiritual movements", to which, for example, psychologists of the 19th century. attributed affects and aspirations. However, in the pre-Pavlovian period, all attempts to classify people according to the nature of their behavior were not based on strictly scientific objective research and therefore could not be used in psychology and medicine to address issues of the influence of character and individual characteristics on the course of neuropsychiatric and other human diseases.
In addition to the main four types of c. n. etc., there are intermediate ones, for example, according to P. S. Kupalov, animals with strong processes of excitation and inhibition, but with a predominance of the latter, belong to Crimea; animals with a strong (inert) excitation process; animals with a strong process of excitation and very weak inhibition. Especially big number variations described for weak type c. n. d.
There are a number of methodological techniques for determining types in. n. aimed at identifying the basic properties of nervous processes, i.e., excitation and inhibition. It is believed that the rapid development of positive and negative conditioned reflexes indicates the strength of the main nervous processes, and their slow development and instability indicate the weakness of these processes. The strength of the excitation process is estimated by the reaction to an increase in the intensity of a positive conditioned stimulus, edges in animals with a strong type of c. n. e. is manifested by an increase in the stability of the conditioned reflex and is well tolerated by animals; at a very high intensity of the stimulus, prohibitive inhibition develops (see Inhibition). In animals with a weak type of c. n. e. even a slight intensification of the stimulus causes transcendental inhibition, and often experimental neurosis. When determining the strength of excitation, the excitability of the brain is often preliminarily increased (for example, by preliminary starvation or the administration of caffeine to animals) and, against this background, the reactions of the animal to stimuli of a certain strength are studied. In this case, with a constant intensity of the conditioned stimulus, the susceptibility of the brain to it changes - in animals with strong and weak types c. n. e. effects similar to those described above occur.
The strength of the inhibitory process is determined by lengthening the time of action of the negative conditioned stimulus, which increases the tension of internal inhibition. Animals with a strong type in. n. etc. easily tolerate such exposure (according to some data, up to 6 minutes), while in animals with a weak type of c. n. e. Prolongation of the action of the inhibitory stimulus, even for a few seconds, causes deep inhibition, and often a state of experimental neurosis. The strength of the inhibitory process is also judged by its ability to quickly and completely concentrate.
The property of the balance of nervous processes is determined by the ratio of positive and negative conditioned reflexes in the course of their formation; a significant predominance of one over the other indicates an imbalance in the nervous processes.
The mobility of nervous processes is determined by the method of converting a positive conditioned reflex into a negative one, by frequent changes in these reflexes at short time intervals, or by changing the stereotype. In all cases, animals with high mobility of nervous processes easily tolerate such an impact, and animals with low mobility - with difficulty, which is used to form an experimental neurosis.
The doctrine of types in. n. created by I.P. Pavlov on the basis of experimental analysis behavior of animals, was applied in the study of human conditioned reflex activity. In doing so, four types of c. n. common to animals and humans, and three types specific to humans, due to the presence of the first and second signaling systems(cm.). Thanks to the first signal system, the outside world is perceived as direct impressions from a variety of stimuli that act on receptors (see). The second signaling system provides awareness of the external world in a verbal-figurative form. Proceeding from this, IP Pavlov singled out people with a predominance of the first signal system (artistic type) and with a predominance of the second signal system (thinking type). The third type in n. are made up of people who are balanced in relation to both the first and second signal systems. People artistic type in. n. e. show a penchant for music, painting, reading fiction, to drawing; it manifests itself with early childhood and increases with age. Thinking people c. n. e. are inclined to abstract thinking, to philosophy.
Type c. n. e. reflects only the innate properties of the nervous system that make up the constitutional features of nervous activity (see the Constitution), that is, the genotype, but not the properties acquired under the influence of the environment. Therefore, in n. e. of humans and animals is an alloy of traits of the type (genotype) and changes acquired under the influence from the outside (from the environment). I. P. Pavlov defined this alloy as the phenotype of c. n. (her character, warehouse). There is no direct parallelism between type in. n. d. and the nature of behavior, but a certain type in, n. etc. is the soil on which a different behavior is formed.
Further study of the problem of types c. n. requires the development of new methods for determining certain properties of the nervous system. In addition, it is not always the characteristics of the properties of the nervous system in its study different methods coincide, which indicates the limited possibilities of existing approaches to assessing the integral properties of the nervous system.
Features of types of higher nervous activity in children
Type definition in. n. in children it is important to develop the right approach to solving pedagogical and medical problems. tasks. AT in general terms tin's properties. n. e. child are similar to the properties of type c. n. of an adult, however, there are differences in the level of its maturation. Type studies c. n. e. in children should answer the question to what extent individual indicators c. n. d. the child can be used as the basis for diagnosing types c. and. d. an adult. It is obvious that when weakness and inertia of nervous processes are detected in childhood, effective educational measures promote the adaptation of the organism to environmental conditions.
In 1917, I. I. Krasnogorsky, on the basis of a study of motor food conditioned reflexes, identified the type c. and. in children, characterized by reduced mobility of the inhibition process. The subsequent study of conditioned reflexes in children, the analysis of speech processes brought together the approaches of I. I. Krasnogorsky and I. P. Pavlov to the assessment of types of c. n. e. Versatile characteristics of the sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic types were given, taking into account the rate of formation, extinction and restoration of conditioned reflexes, their correspondence to the law of strength and speed; the strength and differentiation of inhibitory reactions, the duration of inhibitory phases during the development of hypnotic states; the rate of recovery of optimal excitability; the magnitude of unconditioned reflexes, etc.
A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky singled out four main types of the closing function of the cortex: labile (rapid formation of both positive and inhibitory conditioned connections), excitable (rapid formation of positive connections and slow - inhibitory), inhibitory (slow formation of positive connections and fast - brake), inertial (slow formation of bonds of both types). When determining the type of closing activity using various techniques conditioned reflexes (orienting, food, defensive) in some children, a discrepancy was found typological characteristics, which was considered by A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky as the possibility of the existence of a “disharmonious” neurotype. An experimental study of the interaction of the first and second signal systems showed four options: adequate transmission of conditional connections from the first signal system to the second and in the opposite direction, inadequate transmission in both directions, adequate transmission in one of the two directions, and inadequate transmission in the other.
Methods for diagnosing types c. n. in children require further clarification and improvement - verification of a number of indirect indicators proposed to determine the constitutional and typological affiliation (characteristics of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, EEG, etc.).
An important characteristic of type c. n. d. the child is his behavior, style of activity. Observation is important both in ordinary and in non-standard, “extreme” conditions, in which typological features can manifest themselves most clearly, since they are not masked by previously developed and already strengthened connections. Of particular interest is the ratio in children of type c. and. and somatic constitutional features. Significant correlations were found between these typology options.
Type studies c. n. in children, they confirmed the maximum resistance to the development of neuroses in individuals with a sanguine temperament. The excitable type is predisposed to the rapid course of infections and intoxications, and the inhibitory type is predisposed to the sluggish course with insufficient vegetative-protective mobilization. When considering the pathogenesis and ways of preventing diseases in childhood, T. century should be taken into account. n. e. For example, children with a strong, balanced and mobile type c. n. Other things being equal, they are more resistant to the development of diseases, in the origin of which cortico-visceral mechanisms matter, and in cases of pronounced hereditary predisposition - to their more favorable course.
Bibliography: Anokhin P.K. Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex, M., 1968; Ivanov-Smolen-s to and y A. G. Sketches of experimental research of the higher nervous activity of the person, M., 1971, bibliogr.; Klimov E. A. Individual style activities depending on the typological properties of the nervous system, Kazan, 1968, bibliogr.; To l and about r and A. I. N and V. P. Readers. Biological problems of the doctrine about constitutions of the person, L., 1979; Krasnogorsky N. I. Higher nervous activity of the child, L., 1958, bibliogr.; Fables-ts y N VD Basic properties of the human nervous system, M., 1966; Essay on the theory of temperament, ed. V. S. Merlina, Perm, 1973; P a l o v I. P. complete collection works, vol. 1 - 5, M. - L., 1940-1949; Problems of genetic psychophysiology, ed. B. F. Lomov and I. V. Ravich-Shcherbo. Moscow, 1978. Physiology of higher nervous activity of the child, ed. 3. I. Kolarova, trans. from Bulgarian, M., 1968; X and N and N and sh in and l and M. M. Experimental pathology of higher nervous activity, M., 1978.
M. M. Khananashvili; A. I. Kliorin (ped.).
Each person is born with a certain set of biological features of his personality, manifested in temperament. Significant differences in the behavior of people, due to the properties of their temperaments, are even among blood brothers and sisters, among twins living side by side. Temperaments differ among the Siamese twins Masha and Dasha, all children who received the same upbringing, have the same worldview, close ideals, beliefs and moral principles.
What is temperament? Temperament is called the innate characteristics of a person, which determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes. It is temperament that determines a person's reactions to external circumstances. It largely forms the character of a person, his individuality and is a kind of link between the body and cognitive processes.
Temperament is a manifestation of the type of nervous system in human activity, individually psychological features personality, in which the mobility of his nervous processes, strength, balance are manifested.
Excitation and inhibition can be balanced or dominate each other, they can proceed with different strength, move from center to center and replace each other in the same centers, i.e. have some mobility.
The term "temperament" itself was introduced by the ancient physician Claudius Galen and comes from Latin word temperans, which means temperate. The very word temperament can be translated as "the proper ratio of parts." Hippocrates believed that the type of temperament is determined by the predominance of one of the fluids in the body. If blood predominates in the body, then the person will be mobile, that is, have a sanguine temperament, yellow bile will make a person impulsive and hot - choleric, black bile - sad and timid, that is, melancholic, and the predominance of lymph will give a person calmness and slowness, make phlegmatic.
Many researchers, in particular, V. S. Merlin, S. L. Rubinshtein, believe that in pure form temperaments are very rare, usually in each person they are present in various proportions. It is also not necessary to equate character and temperament. The latter only characterizes the type of the nervous system, its properties, is associated with the structure of the body and even metabolism. But, in no way connected with the views of the individual, beliefs, tastes and does not determine the possibilities of the individual.
In the nerve centers of the human brain cortex, two opposite active processes take place in a complex interaction: excitation and inhibition. Excitation of some parts of the brain causes inhibition of others, this can explain why a person who is passionate about something ceases to perceive the environment. So, for example, the switching of attention is associated with the transfer of excitation from one part of the brain to another and, accordingly, the inhibition of the abandoned parts of the brain.
In the psychology of individual differences, the following properties of temperament are distinguished: excitation - inhibition, lability - rigidity, mobility - inertia, activity - passivity, as well as balance, sensitivity, reaction speed.
Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.
An important property of the nervous higher activity is the balance of nervous processes, i.e., the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates. One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the succession of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their onset and termination (when life conditions require it), the rate of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditional connections. Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.
Weak type . Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.
Strong balanced type . Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.
Strong balanced movable type . The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.
Strong balanced inert type . Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.
The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.
Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.
Temperament types
In psychology, there are four types of temperament: Choleric, Melancholic, Phlegmatic and Sanguine. It cannot be said that Melancholic is better than Choleric, and Sanguine is better than Phlegmatic. All have their pros and cons.
1. The melancholic has a weak type of nervous system and, therefore, is unstable in the face of circumstances that require overcoming or strong excitation of the nervous system. The remaining three types of the nervous system are considered strong. A person who is easily vulnerable, prone to constant worry various events, it reacts little to external factors. He cannot restrain his asthenic experiences by an effort of will, he is highly impressionable, easily emotionally vulnerable. These are traits of emotional weakness.
2. Phlegmatic temperaments, this type of temperament is called, which, being a strong type, is nevertheless distinguished by low mobility of nervous processes. Once having arisen in certain centers, they are distinguished by constancy and strength. The inert nervous system corresponds to this type. Slow, imperturbable, has stable aspirations and mood, outwardly stingy in the manifestation of emotions and feelings. He shows perseverance and perseverance in work, remaining calm and balanced. In work, he is productive, compensating for his slowness with diligence.
3. Sanguine temperament - another strong type of temperament - is characterized by the fact that the processes of excitation and inhibition are quite strong, balanced and easily mobile. A lively, hot, mobile person, with frequent changes in mood, impressions, with a quick reaction to all events taking place around him, quite easily reconciled with his failures and troubles. He is very productive at work, when he is interested, getting very excited about this, if the work is not interesting, he is indifferent to it, he becomes bored.
4. Choleric temperament - the third strong type of temperament - unbalanced, unrestrained, excitation processes prevail over weak inhibition. This type of nervous system is quickly depleted and prone to breakdowns. Fast, passionate, impulsive, but completely unbalanced, with sharply changing moods with emotional outbursts, quickly exhausted. He does not have a balance of nervous processes, this sharply distinguishes him from a sanguine person. Choleric, carried away, carelessly wastes his strength and quickly depletes.
Good upbringing, control and self-control makes it possible for a melancholic person to manifest himself as an impressionable person with deep feelings and emotions; phlegmatic, as a seasoned person, without hasty decisions; sanguine, as a highly responsive person for any work; choleric, as a passionate, frantic and active person in work. Negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves: in a melancholic - isolation and shyness; phlegmatic - indifference to people, dryness; in a sanguine person - superficiality, dispersion, inconstancy. A person with any type of temperament may or may not be capable, the type of temperament does not affect a person’s abilities, it’s just that some life tasks are easier to solve for a person of one type of temperament, others for another. Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are due to the characteristics of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the characteristics social development, the uniqueness of social connections and contacts. The biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, the pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.
Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not fully resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing variety of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being, and personality traits due to temperament are the most stable and long-term. It is impossible to raise the question of which of the temperaments is better. Each of them has its positive and negative sides. Passion, activity, energy of the choleric, mobility, liveliness and responsiveness of the sanguine, depth and stability of the feelings of the melancholic, calmness and lack of haste of the phlegmatic are examples of those valuable personality traits that are associated with individual temperaments. At the same time, with any of the temperaments, there may be a danger of developing undesirable personality traits. For example, a choleric temperament can make a person unrestrained, abrupt, prone to constant "explosions". A sanguine temperament can lead to frivolity, a tendency to scatter, insufficient depth and stability of feelings. With a melancholic temperament, a person may develop excessive isolation, a tendency to completely immerse himself in his own experiences, and excessive shyness. Phlegmatic temperament can make a person lethargic, inert, indifferent to all the impressions of life. Despite this temperament, the whole life of its owner is formed as well as his character.
In our opinion, temperament changes throughout life and depends on the prevailing circumstances. Let's say a person ... a sanguine person. Everything in his life is calm. People appear in his life who begin to interrogate him, accuse him, bring him to hysterics, to tears. If such an appeal lasts longer than a month, then the person begins to cry more, becomes Melancholic. This Melancholic is constantly being pulled, humiliated. This Melancholic becomes Choleric. It can already be compared to a nuclear bomb. He starts to explode and yells at everyone who laughs from the side, who says something to him as a joke, but he does not understand. It has a negative effect on those around you. But this rarely happens. Temperament is the pace or cycle of expressing emotions and qualities.
The ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa, the opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes.
According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.
Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes were established:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.
The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to endure prolonged or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.
Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.
An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.
One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their occurrence and termination (when life conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditioned connections, the development of and dynamic stereotype changes.
Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.
Weak type. Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.
Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.
Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.
Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.
The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.
Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.
Choleric- the personality is unbalanced, unrestrained, quick-tempered, even unbridled. Choleric temperament is characterized by great intensity and vivid expression of emotional experiences and the speed of their flow. The choleric is characterized by irascibility and quickness, which immediately follows violent outbursts of feelings. A choleric person is a hot, passionate person, characterized by a sharp change in feelings, which are always deep in him, capture him entirely. He deeply and strongly experiences both joys and sorrows, which finds its (sometimes violent) expression in his facial expressions and actions. With difficulty performs monotonous work, reactions are fast, strong. He gets down to business with ardor, but quickly cools down - a "disregard" mood appears.
In communication, impatient and harsh. Facial expressions and movements are energetic, the pace of work is fast. Often teenagers with such temperament disrupt lessons, get into fights, generally cause a lot of trouble to parents and teachers. These are fervent, fighting, active guys. They become ringleaders among their peers, involving them in various romantic ventures.
melancholic- unbalanced, deeply experiencing any event with a sluggish and weak external response. The reaction is slow. Features of the melancholic temperament are manifested externally: facial expressions and movements are slow, monotonous, restrained, poor, the voice is quiet, inexpressive.
Sensitive, vulnerable, afraid of difficulties, characterized by increased anxiety. Avoids unexpected situations. Prefers to perform actions that do not require mental stress.
The feelings and moods of the melancholic are monotonous and at the same time very stable.
Melancholic children cannot resist injustice, often fall under the influence of others, they are teased, offended. It is often difficult for these guys in a team. Melancholic teens are often timid and shy, and may burst into tears easily.
sanguine- the personality is balanced, his reactions differ in speed and moderate strength, however, he is distinguished by a relatively weak intensity of mental processes and a quick change of some mental processes by others. He quickly masters new professional knowledge, can work for a long time without getting tired, provided that the work is varied. The sanguine person is characterized by the ease and speed of the emergence of new emotional states, which, however, quickly replacing each other, do not leave a deep trace in his mind.
Usually a sanguine person is distinguished by rich facial expressions, his emotional experiences are accompanied by a variety of expressive movements. This is a cheerful person, characterized by great mobility. The speed of mental processes is associated with external mobility in a sanguine person: he is impressionable, quickly responds to external stimuli and is less focused and deepened in his personal experiences.
Sanguine easily copes with tasks that require quick wits, unless these tasks are particularly difficult and serious. He easily takes on different cases, but at the same time he easily forgets about them, becoming interested in new ones.
Phlegmatic
Outwardly, a person of a phlegmatic temperament is distinguished, first of all, by low mobility, his movements are very slow and even lethargic, not energetic, one cannot expect quick actions from him. Phlegmatic is also characterized by weak emotional excitability. His feelings and moods are distinguished by an even character and change slowly. This is a calm, measured person in his actions. He rarely comes out of an even, calm emotional state, he can rarely be seen very agitated, affective manifestations of personality are alien to him.
Facial expressions and gestures of the phlegmatic are monotonous, inexpressive, speech is slow, devoid of liveliness, not accompanied by expressive movements.
scientists give different definitions concepts "extrovert" and "introvert". For the classification of K. Leonhard, the priority was human attitude to information, to react to events external environment: extroverts are receptive to such information, react to it; introverts, on the other hand, can ignore the external environment to a greater extent, focusing on their own inner world.
Due to differences in approach, K. Leonhard makes main conclusion, what introvert - personality is more strong-willed, strong, resistant to influence from outside.extroverts in this regard, they are less resistant - they easily influenced by others and, unlike introverts, they can change their internal attitudes depending on the external environment.
Circle of friends introverts rather narrow, they are prone to philosophizing, introspection. Some of them oppose themselves to the environment, and therefore do not follow the changing circumstances at all, lagging behind the pace of life. As a rule, introverts categorically do not tolerate interference in their lives, in their attitudes and in their inner world. Such individuals are used to following their principles and beliefs to the end. extroverts adapt better to changing conditions, make acquaintances more easily and expand the circle of contacts, are open to new things, including new information. They are ready to sacrifice their beliefs for the sake of a certain goal, easily yield to other people. Not prone to introspection, some extroverts can even be reproached for frivolity.
Mental self-regulation - this is control of one's psycho-emotional state, achieved by a person's influence on himself with the help of words, mental images, control muscle tone and breath.
Character- this is the framework of the personality, which includes only the most pronounced and closely interconnected personality traits, clearly manifested in various types activities. All character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits. Character- an individual combination of the most stable, essential personality traits, manifested in human behavior, in a certain respect: 1) to yourself(degree of exactingness, criticality, self-assessment); 2) to other people(individualism or collectivism, selfishness or altruism, cruelty or kindness, indifference or sensitivity, rudeness or politeness, deceit or truthfulness, etc.); 3) to assigned work(laziness or hard work, accuracy or carelessness, initiative or passivity, perseverance or impatience, responsibility or irresponsibility, organization, etc.); 4) are reflected in the character volitional qualities : willingness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain, the degree of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline. Character of a person is an alloy of innate properties of higher nervous activity with acquired during life individual traits. Separate properties of character depend on each other, are connected with each other and form an integral organization, which is called character structure. There are two groups of traits in the character structure. Under character trait understand certain features of a person’s personality that systematically manifest themselves in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions. To first group include features that express the orientation of the personality (stable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relations to surrounding reality and representing individually peculiar ways of implementing these relations. To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.
Accentuation of character and personality- this is an excessive expression of individual character traits, this is an extreme version of the norm bordering on psychopathy.
Character accents: 1. Hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by an elevated mood, optimistic, extremely contactable, quickly switches from one thing to another. Does not complete the work begun, not disciplined, prone to immoral acts, optional, self-esteem is overestimated. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts. 2.Disty type - opposite to the hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by a pessimistic mood, non-contact, prefers loneliness, leads a secluded life, is prone to low self-esteem. Rarely comes into conflict with others. Highly appreciates friendship, justice. 3.Cycloid type . It is characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. During the period of mood rise, the behavior is hyperthymic, and during the recession, it is distimic. Self-esteem is unstable. Conflict, especially during the period of raising the mood. In conflict, unpredictable. 4. excitable type . Differs in low contact in communication. Boring, gloomy, prone to rudeness and abuse. Unaccommodating in a team, domineering in a family. In an emotionally calm state, conscientious, accurate. In a state of emotional arousal, he is quick-tempered, has poor control over his behavior. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 5. stuck type . It is distinguished by moderate sociability, boring, prone to moralizing, often takes the position of a "parent". Strives for high performance in any business, makes high demands on himself, is sensitive to social justice. Touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vengeful, jealous. Self-esteem is inadequate. Conflict, usually acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 6. Pedantic type . Distinguished by conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness in business. In official relations - a bureaucrat, a formalist, easily concedes leadership to others. Rarely enters into conflicts. However, its formalism can provoke conflict situations. In conflict, he behaves passively. 7. Alarm type. Differs in low contact, self-doubt, minor mood. Self-esteem is low. At the same time, he is characterized by such features as friendliness, self-criticism, diligence. Rarely enters into conflicts while playing them passive role, the prevailing strategies of behavior in conflict are withdrawal and concession. 8. Emotive type. Differs in the desire to communicate in a narrow circle. Sets good contacts only with a select few people. Overly sensitive. Tearful. At the same time, he is characterized by kindness, compassion, a heightened sense of duty, diligence. Rarely comes into conflict. In conflicts, he plays a passive role, is prone to concessions. 9. Demonstrative type. It is distinguished by the ease of establishing contacts, the desire for leadership, the thirst for power and glory. Prone to intrigue. Attractive, artistic. At the same time, people of this type are selfish, hypocritical, boastful. Conflict. active in conflict. 10. Exalted type ( from lat. exaltatio - enthusiastic, excited state, painful animation). Differs in high contact. Loquacious, loving. Attached and attentive to friends and relatives, subject to momentary moods. Sincerely experience other people's problems.
Mechanisms of development and formation of character
Character usually means a combination of some outstanding mental properties. individual person. This refers to those mental properties that are formed after the birth of a person. Temperament, for example, has physiological and genetic roots, therefore it does not apply to character, because it was formed in many respects even before birth. He, in turn, can either promote or hinder the development of certain character traits.
Character is formed in the process of personality development, its social relations.
Character traits are formed at three levels:
physiological - based on temperament,
social - under the influence of society
at the level of consciousness - self-formation of character.
The main condition for the development and formation of a person's character is, of course, the social environment. In simple words all those people who surround a person in the process of his growing up and not only. There is no need to talk about the clear boundaries of this process, because the character is "filled" with various features throughout life.
It should be noted that the formation of a person's character is characterized by a number of certain conditions and features at different age stages.
Periods of character formation
Although the character begins to form from the first months, nevertheless, a special Sensitive period of life is distinguished. This period falls approximately at the age of 2-3 to 9-10 years, when children communicate a lot and actively both with surrounding adults and with peers, they are readily accepted, imitating everyone and everything. During this period, they are open to almost any outside influence. Children readily accept any new experience imitating everyone and everything. Adults at this time still enjoy the boundless trust of the child, so they have the opportunity to influence him with a word, deed and action.
For the formation of the character of the child, the style of communication of the surrounding people is important:
Adults with adults
Adults with children
Children with children.
The style of communication of adults with each other in front of the child, the way of communication with him himself are very important for the formation of character.
The child both adopts the style of communication and tries to adapt to it, which in turn also affects the formation of character. It is generally accepted that the way mother and father act in relation to the child, after many years, becomes the way he treats his children, when the child becomes an adult and acquires own family. However, this is both true and not true. The child does not just adopt communication styles, he criticizes them in his own way. How older child and the more developed his intellect and the more willingly he uses the possibilities of his mind, the more critical he is. That is why the core of character always includes a person's attitude to the truth. The inquisitiveness of the child's mind cannot but leave an imprint on the formation of his character.
Some of the first traits in a person's character are:
kindness-selfishness,
sociability, isolation,
Responsiveness is indifference.
Studies show that these character traits begin to form long before the beginning of the school period of life, even as early as infancy.
Later, other character traits are formed:
industriousness, laziness
Neatness, inaccuracy
Good faith-malice,
Responsibility, irresponsibility
Persistence is cowardice.
These qualities, however, also begin to form in preschool childhood. They are formed and fixed in games and available types of domestic work and other household activities.
Great importance the development of character traits is stimulated by adults. Both low demands and very high demands can adversely affect the formation of character.
In the preschool period, mainly those traits that constantly receive support are preserved and consolidated.
AT primary school Schools take shape character traits that are manifested in relationships with people. This is facilitated by the expansion of the sphere of communication of the child with others due to the many new school friends, adult teachers. If what a child as a person has acquired at home receives support at school, then the corresponding character traits are fixed in him and most often remain throughout later life. If the newly gained experience of communicating with peers, teachers, other adults does not confirm how correct those characteristic forms behavior that the child acquired at home, then a gradual breakdown of character begins, which is usually accompanied by pronounced internal and external conflicts. The resulting restructuring of character does not always lead to a positive result. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.
At school, the child begins to live a full life social life, communicate with a large number of people, including few he knows. The responsibility of the child for the result of the activity increases. They start comparing him to other kids. Therefore, it is in primary school such an important character trait as self-attitude is formed. School success can build confidence in one's own intellectual usefulness. Failures can form a kind of "loser complex": the child stops trying, because he is still a "loser".
AT adolescence strong-willed character traits are actively developing. AT early youth the basic moral, ideological foundations of the personality are finally formed, which most people carry through the rest of their lives. By the end of school, the character finally develops. Further, the character is formed and transformed throughout life, but not so much that it becomes unrecognizable. Now a person becomes the creator of his character as a result of self-education.
Types of wrong upbringing and character types with pathologies
The social environment is, of course, a very important condition for the formation of character. But equally important is education. The role of upbringing in the formation of character cannot be ruled out, since improper upbringing can cause certain pathologies in the character. Education can be classified as purposeful or spontaneous.
According to the goals of education can be divided into three types:
education for the educator
education for society
education for the student.
Parenting for the educator is aimed at developing traits that facilitate parenting, such as obedience.
The task of education for society is the formation of socially significant features (for example, law-abiding); education for the educated person sets the task of forming such character traits that are beneficial for the person himself, capable of harmonizing his existence.
Capabilities- individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in activity and are a condition for its success. From the level of development abilities the speed, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities depend, but they themselves capabilities are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities.
Abilities are called general a person, which in one way or another are manifested in all types of his activity. These are the ability to learn, the general mental abilities of a person, his ability to work. They are based on the general skills required in each field of activity, in particular, such as the ability to understand tasks, plan and organize their execution using the means available in human experience, reveal the connections of those things to which the activity relates, master new methods of work, overcome difficulties on the way to the goal.
Under special understand ability, which are clearly manifested in separate, special areas of activity (for example, stage, musical, sports, etc.).
The division of general and special abilities is conditional. Actually, we are talking about general and special aspects in human abilities that exist in interconnection. General abilities are manifested in special, that is, in abilities for some specific, specific activity. With the development of special abilities, their general aspects also develop.
giftedness- the presence in a person of favorable inclinations and abilities for any one or several types of activity. About giftedness a person can be judged by the nature of the development of abilities and the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, by success and the level of achievements in professional work.
At the heart of any ability lies inclinations. The inclinations are understood as primary, natural (biological) features with which a person is born and which mature in the process of his development. These are mainly congenital anatomical and physiological features of the body structure, motor apparatus, sensory organs, neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of functional asymmetry hemispheres and others. It is the originality of individual characteristics that acts as natural inclinations. Inclinations do not contain abilities and do not guarantee their development. They may or may not turn into abilities, depending on the upbringing and activities of the person. In the absence of proper upbringing and activity, even great inclinations will not become abilities, and with appropriate upbringing and activity, even abilities of a sufficiently high level can develop from small inclinations.
BM Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be congenital. The makings of Teplov understood as some anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to pay attention to the fact that Teplov separates the terms "innate" and "hereditary"; "innate" - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, "hereditary" - formed under the influence of heredity factors and manifested both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person's life). Abilities are formed in activity. Teplov writes that "... the ability cannot arise outside the corresponding specific objective activity" . Thus, ability refers to that which arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also affects the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the implementation of the activities corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it.
In psychology, there are three concepts of ability:
A) the theory of heredity of abilities,
B) the theory of acquired abilities,
C) acquired and natural in abilities.
1. The theory of heredity of abilities dates back to Plato, who argued that abilities are of biological origin, i.e. their manifestation depends entirely on who was the parent of the child, on what traits are inherited. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance, but they will always manifest themselves in one way or another. www.pclever.ru
The approach to the hereditary nature of abilities is reflected in views that link a person's abilities with the size of his brain. But these studies have not been confirmed.
2. The theory of acquired abilities connects abilities exclusively with the environment and upbringing. Back in the 18th century K.A. Helvetius said that with the help of special education, genius can be formed. Supporters of this direction refer to cases when children from the most backward and primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, did not differ in any way from educated Europeans.
Cases are also cited as examples when, for some reason, a child is deprived of the opportunity to communicate with adults and peers. As a result, a person in the full sense of the word does not come out of him.
The American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities and even genius are determined by acquired properties, and in particular by what pre-program and program of intellectual activity were formed in a person in childhood and in later life, spontaneously and consciously in the learning process. One program allows you to decide creative tasks, and the other - only reproductive. W. Ashby considers working capacity to be the second factor of abilities.
However, this conception has also met with objections. Life observations and special studies show that the natural prerequisites for abilities cannot be denied. In a number of professions, they are of particular importance.
3. Acquired and natural in abilities. This concept, which combines the above theories, is confirmed by practice and special studies.
Researchers divide abilities into natural and acquired. The division is very conditional. Heredity is included, of course, as one of the conditions in the development of man, but his abilities are not a direct function of his heredity. First of all, the hereditary and acquired in the specific characteristics of the personality form an inseparable unity; already because of this, it is impossible to attribute any specific mental properties of a person to the expense of heredity alone.
Feel is the simplest mental cognitive process reflections of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as internal states organism, arising from their direct impact on the sense organs.
Types and classification of sensations. According to the ancient Greeks, five sense organs are distinguished the following types sensations: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile (tactile). In addition, there are intermediate sensations between tactile and auditory - vibration. There are also complex sensations, consisting of several independent analytical systems: for example, touch is tactile and muscular-articular sensations; skin sensations include tactile, temperature and pain. There are organic sensations (hunger, thirst, nausea, etc.), static sensations, sensations of balance, reflecting the position of the body in space.
There are various bases for classifying sensations.
The oldest classification of sensations includes five points (according to the number of sense organs):
- smell,
- taste,
- touch,
- vision
- hearing.
B.G. Ananiev singled out eleven types of sensations.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a systematic classification of sensations. At the first level, sensations are divided into three main types:
- interoceptive,
- proprioceptive
- exteroceptive.
Interoceptive combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body. Proprioceptive transmit information about the position in space of the body in general and the musculoskeletal system in particular. Exteroceptive provide signals from the outside world.
Interoceptive sensations
They signal the state of the internal processes of the body. They arise due to receptors located:
- on the walls of the stomach, intestines, heart, blood vessels and other organs,
- inside the muscles and other organs.
As it turned out, this is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Receptors that receive information about the state of internal organs are called internal receptors. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensation. They, characteristically, in consciousness always retain their closeness to emotional states.
Also interoceptive sensations are often called organic.
proprioceptive sensations
They transmit signals about the position of the body in space, thus forming the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Proprioceptive sensations include:
- a sense of balance (static sensation),
- motor (kinesthetic) sensation.
Proprioceptive sensitivity receptors are found in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments). These receptors are called Paccini bodies.
The role of proprioceptors is well studied in physiology and psychophysiology. Their role as the afferent basis of movements in animals and humans was studied in detail in the works of A.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernstein.
Peripheral balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.
Exteroceptive sensations
They bring information from the outside world to the consciousness of a person. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into:
- contact (taste and touch),
- distant (hearing, sight and smell).
The sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations. Formally, olfactory sensations occur at a distance from the object, but the smell itself is a kind of object (we can say that this is a cloud of gas). And then it turns out that the nose is in direct contact with this object. You can also notice that the object itself has already ceased to exist, but the smell from it remains (for example, a tree burned down, but the smoke from it remained). The sense of smell also plays a huge role in the perception of the quality of the food being eaten.
Intermodal Feelings
There are sensations that cannot be associated with any particular modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include vibrational sensitivity, in which tactile-motor and auditory sensations are integrated. L.E. Komendantov believes that tactile-vibrational sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Tactile perception of sound vibration is understood as diffuse sound sensitivity. Vibrational sensitivity plays a huge role in the life of the deaf and deaf-blind-mute. The deaf-blind, due to the high development of vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other modes of transport at a great distance.
Definition of GNI, its types, the relationship of types with the temperament and character of children
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Introduction
Physiology of higher nervous activity (HNA) occupies important place in a number of biological disciplines and is essential for understanding physiological mechanisms some mental phenomena and complex forms of adaptive behavior of animals and humans. This section of psychology was created by the outstanding Russian scientist I.P. Pavlov and his school. Also I.P. Pavlov made biggest discovery- discovery of a conditioned reflex as the main mechanism of activity of the cerebral cortex.
The purpose of this work is to review General information regarding GNI. Detailed description types of higher nervous activity according to their division proposed by I.P. Pavlov, the relationship between the types of GNI and the temperament and character of children.
Based on the goal, the following tasks can be distinguished:
Consider general information about GNI;
Consider types of GNI;
Discuss the types of GNI in children
Consider the relationship of temperament, character and nervous system in children.
1. General information about higher nervous activity
By definition, I.P. Pavlova, higher nervous activity - complex shape life activity, which provides individual behavioral adaptation of humans and higher animals to changing environmental conditions (in contrast to lower nervous activity, which is directed to the interaction of the organism “with itself”, that is, to the regulation of internal processes, maintaining homeostasis and the implementation of the simplest motor acts).
Currently, GNI is defined as "the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, which ensures the most perfect adaptation of animals and humans to the environment." In other words, GNI is “a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, as well as higher mental functions that provide adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions.
Full disclosure of the features of the higher nervous activity of a person, the mechanisms of the activity of his brain belongs to the future.
GNI is carried out due to the dominant influence of the cerebral cortex on all phylogenetically older nervous structures, that is, the cerebral cortex is the highest coordination center. The main processes occurring in the nervous system are the processes of excitation and inhibition. Depending on the strength and predominance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, on their dynamic alternation, certain reactions of the body are carried out. Pavlov considered the conditioned reflex to be the functional unit of GNI.
I.P. Pavlov and his school developed objective methods for studying the mechanisms of mental processes. Pavlov was the first to draw attention to the fact that an experimental animal can develop a reaction to a signal that precedes one or another stimulus, and give a response to it that would give directly to the stimulus. It was this reaction to the signal preceding the unconditioned stimulus that Pavlov called the conditioned reflex and saw in it higher form reflex activity underlying complex adaptive behavior.
A great contribution to the study of GNI was also made by the Soviet physiologist P.K. Anokhin, who showed that the main condition for the formation of goal-directed behavior is the ability to achieve biologically important result actions. The problems of higher nervous activity were also dealt with by A.A. Ukhtomsky, N.A. Bernstein, G.G. Shpet, I. Muller, C. Bell, G. Helmholtz, K. Ludwig, E. Dubois-Reymond and others.
2. Types of higher nervous activity
.1 Fundamentals of typological features of higher nervous activity
The idea of the typological features of the human and animal nervous system is one of the defining ones in the Pavlovian doctrine of higher nervous activity. The ratio of strength, balance and mobility of the main nervous processes determines the typology of the higher nervous activity of the individual.
The systematization of the types of higher nervous activity is based on an assessment of these three main features of the processes of excitation and inhibition: Forces. Strength is understood as the performance of the cells of the cerebral cortex. When assessing the strength of the irritable process (excitability), such measures are used that are aimed at increasing the excitability of the cells of the cerebral cortex. At the same time, it is estimated what degree of excitability the nervous system can withstand without falling into transcendental inhibition;
Mobility. The mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition is expressed in how quickly in the cells of the cerebral cortex the process of excitation is replaced by the process of inhibition and vice versa. The mobility of nervous processes can be determined by the rapid replacement of a differentiating (inhibitory) stimulus.
Types of GNA act as a result of the inherited and acquired individual qualities of the nervous system. The type is manifested in the features of the functioning of the physiological systems of the body and, above all, the nervous system itself, its higher "floors" that provide higher nervous activity.
GNI types are formed on the basis of both genotype and phenotype. The genotype is formed in the process of evolution under the influence natural selection, ensuring the development of individuals most adapted to the environment. Under the influence of environmental conditions that actually operate throughout an individual's life, the genotype forms the phenotype of the organism.
2.2 Types of temperaments according to Hippocrates
Ancient description temperament belongs to the "father" of medicine Hippocrates. He believed that a person's temperament is determined by which of the four body fluids prevails.
If blood predominates (“sangvis” in Latin), then the temperament will be sanguine, i.e. energetic, quick, cheerful, sociable, easily tolerates life difficulties and failure. That is, this type is characterized by sufficient strength and mobility of the excitatory and inhibitory processes (strong, balanced, mobile).
If bile (“chole”) predominates, then the person will be choleric - bilious, irritable, excitable, unrestrained, very mobile person, Withquick mood swings. We can say that the choleric type is characterized high strength excitatory process with a clear predominance of it over the inhibitory and increased mobility, lability of the main nervous processes (strong, unbalanced, unrestrained). If mucus (“phlegm”) predominates, then the temperament is phlegmatic - a calm, slow, balanced person, slowly, Withdifficult to switch from one type of activity to another, poorly adapting to new conditions. In other words, the phlegmatic type is distinguished by the sufficient strength of both nervous processes with relatively low rates of their mobility, lability (strong, balanced, inert). If black bile predominates (“melanchole”), then a melancholic is obtained - a somewhat painfully shy and impressionable person, prone to sadness, timidity, isolation, he quickly gets tired, overly sensitive to adversity. That is, from a physiological point of view, we can say that the melancholic type is characterized by a clear predominance of the inhibitory process over the excitatory one and their low mobility (weak, unbalanced, inert). This theory of temperament can be called the humoral theory. 2.3 Types of GNI according to Pavlov
Strong balanced mobile - has equally strong processes of excitation and inhibition with their good mobility, which provides high adaptive capabilities and stability in difficult life situations. Strong balanced inert - with strong processes of excitation and inhibition and with their poor mobility, always having difficulty switching from one type of activity to another. Strong unbalanced - characterized by a strong irritable process and lagging behind in strength inhibitory, therefore, a representative of this type in difficult situations easily susceptible to GNI disturbances and able to train and greatly improve underinhibition. Weak - characterized by the weakness of both nervous processes - excitation and inhibition, does not adapt well to environmental conditions, is prone to neurotic disorders. Modern ideas about the types of higher nervous activity can be largely identified with four types of temperament (choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic, sanguine), identified by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (4th century BC). A complex combination of inherited characteristics, combined with a wide variety of individually acquired behavior (in close connection with racial, national, climatic, socio-cultural conditions of life modern man) allows only in the most general terms to identify a certain type of higher nervous activity. In conditioned reflex activity, the strength of the excitation process is determined by the speed and strength of the development of conditioned reflexes, the strength of the inhibition process is reflected in the speed and strength of the development of differential and delayed inhibition. Lability, mobility of nervous processes are evaluated in terms of the strength of the alteration of the signal value of conditioned stimuli (from excitatory to inhibitory and vice versa). By linking the classification of Hippocrates and Pavlov, one can see a clear connection between them, which can be easily expressed by the diagram shown in the figure. higher nervous temperament child It must be borne in mind that the types of higher nervous activity noted above are extreme classical types, which in their pure form either do not occur at all or are extremely rare. Also I.P. Pavlov identified types of higher nervous activity specifically for humans, depending on the interaction, balance of signal systems: Artistic type. It is characterized by the predominance of the first signal system over the second. This type includes people who directly perceive reality, widely use sensory images, they are characterized by figurative, objective thinking. Thinking type. These are people with a predominance of the second signaling system, "thinkers", with a pronounced ability for abstract thinking. 3. Most people are of the average type with a balanced activity of the two signal systems. They are characterized by both figurative impressions and speculative conclusions. 3. Relationship between GNI types and temperament and character of children
The main distinguishing feature of higher nervous activity in children is the fact of dynamic development and plasticity of its system itself. Despite the fact that the higher nervous activity of the child is extremely similar to the higher nervous activity and its types, in an adult, we must not forget that, unlike an adult, the child’s psyche is not fully formed and the properties of the GNA that subsequently form its types are extremely dependent on age features child. Yes, for children. preschool age characteristic weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition and their imbalance towards the predominance of excitation, regardless of the type of their higher nervous activity. In this regard, in preschool children, a strong type of the nervous system will also be characterized by weakness of nervous processes, but the degree of its severity will be less compared to the weak type, in other words, there is a kind of “overlay” of age-related features of higher nervous activity with its typological properties. The main properties of the nervous system reach their normal level, limited by the type of nervous system, only at the time of its full maturation, i.e. by 20-22 years old. Academician N.I. Krasnogorsky concretized the Pavlovian doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity in relation to childhood. Children are sanguine. Strong balanced, optimally excitable fast type. It is characterized by the rapid formation of unconditioned reflexes, the strength of these reflexes is significant. These children have equally well-expressed mental and emotional reactions. They are able to control their emotions and subordinate them to the requirements of the appropriate environment. Children of this type are capable of developing subtle differentiations. Their unconditioned reflex activity is regulated by a functionally strong cortex. The speech of sanguine people is well developed, loud, fast, well-formed, rich. Children adapt well to the school environment, successfully cope with school loads, and are emotional in their behavior. Typical Features sanguine children: cheerfulness, optimism, faith in one's strengths and capabilities, a critical attitude towards the shortcomings of others and one's own. However, such children often overestimate their physical and intellectual capabilities. Children are phlegmatic. Strong, balanced, slow type. Conditional connections are formed more slowly, extinct reflexes are also restored slowly. Children of this type are characterized by cortical control over unconditioned reflexes and emotions. They quickly learn speech, are active and stand when performing. difficult tasks. The rational activity clearly prevails over the emotional sphere. They control well, and if necessary, suppress their emotions and desires, adapt to the conditions without complications. school life. Phlegmatic people behave evenly, calmly, their speech is unhurried, measured, usually not accompanied by gestures. In a team, these guys are disciplined, restrained in relation to their own shortcomings and the shortcomings of others, calmly react to censure or approval of their actions, avoid conflicts, and are prone to solitude. To amuse or frighten a phlegmatic person, very strong irritants and their rather long-term effect are needed. Children are choleric. Strong unbalanced, excitable, unrestrained type. It is characterized by insufficiency of the inhibitory process, strongly pronounced subcortical activity, sometimes not always controlled. Conditioned reflexes in such children quickly fade away, and the resulting differentiations are not stable. Speech in children of this type is fast, with separate shouting. Children with such a temperament are distinguished by pronounced emotional excitability, a quick change of mood. They weakly restrain their desires and emotions, their actions are often characterized by outbursts of excitement, sometimes aggressiveness. Cholerics do not always adapt immediately to school life, as they are prone to conflicts with others, show incontinence in the classroom, irascibility, and irascibility in response to the teacher's remarks. Such children, in their behavior, are more guided by feelings, desires and less by reason. They are disposed to music lessons, they react vividly to poetry, fine arts. In children with choleric temperament, vegetative reactions are exacerbated; with any emotional arousal, they easily turn pale or blush. From birth, they have poorly developed inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex, so it is difficult for them to overcome life's barriers. If such a child's desires do not coincide with the possibilities for their implementation, negativism and nervousness appear in his behavior. To the choleric type (extreme in its severity) N.I. Krasnogorsky attributed the so-called difficult-to-educate children, whose behavior constantly manifests indiscipline, unbridledness, the desire to enter into conflicts with adults and peers, and simplistic thinking. Their upbringing requires a purely individual approach and is not an easy task. However, most children choleric temperament very well lend themselves to educational influences, if they are built on the right pedagogical basis, taking into account the characteristics of temperament. Children are melancholy. Weak type with reduced excitability. Conditioned reflexes are formed slowly, unstable, speech is often slow. Easily braked type. Characteristic is the weakness of internal inhibition with strongly pronounced external brakes, which explains the difficulty of children getting used to new learning conditions, their changes. In melancholy children, the cortical and subcortical functions of the nervous system are weakened, and there is little mobility of nervous processes. In other words, their mental capabilities and emotional sphere are easily depleted. It is difficult for melancholic children to adapt to the school environment, many of them are reluctant to attend school. With the wrong upbringing, they can easily develop neurotic states or disease. It is in such children that inadequate reactions to positive influences can be observed: new toy can first cause a negative attitude (cry, not wanting to play with her) and only later - a normal positive reaction. The four main types of higher nervous activity of the child are the basis of the future character. Character is a stable personality trait that manifests itself in actions. The actions of young children are random, depend on circumstances and do not yet convey character traits. As we have already noted, with age, the character of the child is formed, which determines his behavior. Character traits express a person's attitude to people (collectivism, responsiveness, kindness, sociability, etc.), to work (industriousness, accuracy, initiative, thrift, etc.), to oneself (self-esteem, self-esteem, self-criticism , modesty, conceit, selfishness, etc.). The type of higher nervous activity and character mutually influence each other, so some character traits develop quickly (for example, sociability in sanguine people), others slowly (for example, the same sociability in melancholics), etc. Sometimes parents raise their children the same way, no matter how many there are. And then they are surprised that they grew up completely different. This is precisely the mistake of parents when three children with different types of nervous activity are brought up in the same way. The most important thing is missing here - an individual approach, without which it is impossible to reveal the best sides nature of the child and on this basis to form positive traits personality. Significant differences in the basic properties of nervous processes in children related to different types, determine their different functional capabilities in the process of training and education. The effectiveness of pedagogical influences is largely determined by individual approach to students, taking into account their typological features. At the same time, we have already pointed out that one of the distinctive features of the types of human higher nervous activity is their plasticity. The plasticity of the cells of the cerebral cortex, their adaptability to changing environmental conditions is the morphological and functional basis of type transformation. Since the plasticity of nervous structures is especially great during the period of their intensive development, pedagogical influences that correct typological features are especially important to apply in childhood. I.P. Palov considered the plasticity of types to be the most important feature that makes it possible to educate, train and remake the character of people. Conclusion
Now, thanks to all of the above, we can conclude that Pavlov, in his works on the higher nervous activity of a person and the classification of its types, made a serious step forward in the field of physiology, comparing the temperament and characteristics of the human nervous system, highlighting the properties of higher nervous activity, giving all this names. He allowed to delve into the study of the processes of physiology of the brain and nervous system. We also considered various types of GNI, specifically, the works of Hippocrates and N.I. Pavlov, since these types dominate in our time. The work revealed a strong relationship between these two classifications. We also considered distinctive features The GNI of a child, while revealing the main problem in classifying its types in children, is the flexibility and instability of the nervous system due to age-related characteristics. However, despite this, H.I. Krasnogorsky, relying on the reflex, speech and general mental reactions of the child, according to his age, was able to give a complete classification of the types of the child's GNA, outwardly, as already mentioned, similar to Pavlov's classification. Next, the links between the types of GNI of the child, his character and temperament were described. Bibliography
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