The beginning of the 19th century in Russia is associated with the growth of national and patriotic self-consciousness. The war with Napoleon stimulated a surge of civic feelings among the population. In art, this was expressed in the new and fashionable Empire style, which was in many ways similar to classicism and was more pompous and decorative.
The plastic figures decorating the Admiralty building were created the best representatives Russian sculpture by Terebnev, Shchedrin, Pimenov and Demut-Malinovsky. Numerous nymphs, heroes and geniuses decorating all the facades of the building, gables and friezes - not only decorate, but also bring deep symbolic meaning, revealing the architect's intent more fully.
The best examples of decor adorn the Exchange building and rostral columns arrows of Vasilyevsky Island. French craftsmen Kamberlen and Thibaut took part in the creation of the sculptures, but they were made by Russian masters, who took only French models as a basis.
One of the most notable Russian sculptors in the early 19th century was Ivan Martos. The master gained real fame after the creation of the monument to Minin and Pozharsky. In addition to this programmatic work, Martos created a number of delightful tombstones (Sobakina, Kurakina, Gagarina, Volkonskaya). The allegorical figures of the tombstones amaze with their realism, accuracy of details, as well as emotional richness.
Sculptures of the great Russian commanders Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly decorate the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The author of the figures is Boris Orlovsky. Patriotic pathos, grandeur and heroism are the main features of these works. The master is the author of the figure of an Angel on the Alexander Column in the center of Palace Square.
The second half of the 19th century in Russia is characterized by the strengthening of the role of the state in determining the content of works of art. Social themes were not allowed in sculpture. Artists could only work on a limited range of topics. But even in these cramped conditions, the masters created real masterpieces.
Genre works by Pimenov and Loganovsky, decorating the halls, are full of drama and emotional expressiveness ("Guy playing money", "Guy playing pile"). Fine lyricism and warmth are filled with Stavasser's work "Boy Fishing". The master very skillfully uses the advantages of marble to convey the fragility of a young boyish figure.
Among the works of the sculptor Klodt, a special place is occupied by the monuments to Nicholas I, as well as the figures on the Anichkov Bridge. A brilliant realist, the master managed to convey in his works the beauty of the human body, the power of the forces of nature (a rearing horse), as well as state greatness (a monument to the emperor).
This period also includes the work of the great Opekushin, the author of the monument to Pushkin, as well as a member of the creative groups that created the Millennium of Russia monument, as well as the monument to Empress Catherine II.
The historical genre in sculpture of the second half of the 19th century is unthinkable without, whose art was also highly valued in Western Europe.
The entire history of Russian culture of the 19th century can be divided into the first half of the century (pre-reform Russia) and the second half of the century (post-reform Russia).
Sculpture. At the end of the 50s. In the 19th century, a competition was announced for the creation of the monument “Millennium of Russia”. It was planned to be erected in Novgorod in 1862 to commemorate the millennium since the calling of Rurik by the Novgorodians. The winner of the competition was 25-year-old graduate of the Academy of Arts Mikhail Osipovich Mikeshin (1835-1896). Under his leadership, a large group of sculptors took part in the work on the monument. The sculptural images encircling the building depicted the main milestones in the history of Russia. Here we see great princes, tsars, emperors, outstanding commanders and naval commanders, poets and writers, composers and many other glorious sons of Russia. A total of 129 sculptural figures were cast. The upper part of the monument in the form of a ball symbolizes the power - the emblem of royal power. The kneeling woman on the ball personifies Russia. A winged angel overshadows her with a cross. Later, according to the project of Mikeshin, a monument to Catherine II was erected in St. Petersburg. The fractional multi-figuration that distinguishes both monuments is a kind of tribute to the era of eclecticism. In the "Millennium of Russia" it looks justified, in the monument to Catherine - not so well. Abandoning multi-figured compositions, Mikeshin created a very dynamic monument to Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin (1838-1923), a native of serfs, took part in the work on the Millennium of Russia. His most significant work was the monument to A. S. Pushkin. Many outstanding figures of Russian culture gathered for its opening in 1880. Among the speakers was F. M. Dostoevsky. Since then, for more than a hundred years, the thoughtful Pushkin has been standing on Tverskaya - one of the best Moscow monuments. The development of Russian sculpture in the second half of the 19th century proceeded in more complex and less favorable conditions than the development of painting. The need for monumental and decorative sculpture has drastically decreased, since instead of magnificent palaces, now mainly profitable residential buildings were built. It is possible to name only a small number worthy of mention of the monuments erected at this time. First of all, they should include the monument to A.S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880) Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin (1844 - 1923). This monument organically entered the architectural ensemble of Moscow, becoming an integral part of its appearance. The most talented sculptor of the second half of the XIX century. was Mark Matveyevich Antokolsky (1843 - 1902). The sculptor was especially concerned about social and ethical problems. His specific historical images: Peter I (1872), Ivan the Terrible (1875), Spinoza (1882), Ermak (1891) - and mythological: Christ (1876), Mephistopheles (1883) - personify the ideas of the struggle of two principles in man - good and evil.
Trubetskoy Pavel Petrovich (1866-1938). At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, a bright original master came to Russian art, creating deeply psychological images in various genres of sculpture - from small plastic to monumental. P. P. Trubetskoy won the fame of "the first of the Russian sculptors, working with such a striking and poetic closeness to nature." Pavel Petrovich Trubetskoy was born on November 16, 1866 in Italy, in Intra, on Lago Maggiore, on the estate of his parents. His father is the Russian prince Pyotr Sergeevich Trubetskoy, his mother is an American. From the age of eight, he has been fond of sculpture and, under the influence of his brother Pietro, a decorative artist, performs the first sculptures for the puppet theater; two years later he takes lessons from the painter D. Rantsoni. Serious studies in sculpture began in Milan in 1884 in the studio of Barcagli, and then with E. Bazarro. True, P. P. Trubetskoy never received a systematic art education, but his rare talent and will contributed to his success. In 1886, the young sculptor first presented his work - a statue of a horse - at an exhibition in the city of Brera (Italy), and then his works appear at exhibitions in France and America. He sculpts portraits, is engaged in animalistic plasticity, tries his hand at monumental sculpture. In 1891 he took part in competitions for monuments to Garibaldi and Dante. In 1897 Trubetskoy came to Russia, to his father's homeland. Captured by new impressions, the sculptor works hard and soon begins teaching at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. The bronze sculpture "Moscow Coachman" (1898, Russian Museum) is the first work performed in Russia. Genre composition, it would seem, is traditional in terms of plot. Similar everyday scenes were encountered more than once in the works of Russian sculptors - E. A. Lansere and L. V. Posen. For Trubetskoy, this was the embodiment of the first Russian impressions, without contemplative ethnography, with captivating sincerity, a special plastic expressiveness of soft, "flowing" forms. The works of Trubetskoy, which appeared at exhibitions, provoked sharp criticism from the conservative circles of the St. Petersburg Academy, who saw in his innovative method a violation of the "classical" canons, and attracted the attention of progressive representatives of the Russian public, the artistic intelligentsia. The sculptor meets and becomes close to I.E. Repin I.I. Levitan, V. A. Serov, F. I. Chaliapin. A great friendship connected Trubetskoy with Leo Tolstoy. The sculptor evoked the liveliest sympathy of the writer. According to the secretary of L. N. Tolstoy - V. A. Bulgakov, "the sculptor Paolo Trubetskoy ... belonged to the favorites of Leo Nikolayevich ... He loved him for his simple open soul, truthfulness, hatred of secular conventions, love for animals, vegetarianism ". Lev Nikolayevich willingly posed for him and talked with him in the sculptor's workshop and at his place in Yasnaya Polyana. The bust of Leo Tolstoy (1899, Russian Museum) and the figurine "L.N. Tolstoy on horseback" (1900, Russian Museum) become world famous. Calmness and wisdom, intolerance for hypocrisy and hypocrisy, simplicity and generosity are revealed by the sculptor in the original character of the brilliant Russian writer. In 1900, the works of P. P. Trubetskoy were exhibited in the Russian Department at the World Exhibition in Paris. For portraits of L. N. Tolstoy, L. Golitsyn and the group "Moscow Carrier" Trubetskoy, along with O. Rodin, is awarded the highest award - the "Big Prize". This was followed by a series of portrait figurines, distinguished by their spirituality and unique individuality of characteristics: artistically elegant and internally excited I. I. Levitan (1899, Russian Museum), inspired by F. I. Chaliapin (1899-1900, Russian Museum), cheerful, good-natured S. S. Botkin (1906, Russian Museum). The sculptural works of P. P. Trubetskoy are distinguished by bright artistic techniques: pictorial mobility and at the same time the clarity of plastic forms, the desire to avoid even and smooth - inert - surfaces. In this mobility, in the movement of forms coming from the depths, the innermost spiritual facets of the model are revealed. Sharp observation, poetry, softness of modeling are especially characteristic of female portraits. Spectacular, in a ball gown, M. K. Tenisheva (1899, Russian Museum), aristocratic Golitsyna (1911, State Art Museum of the BSSR), "Mother with Child" (1898, Russian Museum, State Tretyakov Gallery), "Mother with Son" (1901, RM), the charming model Dunya (1900, RM) - all these works are distinguished by their original compositional solutions and artistic techniques. Children's images are fanned with special lyricism: "Children. Nikolai and Vladimir Trubetskoy" (1900, Russian Museum), "Girl with a Dog (Friends)" (1901, Russian Museum). A kind of psychologism - in the animalistic works of the sculptor. Such works of the sculptor as "Dog" (1899, State Tretyakov Gallery), "Horse with a foal" (1899, Smolensk Regional Museum of Local Lore), "Siberian Laika" (1903, Russian Museum), "Horse under saddle" (1898, Russian Museum) are distinguished by penetratingness . In 1899-1909, the sculptor worked on a monumental monument to Alexander III. For this, a special workshop-pavilion made of glass and iron was built on Staro-Nevsky Prospekt, not far from the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. In the preparatory stage, Trubetskoy created eight small-sized models, four life-size and two on the scale of the monument itself.
Having emerged as the winner of the 1900 competition for the creation of a monument to Alexander III, Trubetskoy paid little attention to the comments of the commission for the construction of the monument. S. Yu. Witte in "Memoirs" complains about the "unaccommodating nature" of the sculptor. Trubetskoy, obviously, did not take into account the opinion of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, who saw in "Trubetskoy's model a caricature of his brother." However, the Empress Dowager, satisfied with the clearly expressed portrait resemblance, contributed to the completion of the work on the monument. The monument to Alexander III differed significantly from many official royal monuments; the sculptor was far from idealization, from striving for splendor. Surprisingly accurately, I. E. Repin defined the idea of this monument: "Russia, crushed by the weight of one of the most reactionary tsars, is moving backwards." As in many works, the author's creative credo was clearly embodied here, saying that "a portrait should not be a copy. In clay or on canvas, I convey the idea of a given person, the general, characteristic that I see in him." Regardless of the degree of reliability of the words attributed to Trubetskoy - "I'm not involved in politics. I depicted one animal on another" - the monument evokes a feeling of a dull pressing force. A. Benois noted that this feature of the monument "is due not just to the master's luck, but to the deep penetration of the artist into the task." Even before the opening of the monument, the sculptor felt an unfriendly attitude on the part of many members of the royal family and senior officials. Nicholas II wanted to move the monument to Irkutsk, "send him into exile in Siberia, away from his offended sons' eyes," and erect another monument in the capital. S. Yu. Witte recalls that the sculptor did not even receive an invitation to the grand opening of the monument in time and arrived in St. Petersburg later. Having fallen out of favor with the authorities and deprived of the opportunity to work on a new large order, Trubetskoy goes abroad. From 1906 to 1914, while in Paris, he creates sculptural portraits of O. Rodin, A. France, D. Puccini, S. A. Muromtsev, in London he performs a portrait of B. Shaw. But Trubetskoy continued to participate in competitions and art exhibitions held in Russia. In 1912, in America (Chicago), then in Italy (Rome), personal exhibitions of P. P. Trubetskoy were organized. In 1914, Trubetskoy left for America, where he built monuments to Dante (San Francisco) and General Otis (Los Angeles). In 1921 he returned to Paris, and spent the last years of his life in Italy. For the La Scala theater in Milan, he sculpted a marble statue of the famous Caruso, created a monument to the fallen soldiers in the city of Brera, a sculptural portrait of Gabriel D "Annunzio, a self-portrait for the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, a portrait of one of the most famous Italian artists D. Segantini. With exhibitions of his works, the sculptor traveled to Egypt (1934) and Spain (1935).P. P. Trubetskoy died in Italy on February 12, 1938. Having lived in Russia for a short time, P. P. Trubetskoy did a lot for Russian art, significantly expanding the limits of the plastic exploration of the world. penetration into the image, the temperament of the form, the originality of the manner had a huge impact on the development of domestic sculpture. S. T. Konenkov was born into a peasant family. Early showed outstanding creative abilities and was sent by his relatives to study in the neighboring city of Roslavl. At the gymnasium, he achieved great success in drawing. He studied art at MUZhVZ (1892-98) under S. I. Ivanov and S. M. Volnukhin, then at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1899-1902). but made in the spirit of genre-narrative sculpture of the 19th century. This was the tradition that in the first decades of the 20th century. they will try to break, each in their own way, the young masters of the new generation in order to express in plastic their more intense and complex attitude to life, to the world around them and culture. Finishing the Academy of Arts, Konenkov sculpted the biblical hero - "Samson Breaking the Bonds" (gypsum, 1902) - an image that worried him until the end of his life. The sculptor will return to him more than once. Already in this figure, with its powerful, roughly generalized forms, created not without the influence of the famous "Slaves" by Michelangelo, the sculptor began to search for a new plastic language that would allow not to tell the plot, but directly express the emotional meaning of the image. The work was unusual and caused a scandal in the Academy of Arts. Two cycles of works, very different in their figurative world and in the very nature of plastics, but sometimes unexpectedly converging in some way, occupy the main place in Konenkov's work from the late 1890s and throughout the 1910s. The first cycle is fantastic, folklore, enlivening the world of fabulous forest creatures. He was nourished, on the one hand, by the childhood memory of a peasant boy from the forest places near Yelnya, on the other hand, by the desire inherent in the modern era to recreate and rethink ancient mythology, to fill sophisticated modern culture with powerful personifications of mysterious natural forces. Konenkov most likely followed in the footsteps of M. A. Vrubel with his "Pan". He chopped his "Great Force" and "Old Old Man" (both 1909), "Stribog" and "Old Man-Polyevich" (both 1910), "Prophetic Old Woman" (1915) and "Forest Man" (1917) from wood, from a round log , as the ancient Slavs did their idols, wide and large, not caring about anatomy, freely deviating from real proportions. These fabulous images do not make any flat faces with slightly outlined features, short legs, or huge, heavy hands any less convincing. The tree itself guides the sculptor's tool, suggests the composition and proportions, dictates the measure of generalization and the plasticity of the form. Another cycle is Greek, antique. Konenkov visited Greece in 1912, and there he was attracted not at all by what had long been assimilated and deadened by the academic tradition, familiar from countless casts. The sculptor discovered for himself the naive charm of preclassical statues, the mysterious smiles of archaic maidens, their slanted, strangely lively eyes of colored glass. In this cycle, the plasticity is completely different - strict and delicate. And the main material is marble ("Bark", "Eos", "Helios", all 1912). The same, in essence, feeling of the naive and beautiful youth of mankind inspired numerous images in marble or wood of nude female nature, not directly related to ancient subjects. In the first years of Soviet power, the sculptor participated in the implementation of the monumental propaganda plan: he made a memorial plaque from colored cement "To the Fallen in the Struggle for Peace and Brotherhood of Nations" (1918) on the Senate Tower of the Kremlin - a kind of giant sculptural poster puts a wooden "Stepan Razin" on the Execution Ground with his gang" (1918). The sculptures of this group are close in character to his folklore works. In 1923 Konenkov left for America with an exhibition of his works. The success encouraged him to stay there for many years. Across the ocean, Konenkov is mainly a portrait painter. He often made portraits before, but only now this genre has come to the fore. Among those whom he portrayed were many celebrities: M. Gorky and A. Einstein, scientists, athletes, artists. Standing apart among these works is a small bust of F. M. Dostoevsky (1933) - a psychologically intense image of the thinker. Seventy-year-old Konenkov returned to his homeland at the end of 1945. He was full of enthusiasm and created many works, including huge ones, in all genres until the end of his almost hundred-year life. Perhaps the best of them is a self-portrait (1954), made in marble. But still, the subtle spirituality of his early work was already behind him. He could not create works equal in strength and poetry to pre-revolutionary ones. A review of the processes and phenomena in the development of the plastic arts at the turn of two centuries, on the eve of the great revolutionary reorganization of Russia, testifies to the close and diverse ties between painting, graphics, architecture and other branches of Russian artistic culture - primarily literature, theater, printing, as well as science and technique.
Graphics, sculpture, painting found new lovers and connoisseurs. The composition of visitors to art exhibitions and museums has been democratized. Questions of the plastic arts were of keen interest to the advanced Russian public.
The rich and glorious realistic-democratic beginnings of Russian artistic culture did not become impoverished. The search for new realism, new means and methods of expressing the truth of life was associated with the search for new forms of reflection of reality, self-expression of the worldview and personality of the artist, architect, sculptor in their works. The new highest achievements of the Russian masters of the plastic arts of the late 19th - early 20th centuries were subsequently successively inherited by the artistic culture of the Soviet Union.
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan
Beloretsk Pedagogical College
Abstract on the topic:
Completed by a 2nd year student "B"
Baranova Anna
The art of sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles; modernity, determined by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and antique styling. The development of Russian sculpture second half of XIX century is closely connected with the process of the formation of realism in Russian art.
In 1851, the positions of rector of sculpture and professor of the second degree "in terms of sculpture of figures and ornaments" were abolished. There is a loss of monumentality, the connection with architecture is lost, there is a predominant development of easel sculpture. It should be noted that the monumental sculpture of the state order is losing its progressive significance. During this period, sculptural monuments are erected to individuals who have great public importance: workers of culture, science, generals, scientists, writers. In easel sculpture, the emphasized everydayness of plots and images, the ordinary interpretation are cultivated, which indicates the intensive birth of realistic sculpture.
Many domestic sculptors gained great fame.
Kamensky Fedor Fedorovich (1838-1913) - Russian sculptor F.F.Kamensky was born into the family of a major general, administrator of the St. Petersburg Forestry Institute. In 1852-1860 he studied at Imperial Academy art by Nikolai Pimenov, Pyotr Klodt and Fidelio Bruni. received at the academy gold medal for "The Senate Asks Cincinnatus to Stay in Rome" and "Regulus Returns to Carthage". The sculptor during this period creates busts of Taras Shevchenko and Fidelio (Fyodor) Bruni. In 1863 the academy sent Kamensky to study in Italy, where he stayed until 1869. In Italy, Kamensky F.F. continues to create in the genre of a portrait bust and creates sculptural works on everyday subjects: “Young Sculptor”, “Widow and Son” (1867), “First Steps”, (1872), a monument to M.I. Glinka. For the sculpture "Widow and Son", "First Steps", the sculptor becomes an Academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and returned to St. Petersburg. In 1870, F.F. Kamensky again left for Florence, and in 1873 he immigrated to America, where he began to live in the state of Florida and continued to engage in art, making decorations for the federal building in Kansas, the Roman Fountains project in New York, sculpture Cupid for Tampa, Florida. In 1893, while preparing for the World Exhibition in Chicago, Kamensky F.F. creates "huge concrete sculptures for the pavilion", and personally selected 130 paintings and statues from Russia, which were shown during the exhibition. In recent years, he has been working on a complex sculpture "The World" - it is not finished.
Ivanov Sergey Ivanovich (1828 -1903) - Russian sculptor. He received his artistic education at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under the leadership of N. A. Ramazanova. In 1854, for the statue "Boy in the Bath" (a marble copy - in the Tretyakov Gallery, in Moscow) he was elevated to the rank of academician. After the death of N.A. Ramazanova (1863) took his place as a teacher of sculpture at the same Moscow School. His works S.I. Ivanov showed at exhibitions only occasionally.
The sculptor creates the statues "Neapolitan fisherman with a shell" and "Apostle Andrew" (performed for the Moscow Historical Museum), the sculptural groups "Mother's Love", "Boy on a Horse", "Kiss of Judas", "Tiger digging into the neck of a deer" and " Lioness with cubs”, a sketch of the statue “Moses exuding water from a stone”, a project for the monument to A. S. Pushkin, busts of the actors Shumsky, Zhivokini, Sadovsky and the fabulist Krylov. Great fame S.I. Ivanov brought the sculpture "Boy in the Bath" (marble, State Tretyakov Gallery). Sergei Ivanovich Ivanov entered the history of sculpting art mainly as the author of the statue "Boy in the Bath" (1854). Without any idealization, the outstanding sculptor depicted a peasant boy pouring water.
Antokolsky Mark Matveyevich (1842-1902) - historical themes permeate the work of M.M. Antokolsky, who created a series of sculptural portraits: "Ivan the Terrible", "Peter I", "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler". Some of the sculptor's works contain a contemplative, philosophical orientation; "Christ Before the People", "Mephistopheles", "The Dying Socrates", "Spinoza". MM. Antokolsky creates busts of Stasov, Turgenev, Botkin. The sculptor carries out orders for tombstones. The largest sculptor In Russia in the second half of the 19th century, Mark Matveyevich Antokolsky was born in 1843 into a poor, large Jewish family. At night, instead of resting after exhausting work in a tavern, where he helped his father, secretly from others who were alien to his attraction, the boy devoted himself to his favorite pastime - sculpted or carved small figures. Subsequently, he was nevertheless identified as an apprentice in the workshop of a wood carver. Since 1862 M.M. Antokolsky becomes a volunteer at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. In St. Petersburg, the artist becomes close to I. I. Shishkin, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. N. Kramskoy, V. V. Stasov, A. N. Serov, M. P. Mussorgsky, becomes a friend of I. E. Repin. Studied M.M. Antokolsky in the class of N. S. Pimenov, and after his death with the engraver and sculptor I. I. Reimers. Already the first high reliefs "A Jew - a tailor" (1864) and "A Jew - a miser" (1865), awarded the Second and First silver medals, showed the vitality and realism of the artist's works.
Mark Matveyevich Antokolsky died in June 1902. Death found an outstanding sculptor in Germany, the sculptor was buried in St. Petersburg at the Preobrazhensky cemetery.
Mikeshin Mikhail Osipovich (1835-1896) - Russian painter and sculptor, author of a series outstanding monuments V major cities Russian Empire, he was born on February 9, 1835 in the village of Maksimkovo, Smolensk province, near Roslavl. He studied in Smolensk with a local icon painter. In 1852 he entered the Academy of Arts, where he studied in the class of battle painting under the guidance of B. P. Villevalde. In 1858 he graduated with honors from the Academy of Arts, having received a large gold medal for the painting Tilly's Entry into Magdeburg. The romantic interpretation of the patriotic theme that appeared during the years of study brought the artist the attention of the royal family, and M.O. Mikeshin was invited to teach drawing to the Grand Duchesses. Despite the fact that M.O. Mikeshin was primarily a battle painter, the project of the monument “Millennium of Russia” presented by him in Novgorod won the competition (1859) and was accepted for execution. In order to manage the execution of the project, M.O. Mikeshin studied sculptural technique from I. N. Schroeder. As a result of such success, M.O. Mikeshin received many such orders. According to his projects, the monuments "Kuzma Minin" were created in Nizhny Novgorod, "Admiral Greig" in Nikolaev and "Alexander II" in Rostov-on-Don, which became an illustration of the official formula "autocracy-Orthodoxy-nationality". Few monuments of M.O. Mikeshin survived the years of Soviet power. Among them are the monument "Catherine II" in St. Petersburg (1873), the monuments "M.Yu. Lermontov", "Bogdan Khmelnitsky" in Kyiv (1888), "Ermak" in Novocherkassk (1904), as well as the monument "Millennium of Russia" in Novgorod. Projects M.O. Mikeshin also won international competitions (for example, the monument to Pedro IV in Lisbon). In 1876-1878, M.O. Mikeshin edited the satirical magazine "Bee". He published his cartoons there and published illustrations for the works of N. V. Gogol and T. G. Shevchenko.
Schroeder Ivan Nikolaevich (1835-1908) - Russian sculptor, author of a number of monuments in large cities Russian Empire. Born in 1835 and brought up in His Majesty's Corps of Pages, from where he was released as a cornet in the Life Guards Lancers. At the end of the Crimean campaign, he retired and devoted himself to sculptural work, which he had previously done as an amateur. On the advice of Professor Baron P.K. Klodt, Schroeder I.N. entered the Imperial Academy of Arts, where N.S. Pimenov. While still attending the classes of the Academy of Arts, Schroeder I.N. fashioned ten statues in one winter for M.O. Mikeshin Novgorod monument "Millennium of Russia". Having gone abroad in 1864 to visit the museums of I.N. Schroeder, unexpectedly left for America. There he worked for four years in South America and then returned to St. Petersburg. Shortly after these events, in 1869, the Academy of Arts for the bust “A. I. Kireevskaya”, awarded him the title of academician. Most of the further works of I.N. Schroeder refers to monumental sculpture. The sculptor made models of monuments: "Catherine II" - (Tsarskoe Selo), "Admiral Kruzenshtern", "Prince P. G. Oldenburgsky" - (St. Petersburg), "Admiral Bellingshausen" - (Kronstadt), "Peter the Great" - (Petrozavodsk), "Emperor Alexander II", "Count A. A. Bobrinsky" - (Kiev), "N.M. Przhevalsky” and “I.F. Kruzenshtern" - (St. Petersburg), "L.G. Kornilov”, “E.I. Totleben”, “P.S. Nakhimov "- (Sevastopol). Shreder I.N. creates a large number of portrait busts. The bust of Adjutant General Kaufman for the Tashkent military collection and twelve busts of Sevastopol heroes for the Moscow Historical Museum belongs to the sculptor's work.
During this period, the outstanding Russian sculptor A.M. Opekushin worked in the style of realism in the genre of monumental sculpture.
Opekushin Alexander Mikhailovich (1841-1923)- Russian sculptor was born on November 16, 1838 in the village of Svechkino, Yaroslavl province. A.M. Opekushin received his art education at the Drawing School of the Society for the Encouragement of Artists and in a sculptural workshop in St. Petersburg under the guidance of Professor D. Jensen, after which he studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts, which in 1864 awarded him the title of a non-class artist for the sculptural sketches "Belisarius" and "Cupid and Psyche. After this title, A.M. Opekushin was promoted in 1869 to class artists of the Second Degree, in 1870 to class artists of the First Degree for the bust "Countess Shuvalova" and for seven colossal figures sculpted for the St. Petersburg monument "Empress Catherine II". In 1874 - to the academicians for the bust of the Tsarevich "Nikolai Alexandrovich" and the statue "Peter the Great". At the beginning of his activity, A.M. Opekushkin produced a lot of ornamental stucco work for St. Petersburg buildings and was one of the main collaborators of M.O. Mikeshin in his work on the implementation of the project of the above-mentioned monument “Empress Catherine II” composed by this artist. For the All-Russian Industrial Exhibition in Moscow (1882), together with M.O. Mikeshin and architect D.N. Chichagov A.M. Opekushin created two pairs sculptural compositions Volga and Oil. The sculptor made the monument "Alexander II" at the southern wall of the Kremlin (bronze, was opened in 1898, has not been preserved) and the monument "Alexander III" near the Cathedral of Christ the Savior (bronze, 1912, has not been preserved). From the works of A.M. Opekushin are best known: the monuments to Admiral Greig in Nikolaev, modeled according to the project of M.O. Mikeshin, the monument “A.S. Pushkin" in Moscow (1880), combining the elation of the image with its historical concreteness and authenticity. A.M. Opekushin also created monuments to A.S. Pushkin" in St. Petersburg (1884), "A.S. Pushkin" in Chisinau (1885), monuments: "Karl von Baer" in Tartu (1886), "M.Yu. Lermontov" in Pyatigorsk (1889), the monument "N.N. Muravyov-Amursky" in Khabarovsk. The sculptor used bronze and granite in his work. A. M. Opekushin was Orthodox Christian and a staunch monarchist. He was very popular in the monarchical circles of that time, his work was highly valued in the Royal House, he was patronized by Alexander III and Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich Romanov, Moscow Governor-General, who was assassinated on February 4, 1905.
Chizhov Matvey Afanasyevich (1838-1916) - Russian sculptor who worked in the domestic genre. M. A. Chizhov was the son of a peasant stonemason and from childhood helped his father in his craft. Art education M.A. Chizhov received first at the Moscow School of Painting and Sculpture (1857-1860), then at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, where he entered in 1861 and studied in the sculpture class with N. S. Pimenov and A. R. Bock. During the years of apprenticeship M.A. Chizhov worked actively and, together with other sculptors, participated in the creation of models and the execution of colossal high reliefs for the Millennium of Russia monument being built in Novgorod according to the project of M.O. Mikeshin. Later, together with A.M. Opekushin worked on the monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg, also designed by M.O. Mikeshin. In 1867, for the relief "The Resurrection of the Son of the Nain Widow" M.A. Chizhov received a large gold medal, the title of class artist and the right to a pensioner's trip to Italy (1868-1873). Already in Rome, where M.A. Chizhov spent most of his retirement trip, the genre orientation of his work was determined, a special interest in depicting the life of the people, peasant life, and characteristic types. The sculptor works with the most different materials. From excellent Italian marble, the lyrical genre groups "At the Well (First Love)" (1870) and "Blind Man's Bluff" (1872) were made, from gypsum - "Fortune-telling on the cards" (1871) and "Peasant mother teaching his daughter to the letter" (1873), "Rezvushka" (1873). For the work performed by M.A. Chizhov in Italy, the Academy of Arts awarded him the title of academician. The sculptural group "A Peasant in Trouble (On the Ashes)" (1872), shown at exhibitions in Vienna, St. Petersburg, Paris, has gained particular fame, where it received gold medals. Heavily lowering his head on his left hand, and with his right, embracing his young son, a peasant, overcome by grief, sits on a burnt stump. His huge, strong figure drooped, an expression of hopeless sadness is read on his face. In its social orientation, the work is close to many paintings by V. G. Perov and the Wanderers. Returning from Italy, the sculptor takes an active part in the exhibitions of the Association of Travelers art exhibitions, teaches at the Central School of Technical Drawing of Baron A.L. Stieglitz (1879-1910), in 1893 he became a full member of the Academy of Arts and became a member of its Council. He works a lot in the portrait bust genre: “I.K. Aivazovsky" (1873), "Prince P.G. Oldenburgsky" (1876), "Alexander II" (1881). M.A. Chizhov performs a bust of "N.A. Nekrasov "(1881), which was subsequently installed on tombstone poet on Novodevichy cemetery In Petersburg. Less well known and significant are the works of M.A. Chizhov in the field of monumental sculpture, although he actively worked on the sculptural decoration of the buildings of St. lyceum student" for Tsarskoye Selo (1890), "Admiral P.S. Nakhimov "(1900) - Sevastopol.
Matvey Afanasyevich Chizhov died in 1916 in Petrograd.
The creator of genre groups was the sculptor N.A. Laveretsky.
Laveretsky Nikolai Akimovich (1837-1907)- Russian sculptor, took part in the creation of the monument "Millennium of Russia". Laveretsky N.A. was born in Moscow, the son of the sculptor A.P. Laveretsky. He received his initial art education at the St. Petersburg RSHOPKh (Drawing School of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts) for volunteers. He studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts (1851–1866) with Professor N. S. Pimenov. For a portrait bust sculpted from life “V. V. Yuzefovich "(1853) was awarded a silver medal of the 2nd degree, and for the fashioned program bas-relief" Achilles drags the body of Hector "(1857) he received a silver medal of the 1st degree. Laveretsky N.A. for the academic program “Zincinkat receives ambassadors from Rome” (1859) he received a gold medal of the 2nd degree, and for the program bas-relief “The Return of Regulus from Rome to Carthage” (1860) he was awarded a large gold medal and received the title of class artist 1st degree. Laveretsky N.A., being a pensioner of the Imperial Academy of Arts (1863), visited Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Milan, Genoa, Pisa, Rome. For the sculptural group "Children feeding a bird" he received the title of academician (1868). After creation marble sculpture"Neapolitan boy with a monkey" (1870) Laveretsky N.A. returned to St. Petersburg, where he began to act as professor of sculptural classes at the Imperial Academy of Arts (1871–1894). During this period, the sculptor created genre groups: "The First Rose" and "Bather", the groups "Little Coquettes" (1872), "Children Begging", the groups "Mother's Love" (1876) and "The Head of an Old Jew" . The sculptor's works include the busts "Sappho", "Spring", "Chucharka", "Capuchin", as well as several portrait busts: "Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich", "Emperor Alexander II", "The Great Russian Bass Singer O.A. Petrov", famous Russian historian, researcher of socio-political and economic history Russia "N.I. Kostomarov. Among his other works, it is necessary to note the statues: "Trade" (1876), "Industry" (1876), "Mephistopheles" (1881), "Shame, Rhodope" (1882), high relief "Angel" (1884 .). The sculptor is the author of the bronze group "Cupid and Psyche" (1887) and the allegorical sculpture "Russia" (1896). Laveretsky N.A. the author of the monument “M.I. Glinka" in Smolensk and the monument "Catherine II" in Simferopol. Laveretsky N.A. was a member of the Society for the Mutual Aid of Russian Artists in St. Petersburg (1871), a member of the OVHP and the Imperial Academy of Arts (1876).
Nikolai Akimovich Laveretsky, an outstanding Russian sculptor, died in 1907.
Developed in his work the theme of genre compositions L.V. Posen.
Pozen Leonid Vladimirovich (1849-1921) - Russian sculptor, graphic artist, born in the family of a retired guard staff captain on July 10, 1849 in the Obolon estate of the Poltava province L.V. Posen (1867-1873) studied at law faculties first Kharkov, and then St. Petersburg universities. He graduated from the university with a degree in law. Until 1876 he worked as a barrister in St. Petersburg. In 1876 L.V. Posen moved to Poltava, where he served as assistant prosecutor of the district court. L.V. Pozen did not receive a systematic art education. Since 1877, Leonid Vladimirovich began modeling. As samples for copying, he used the works of contemporary sculptors: N. I. Liberich, E. A. Lanceray, the French animal painter P.-J. Maine. On the advice of G. G. Myasoedov, he presented the sculptural group “On the oxen” at the 10th exhibition of the Society for Economic Exhibition and Exhibition, after which he became a regular participant in the exhibitions of the Partnership (until 1918). In 1891, having received an appointment, he arrived in St. Petersburg. In the same year he joined the TPHV. In 1894, due to the illness of L.V. Posen went to Rome, where he was treated and studied museum collections along the way. In 1894 he was elected a full member of the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1900 he was appointed a member of the Council of the Imperial Academy of Arts. In the early 1900s, he created a monument to the poet I.P. Kotlyarevsky, which was opened in 1903. In 1914-1915 he worked on the monument to N.V. Gogol for Poltava, which was opened in 1934. L.V. Posen in 1915 refused the title of academician of sculpture offered to him "for reasons of principle." L.V. Posen is one of the prominent masters of sculpture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries in Russia. He became most famous for his cabinet genre compositions on themes from the life of the Ukrainian people. He also made a number of portrait busts and works on historical subjects. In his work, he shared the views of the Wanderers, was the first of the sculptors to join the Association. From 1882 to 1918 he exhibited his works at traveling exhibitions, since L.V. Posen has been a member of the Association since 1894. Created a number of portrait busts of the artists "N. A. Yaroshenko”, “G.G. Myasoedov”, “P.A. Bryullov” and others L.V. Posen creates genre compositions that were of great interest to the audience "Beggar", "Lyrnik with a guide", "Peasant", "Scythian at war". Favorite material L.V. Posena was wax. Many of his wax models were purchased from traveling exhibitions by the bronze maker K. F. Werfel, and for several decades castings from them were made in his St. Petersburg workshop. Late castings from the sculptor's models made in the middle of the 20th century are known. Works by L.V. Posen are in many museum collections, including the State Tretyakov Gallery, the Kiev Museum of Russian Art, the Poltava Art Museum and others. L.V. Posen since 1895 - full member of the Academy of Arts.
The field of cabinet bronze sculpture in Russian art was developed by E.A. Lancer.
Lanceray Evgeny Alexandrovich (1848-1887) - realist, author of many bronze cabinet sculptures, was born in Morshansk. In 1862 he left his native city and went to St. Petersburg to study. E.A. Lansere lived only 38 years, but thanks to his talent and diligence, he took a prominent place in the history of Russian sculpture. Lansere, Evgeny Alexandrovich, performed small genre figurines and groups, mainly images of animals, as well as scenes from the life of Russian peasants and the peoples of the Caucasus and Central Asia, in which showed great powers of observation and skill in conveying the gestures of people and the habits of animals, sculpturally designed works of arts and crafts (ink pots, candlesticks, etc.). A number of works by E.A. Lansere was intended for replication at the Kasli iron foundry. "St. Petersburg Electroplating Plant of Artistic Bronze of the Duke of Leuchtenberg", President of the Imperial Academy of Arts - later "Artistic Bronze Factory of Genk, Pleske and Moran", which produced monumental works(a number of sculptures of St. Isaac's Cathedral, two equestrian statues of the Anichkov Bridge) and small bronze. Later, A. Moran began to work independently, leaving his “foundry” name on a number of works by E.A. Lancer. On the instructions of Felix Chopin in 1883, E.A. Lansere went to Algeria, where he worked on a series of works based on national motifs. The early period in the work of Lansere E.A. contains a romantic mood, historical plots (a response to the events of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878) “Don Cossacks-foragers” revealed the possibilities of the animalistic genre, “Zaporozhets. After the battle”, “Vityaz”, “Svyatoslav”, “Catching a wild horse”. His work has received numerous awards at world exhibitions. The Morshansky Historical and Art Museum has sculptures by E.A. Lansere "Dakhma", "Dzhigitovka", "Alyetmez", "Rider on a Horse", "Highlander on a Horse", "Farewell of a Cossack to a Cossack Woman". Yevgeny Alexandrovich Lansere is the ancestor of the artistic dynasty. His children: E.E. Lansere (1875-1946) - painter, N.E. Lansere (1879-1942) - sculptor, architect, Z.E. Serebryakova (1884-1967) - artist.
Evgeny Alexandrovich Lansere, an outstanding sculptor, died in 1887.
The problem of monumental sculpture was the work of the outstanding sculptor I.Ya.Gintsburg.
Gintsburg Ilya Yakovlevich (1859-1939) - real name and surname Eliash Ginzburg, born May 15, 1859 in Grodno, Russian sculptor, professor of art workshops (1918). Ilya Gunzburg spent his childhood in Vilna, where the sculptor M. Antokolsky drew attention to him. Since 1870, he studied at the workshop of M. M. Antokolsky in St. Petersburg, accompanied him on a trip to Italy. During this period, the sculptor creates a genre work "A boy about to swim." Upon his return, he entered a real school, then in 1878 at the sculptural department of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, where he studied with Alexander Romanovich Bok, Nikolai Akimovich Laveretsky and Ivan Ivanovich Podozerov. In 1886, for the work "The Lament of the Prophet Jeremiah on the Ruins of Jerusalem" he received a gold medal and the title of "class artist of the 1st degree." Since 1918, Gantsburg I.Ya. was appointed professor-head of the sculptural workshop of the Petrograd State Free Art Workshops. In 1921-1923. - Dean of the Faculty of Sculpture of the Higher Artistic and Technical Workshops. Gintsburg I.Ya. created monuments to N. V. Gogol "in the town of Sorochintsy," I.K. Aivazovsky" in the city of Feodosia. The sculptor was the author of the gravestone “V. V. Stasov (Museum of Urban Sculpture, St. Petersburg), V Soviet time participated in the implementation of the plan of monumental propaganda, created in Leningrad monuments “G.V. Plekhanov" (in front of the building Institute of Technology in collaboration with M. Ya. Kharlamov) and “D. I. Mendeleev. AND I. Gunzburg is known as a master of small plastic arts. The sculptor created figurines “I.I. Shishkin”, “V.V. Vereshchagin”, “I.E. Repin”, “V I. Surikov”, “L.N. Tolstoy”, “Conductor Napravnik”, “V.V. Stasov.
Ilya Yakovlevich Gunzburg an outstanding Russian Soviet sculptor died on January 31, 1939 in Leningrad.
Wanderers
Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (Wanderers) - creative association Russian artists, which existed in the last third of the 19th century. In aesthetic terms, the members of the Association, or Wanderers, purposefully opposed themselves to representatives of the official, academic art movement. The founders of the society were I. N. Kramskoy, G. G. Myasoedov, N. N. Ge and V. G. Perov. In their activities, the Wanderers were inspired by the ideas of populism. The Wanderers were active in educational activities, in particular, organizing traveling exhibitions; The life of the Partnership was built on cooperative principles. On November 9, 1863, 14 of the most outstanding students of the Imperial Academy of Arts, admitted to the competition for the first gold medal, turned to the Academy Council with a request to replace the competition task (painting a picture based on a given plot from Scandinavian mythology "The Feast of the God Odin in Valhalla") for a free task, painting a picture on a theme chosen by the artist himself. At the refusal of the Council, all 14 people left the Academy. This event went down in history as the "Riot of 14". It was they who organized the "Art Artel", later, in 1870, it was transformed into the "Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions."
The composition of the Wanderers at different times included: I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, V. E. Makovsky, I. M. Pryanishnikov, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, V. M. Maksimov, K. A. Savitsky, A. M. and V.M. Vasnetsov, A. I. Kuindzhi, V. D. Polenov, N. A. Yaroshenko, I. I. Levitan, V. A. Serov, A. E. Arkhipov and many others. M. M. Antokolsky, V. V. Vereshchagin, A. P. Ryabushkin, I. P. Trutnev and others participated in exhibitions of the Association. Big role the well-known art researcher and critic V. V. Stasov played in the development of the art of the Wanderers; P. M. Tretyakov, acquiring works of the Wanderers for his gallery, provided them with important material and moral support. Many of the works of the Wanderers were commissioned by Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov. The last head of the association, elected in 1918, was Pavel Alexandrovich Radimov. a general view of reality. The leading styles in the art of the Wanderers were impressionism and realism.
Romanticism
Romanticism(Romanticism) is an ideological and artistic movement that emerged in European and American culture the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century, as a reaction to the aesthetics of classicism. Initially formed (1790s) in philosophy and poetry in Germany, and later (1820s) spread to England, France and other countries. He predetermined the latest development of art, even those of his directions that opposed him.
The new criteria in art were freedom of expression, increased attention to individual, unique features of a person, naturalness, sincerity and looseness, which replaced the imitation of classical examples of the 18th century. The Romantics rejected the rationalism and practicality of the Enlightenment as mechanistic, impersonal, and artificial. Instead, they prioritized the emotionality of expression, inspiration.
Feeling free from the declining system of aristocratic rule, they sought to express their new views, the truths they had discovered. Their place in society has changed. They found their reader among the growing middle class, ready to emotionally support and even bow before the artist - a genius and a prophet. Restraint and humility were rejected. They were replaced by strong emotions, often reaching extremes.
Delacroix Eugene (Delacroix, Eugene)(1798-1863), the greatest french painter-romantic. In 1822 Delacroix put up in Paris Salon the painting "Rook Dante", which was bought by the government, which opened up the possibility of a dizzying career for Delacroix. Delacroix, as a rule, preferred to take dramatic plots as the basis of his canvases. He was fond of exotic motifs, especially after a trip to Morocco in 1832. In addition, he entered the history of painting as the author of portraits marked by special spirituality. After the 1830s Delacroix was engaged in the design of public buildings in Paris.
The artistic style of Delacroix is characterized by exceptional dynamism, deeply emotional intensity and major coloring, which had a great influence on Renoir, Seurat and Van Gogh. Delacroix was both an excellent writer and publisher; his "Journal" reflects Delacroix's views on contemporary life.
Theodore Géricault(1791-1824), and Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) became the leader.
Gericault studied with academicians, but he was already attracted by artists with a powerful color: Caravaggio, Titian, Rembrandt, Velazquez and Gros. In 1812, Géricault exhibited in the Salon the painting “Officer Going on the Attack” (an officer of the horse rangers of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon fought at that time in distant Russia and no one knew about the outcome of the French campaign). A warrior on a rearing horse, with a saber in his hand, turned back and called everyone to attack. The painting was a success and the 20-year-old artist received a gold medal for it. But after 2 years, the artist created a no less heroic canvas, which the public considered shameful and unpatriotic: “A wounded cuirassier leaving the battlefield.” In this work, Géricault, disappointed in the idol, saw a hint of the shameful defeat of Napoleon. Gericault left for Italy to study Renaissance painting and the culture of Antiquity, continuing to be interested in the life of France and looking for heroic stories in it for his work. And the opportunity soon presented itself: in 1816, the frigate Medusa was wrecked off the coast of Senegal. One and a half hundred people were saved on the raft, after 12 days they were picked up and only 15 remained alive. The French ignored the rescue of their compatriots, except that they were indignant at the lack of professionalism of the captain, who was assigned to the frigate under patronage. The case would have been written off to the archive, if not for the indignation of Géricault. The huge canvas “The Death of Medusa” depicting half-dead people peering into the distance in crazy hope made the public outraged by what was happening and the public accused the government of corruption. A major scandal erupted. Time after time people came to the Salon, looking at a father holding his dead son on his lap, a half-drowned corpse, a negro waving a red handkerchief. Eyewitnesses of that catastrophe also stood in front of the picture, many recognized real characters. The picture was painted in gloomy colors with flashes of red and green colors, with sharp chiaroscuro, creating a dramatic conflict through a change of different moods. Gericault hoped to appeal to the humanity, the civil courage of the French. After all, many survivors remained insane, and some of the survivors behaved unworthily towards the weak and defenseless. In order not to become the prey of cannibals who lost their human appearance, those who escaped from the frigate jumped into the water and drowned of their own free will. And Gericault also wrote about this. But then very few people understood him, most likely everyone tried to accuse the artist of slandering reality, and he acted as a journalist-painter. 5 years after Gericault's death, the term "romanticism" was applied to this painting.
And Géricault left for England and took up a new technique there - lithography (“Great English Suite” of 1821). He studied the work of Constable and painted the painting "Epsom Races" with the image of horse-birds rushing past the stands. Gericault found an original technique: he made the background blurry, and carefully painted the horses and jockeys on them. Returning to France, the painter became interested in studying people with a sharpened psyche and a broken soul. He made many sketches in the psychiatric clinic of his friend George ("Insane, calling himself a commander", "Thief of children", "Kleptomaniac"). The portraits are painted with obvious sympathy for the unfortunate. Géricault spent the last year of his life bedridden due to an unfortunate fall from a horse before he died untimely at the age of 33. He was truly appreciated later: they noticed his orientalism, illustrations for Shelley and Byron, the proclaiming of romanticism with its color revolution made by Delacroix, Corot and Daumier, then a sense of realism in lithographs and later portraits of madmen. Géricault also owed a lot to English painting - all his exhibitions of paintings were held there with invariable success.
44. O. Daumier as a Significant and Major Master critical realism in France. Creativity G. Courbet F. Millet
Honoré Daumier (1808 1879)
Known for his caricatures of Louis_Philippe, the king of bankers and industrialists, whom he portrayed in the form of a pear, satirical exposé sheets of engravings: "Fine", "Prison". Famous etching "Legislative womb", which features monster ministers and members of parliament. In 1834 - an etching “Hands off! Freedom of the press”, on which the image of a printing worker appears. This expands the themes of works of art.
In 1848, Daumier again turns to satire. Its heroes are Emperor Napoleon III and Minister Thiers.
In painting, Daumier creates images of the workers of a huge city. wonderful "Laundress". The feminine and majestic heroine of the picture rises from the river along a steep staircase. In her hands is a bale of linen, she carefully supports the child. Daumier draws a dense silhouette of a washerwoman against the backdrop of a brightly lit embankment of the Seine. The outlines of the city dissolve in the air haze. In his old age, Daumier was poor and ill, at which time the artist Camille Corot helped him buy a small house.
Gustave Courbet (1819 - 1877)
Courbet was born in the village of Ornance near the Franco-Swiss border and has always been proud of his peasant origins. According to his political views, he was a socialist, and in art in the early forties of the XIX century he acted as a romanticist of the direction. By 1848, under the influence of the revolutions that swept through Europe, he came to the conclusion that the Romantics' focus on feelings and imagination was just an escape from the realities of their time. The modern artist should rely only on direct experience and be a realist. "I can't draw an angel," says Courbet, "because I've never seen one."
In 1849, when Courbet exhibited "Stone Crushers"- the first canvas that fully reflects his realistic program - a scandal erupted. Courbet once saw two men working on the road and asked them to pose for him in his workshop. He portrayed them life-size prosaically and thoroughly, without the pathos and sentimentality characteristic of Millet. Face young man turned to the side, the old man's face half-hidden by a hat. Courbet, of course, did not choose them by chance - their contrast in age was important to him - one is too old for such hard work, the other is too young. Filled with dignity from the consciousness of their symbolic significance, they do not cry out to us for sympathy. Courbet depicted everyday life with the monumentality and seriousness traditionally used in history painting. He completely rejected all traditional plots borrowed from religion, mythology and history, thus expressing the protest that wandered in the souls of many, although no one had yet dared to embody it in words or pictures.
The artist was in all respects a powerful personality. He painted large paintings on fundamental themes: life, death, nature, human existence. Courbet was radically inclined towards the world, in everything he showed the features of spontaneous protest. One of his first paintings asserted the truth in art, undisguised and harsh.
"Funeral in Ornani" (1849 - 1850). Monumentality, density of volumes, weightiness of forms penetrate Courbet's painting. The canvas shows ordinary people in full growth on the scale of the historical composition. What used to require a small scene, the funeral of an ordinary person in the provinces, Courbet unfolds into a large-scale canvas. He gives a precise characterization of the petty bourgeois, peasants, artisans and clergy. The black clothes and the prim appearance of many participants in the rite are only a tribute to the rite. The figures fill the whole picture, giving it a majestic-monumental character.
"Hello, Monsieur Courbet!" 1854.
The painting depicts an episode from the artist's life: Courbet's arrival in 1854 at Montpellier Castle. This is a scene from Everyday life. The artist portrayed himself in the best possible way. Courbet was a tall and strong man. He was especially proud of his expressive profile and Assyrian beard. He places his profile on the canvas against a bright sky. Courbet meets on a walk a respectable bourgeois, Alfred Bruyat, who collected Courbet's paintings and thus made it possible for the artist to live comfortably. But the artist on the canvas does not bow his head respectfully before the bourgeois. This angered the public. Courbet painted himself in the clothes of a peasant, which was against all the rules of decency. Alfred Bruyat's footman bowed his head respectfully, and the dog looked at the artist with curiosity. Courbet placed himself in a bright light, the figure of the artist casts a sharp shadow, and the footman and his master are placed in the shade of a tree. On the right in the picture is the carriage in which the artist came here to stay. Courbet applied the stroke thickly, often resorting to the help of a palette knife, laying down his brush. The artist painted in a sweeping way, not as they were used to in salons, did not lick his paintings, did not write out the smallest details. This gave rise to critics to accuse him of unprofessionalism, the picture caused a scandal at the Salon of 1854.
During the Paris exhibition of 1855, which successfully demonstrated the work of Ingres and Delacroix, Courbet drew attention to his paintings by arranging a solo exhibition in a large wooden shed, where he handed out the Manifesto of Realism.
“I must be able to convey the morals, ideas, appearance of my era according to my assessment” - these words of Courbet are the basis of critical realism. It is precisely the artist's assessment of the phenomena of reality that is important here. In the center of the exhibition, Courbet placed a painting
"Atelier" 1855.
François Millet (1814 - 1875)
Millais was born into a wealthy peasant family from the small village of Grushy on the banks of the English Channel near Cherbourg. His artistic ability were perceived by the family as a gift from above. His parents gave him money and allowed him to study painting. Millais discovered the works of the old masters - primarily Dutch and Spanish artists of the 17th century. In 1837 he arrived in Paris and worked for two years in the workshop of the painter Paul Delaroche. Since 1840, the young artist began to exhibit his work at the Salon.
In 1849 the artist settled in Barbizon and lived there until the end of his days. The theme of peasant life and nature became the main one for Millet. “I am a peasant and nothing more than a peasant,” he said of himself.
Along with nature, this artist began to depict the life of the peasants. He wrote them with warmth, penetration and truthfulness. His characters are hard workers. These are "The Sower", "Grafting a Tree".
"Gatherers" 1857.
The depicted peasant women are distinguished by their monumentality, epicness, and the power of figurative solutions. In the foreground are the peasant women themselves, gathering spikelets. Far - a panorama of fields, harvesting. The figures of peasant women are revealed in the rays of the sun - their powerful plasticity is conveyed, the golden light of the rays and the figures of workers brings them together and creates the integrity of the entire composition.
Painting "Angelus" (1859) showed that Millet is able to convey subtle emotional experiences in his works. Two lonely figures froze in the field - a husband and wife, having heard the evening bell ringing, quietly pray for the dead. The dim brownish tones of the landscape, illuminated by the rays of the setting sun, create a feeling of peace.
In 1859, Millet, commissioned by the French government, painted the canvas "Peasant Woman Herding a Cow". A frosty morning, hoarfrost is silver on the ground, a woman slowly wanders after a cow, her figure has almost disappeared into the morning mist. Critics called this picture a manifesto of poverty.
"Man with a hoe" 1863
The artist himself said about his painting: “This is bread in the sweat of my face, this is the cry of the earth, I know this from my own experience, but it is in this that I find true poetry.”
Thus, we see that the art of the mid-19th century began to significantly expand the subject matter, to include in the plots that which had not previously belonged to the world of painting.
"Spring" (1868-1873) - latest work Millais. full of life and love for nature, shining with bright colors after the rain, it was completed shortly before the death of the artist.
The Barbizon school is a transitional stage from romanticism to realism and creates the prerequisites for the emergence of an impressionistic landscape. Thanks to the Barbizons, the concept of the artist's work in the open air appears. Prior to that, artists made sketches, sketches on nature, while paintings were created in the studio. Barbizon artists were of great importance in the development of the entire Western European, American, Russian landscape.
45. J. Constable and the formation of the specifics of a realistic landscape in the first half of the 19th century
John Constable was born on June 11, 1776 in the village of East Bergholt in the south-east of England. His father was the owner of several flour mills. The boy spent whole days at his father's mill, located on the Stour River, and in his free time he painted.
The father did not share the boy's passion and later sent him to work at one of his distant mills, where the young man continued to paint in secret. John was drawn to art. His further decision to become a painter horrified his parents.
In 1796, John began taking lessons from the London painter John Thomas Smith. He helped Constable prepare for the Royal Academy, where he was admitted in 1799. John was a diligent student, attended all classes, carefully studied anatomy, wrote copies from the works of old masters.
In his works, Constable appears as a bold and independent master, his perception of nature does not correspond to the norms. academic art. In the paintings, John tried to capture his own observations of nature, something that no one but him was able to notice.
hallmark Constable's style was embossed texture. He applied paint with thick, voluminous strokes. He did not try to clearly write out the smallest details of the landscape. He used those tones that are closest to the real ones found in nature.
In 1802, his work entitled "Landscape" was exhibited for the first time at the Academy.
In 1809, the artist met his old acquaintance, Maria Bicknell, the granddaughter of a pastor from East Bergholt. Falling in love with each other, John and Maria decided to get married. But their marriage was hindered by Mary's parents, who believed that John was too poor. In 1811 the artist graduated from the Academy. His financial situation at that time left much to be desired. His landscapes were not for sale, and in order to somehow make ends meet, the artist began to paint portraits.
John and Mary were able to get married only in 1816, when Constable's parents died and he received a modest inheritance. None of the relatives of the newlyweds came to the wedding ceremony.
From this event, significant changes took place in the life of the artist. He was happily married, his portraits were used in great demand. In 1818, he was appointed director of the Charitable Society for the Support of Emerging Artists.
In 1819, he presented his work entitled "White Horse" at the exhibition of the Royal Academy. The film received very flattering reviews from respected critics.
Over the next few years, Constable painted a whole series of paintings that are considered the highest achievement of the artist. The most famous of these is the painting "Hay Cart", which was presented to the public at the exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1821.
The painting was greeted with enthusiasm. Later, for huge money, the painting was purchased by the Parisian dealer John Arrowsmith, and in 1824 he exhibited it at the Paris Salon, where she produced real sensation and brought its author a gold medal.
In the early 1820s, commissioned by his friend Archdeacon John Fisher, the artist executed a series of views of Salisbury Cathedral - "Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden".
The same period of creativity also includes one of the most dynamic paintings by Constable, striking in its realism - "Jumping Horse".
Later, Constable's work was included in the general curriculum of teaching 19th century French art.
In 1824, his wife developed the first signs of consumption. The constable put aside all his affairs and took Mary to Brighton - a resort place for pulmonary patients. The couple spent several weeks there. But Mary's health continued to deteriorate, and in November 1828 she died. After the death of his wife, Constable was in despair, and only great devotion to his work made the artist continue to work.
In 1829 Constable was elected a full member of the Royal Academy. The artist devoted all his attention to teaching in the drawing class and organizing the annual exhibitions of the Academy. At the same time, he worked on the publication of reproductions of his paintings, which made up an album called "English Landscape".
In 1836 he gave a series of lectures to the Royal Society. Lectures were devoted to landscape painting. In them, the artist formulated the principles that he personally followed in his work.
Constable died on March 31, 1837. Doctors could not determine the exact cause of the artist's death. They assumed that he died of indigestion, although apparently it was a heart attack. He was buried in the London cemetery in Hampstead, next to the grave of his beloved wife Mary.
The work of John Constable went unnoticed in his homeland until the 20th century. But it had a huge impact on the development of French painting. french masters XIX century collected his canvases, carefully studied them, admired his painting technique. The art of John Constable contributed to the emergence of realistic trends in painting in the 19th century.
46. Realistic landscape in France T. Rousseau and the Barbizons C. Caro as the creator of the mood landscape.
Theodore Rousseau (1812 - 1867)
He set himself the goal of capturing the most mundane as significant and monumental. He was attracted to everything stable, powerful, material in nature. He liked to depict wide expanses, huge oaks with powerful trunks and lush crowns. He gazed intently at nature, sought to capture its various states. "Oaks" 1852, "Evening at Kure" 1855. The artist is attracted by a bright sunny day or late afternoon hours. Calmness and plastic distinctness of objects, richness of colors.
Camille Corot (1796 - 1875)
The lyrical and deeply poetic manner of perceiving reality are features of Camille Corot's painting. The main means of animating his canvases is light, calmly diffused, thin, conveying the humidity of the air on cloudy days.
At the beginning of his creative way Koro asserted the dense materiality of the world. At this time he was still under the influence academic painting. But soon a direct interest in nature began to clearly predominate in his painting. During a trip to Italy, Corot emphasizes volume, balance of masses, clarity of color schemes, airiness of the environment. The famous landscapes of Rome, created by the artist during this period, amaze the perception of the beauty of Italian nature and architecture, the sophistication of colors and forms: “View of the Forum at the Farnese Garden” (1826), “View of the Colosseum from the Farnese Garden” (1826), “Santa Trinita dei Monti » (1826-1828) - breathe freshness in the perception of nature and architecture in Italy. These paintings are like sketches. Etude - piece of art performed, as a rule, directly from nature.
Corot's favorite genre at this time was the veduta, that is, the urban landscape. Later he would visit Italy again and paint wonderful landscapes. That's the job "Morning in Venice" 1834. The rays of the sun sharply illuminate the white marble buildings, sharply outlined in the transparent air. The figures of people help to feel the space. In the paintings painted upon his return from Italy, he does not pursue an exact reproduction of the given area, but tries to convey the only impression of it, using its forms and tones only in order to express his poetic mood with their help.
Since the fifties, in addition to "historical" and "mythological" paintings, Corot occasionally wrote for the Salon and landscapes of France. For such landscapes, long before the Impressionists, Corot used the method of multiple studies. Its meaning is to write the same motive in different weather, at different times of the day.
In more late time Koro addresses the species countryside, revealing the mood that nature evokes on an overcast day. He knows how to find shades of the same color - valera. Draws the total mass of the object in total, barely highlighting individual branches, foliage of trees swaying in the wind. The artist works mainly in the vicinity of Paris, in the forest of Fontainebleau. His landscapes are characterized by thoughtfulness, dreaminess, silence. Especially this impression is facilitated by the image of the morning fog. Takova "The bell tower in Argenteuil" 1860 GMI. Before us early spring, a cool breeze drives the morning clouds.
"Hay Cart" 1860 GMI. Humid atmosphere, cloudy sky with blue gaps, puddles on the road, you can see that it has just rained. The distant expanse of the field, illuminated by a ray of the sun, and the measured movement of the wagon of hay - all create a poetic mood.
"Castle of Pierrefonds". In the background, a bluish bulk rises a castle with a high tower. We seem to be on the edge of the forest and the valley, behind which the castle buildings open. The feeling of early morning, humid air is wonderful, everything is shrouded in a bluish haze, in total, that is, without details, a mass of foliage is conveyed, almost indistinguishable in the morning fog.
47. Art of France in the 60-90s of the 19th century. Edouard Manet as the initiator of a new stage in the painting of France.
Edouard Manet was born in Paris, his family was quite wealthy. The son's decision to become an artist did not suit his parents. But when, after several unsuccessful attempts to enter the nautical school, Manet nevertheless achieved his goal, he could live without need and without selling his paintings.
In 1850, the young man became a student of the fashionable Parisian painter Thomas Couture (1815-1879). The academic style, of which his teacher was a follower, did not attract the artist. In 1856, Manet left the Couture workshop and went on a trip to Europe. Returning to Paris, he spent a lot of time at the Louvre, studying the old masters. In 1859, Manet tried to exhibit at the Salon. The canvas proposed by him “The Absinthe Drinker” (1858-
1859) was rejected by the jury. No longer counting on the favor of official criticism, the artist showed in 1863 a series of his works in a private gallery. The dancer Lola stands at the edge of the stage, proud, beautiful (Lola from Valencia, 1862); a sad street singer eats cherries, her pensive beautiful eyes look past the viewer, and her thoughts are far away (“Street Singer”, 1862); ladies and gentlemen walking in the Tuileries garden ("Music in the Tuileries",
1860). This kaleidoscope of human life caused an irritated definition from critics - "a motley hodgepodge of colors."
In 1863 and 1865 Manet presented two paintings to the Salon, Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia (both 1863).
"Breakfast on the Grass", exhibited in the "Salon of the Les Misérables", was inspired by the "Concert" by the Italian Renaissance painter Titian. Men in modern suits settled down in a forest clearing. They are talking about something, not paying attention to women - naked, sitting next to them, and another, bathing in a stream. The painting aroused violent indignation from the public, who did not appreciate the novelty with which the artist solved purely pictorial tasks - the depiction of human figures (including the nude) in the landscape, the transmission of the bright colors of a sunny day.
"Olympia" is a variation on the theme of many compositions of the old masters dedicated to the beauty of the female body. A naked girl lies, leaning on a pillow, and boldly, without a shadow of embarrassment, looks at the viewer. Exhibited at the Salon of 1865, the painting caused a scandal. The writer Emile Zola defended Manet: “When our artists give us Venus, they correct nature, they lie. Edouard Manet asked himself ... why not tell the truth: he introduced us to Olympia, the girl of our days ... ".
In 1867, Manet opened his own exhibition in the pavilion at Alma Square - a kind of report on a ten-year period of creativity. Here, in particular, the painting "Flutist" (1866) was presented.
The city became a constant motif in Manet's works. The Parisian crowd, the streets, the workshops of artists, cafes and theaters - everywhere and in everything he saw a life worthy of being embodied on the canvas. In the "Portrait of Emile Zola" (1868), the writer, occupied with the problems of modern art, appears before the viewer surrounded by numerous objects - Japanese engravings, reproductions of paintings, papers and books. The composition "Breakfast in the Workshop" (1868) features three characters: a woman with a silver coffee pot, a man sitting at a table, and a young man in the foreground. He looks into the distance, immersed in some beautiful dreams. A ficus in an oriental vase, an exotic helmet and a curved saber, lying on an armchair in the twilight of the room, seem to be the embodiment of his thoughts. The canvas "Balcony" (1868) depicts the relatives and friends of the master; the seated woman in white is his student, the painter Berthe Morisot.
At the end of the 60s. Manet's work attracted young impressionist artists - Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir and others. His workshop temporarily became the center artistic life. The influence of the Impressionists forced Manet to paint en plein air and make the palette lighter. But he did not join their movement and continued his own creative search. In the year of the opening of the first exhibition of the Impressionists (1874), the artist worked with Claude Monet at Argenteuil on the banks of the Seine. Here were written his brightest, solar paintings- "Argenteuil", "In a Boat" (both created in 1874). Manet painted in large strokes, striving for a clear structure of the composition, clarity of the image.
In 1872, the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel (1831 - 1922), who had previously supported Camille Corot, Theodore Rousseau and Jean-Francois Millet, bought twenty-four works from Manet and arranged his exhibition in London the following year. At the end of the 70s. The salon stopped rejecting Manet's paintings. In 1881, the artist was even awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor.
A year before his death, Manet exhibited one of his most accomplished works, The Bar at the Folies Bergère (1882). Behind the bar, above a still life of bottles and fruit, rises a little sad, charming girl, listening to the client, which is reflected in the mirror. Amazing effect double image gives the picture a mystical character - it seems to attract the viewer's eye.
In the work of Manet, the achievements of both old masters and contemporaries are combined and one of the directions for the development of new art is indicated. In the works of the artist, the second half of the 19th century appeared in all its variety of manifestations.
48. The history of the emergence of the Impressionist group and their aesthetic platform The picturesque system of the Impressionists Creativity To Monet
| French artists turned to the image of instant situations snatched from the stream of reality, the spiritual life of a person, the image strong passions, the spiritualization of nature, interest in the national past, the desire for synthetic forms of art are combined with the motives of world sorrow, the desire to explore and recreate the "shadow", "night" side of the human soul, with the famous "romantic irony", which allowed the romantics to boldly compare and equalize the high and base, tragic and comic, real and fantastic. used fragmentary, reality situations, used fragmentary, at first glance, unbalanced compositional constructions, unexpected angles, points of view, cuts of figures. In the 1870s–1880s, the landscape was formed french impressionism: C. Monet, C. Pissarro, A. Sisley developed a consistent plein air system, created in their paintings a feeling of sparkling sunlight, richness of colors of nature, dissolution of forms in the vibration of light and air. The name of the direction comes from the name of the painting by C. Monet "Impression. The Rising Sun" ("Impression. Soleil levant"; exhibited in 1874, now at the Musée Marmottan, Paris). The decomposition of complex colors into pure components, which were superimposed on the canvas in separate strokes, colored shadows, reflections and valery gave rise to an unparalleled light, quivering painting of Impressionism. Certain aspects and techniques of impressionism were used by painters in Germany (M. Lieberman, L. Corinth), the USA (J. Whistler), Sweden (A.L. Zorn), Russia (K.A. Korovin, I.E. Grabar) and many other national art schools. The concept of impressionism is also applied to the sculpture of the 1880s-1910s, which has some impressionistic features - the desire to convey instantaneous movement, fluidity and softness of form, plastic sketchiness (works by O. Rodin, bronze statuettes by Degas, etc.). Impressionism in the visual arts influenced the development of expressive means of contemporary literature, music, and theater. In interaction and in polemic with the pictorial system of impressionism in artistic culture In France, the currents of neo-impressionism and post-impressionism arose. neo-impressionism(French neo-impressionnisme) - a trend in painting that arose in France around 1885, when its main masters, J. Seurat and P. Signac, developed a new painting technique of divisionism. The French neo-impressionists and their followers (T. van Reiselberg in Belgium, G. Segantini in Italy, etc.), developing the tendencies of late impressionism, sought to apply modern discoveries in the field of optics to art, giving a methodical character to the methods of decomposing tones into pure colors; at the same time, they overcame the randomness, fragmentation of the impressionistic composition, resorted to flat-decorative solutions in their landscapes and multi-figured panel paintings. post-impressionism(from Latin post - after and impressionism) - the collective name of the main trends in French painting of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the mid-1880s, post-impressionist masters, many of whom were close to impressionism, have been looking for new expressive means that can overcome the empiricism of artistic thinking and allow them to move from an impressionistic fixation of individual moments of life to the embodiment of its long-term states, material and spiritual constants. The period of post-impressionism is characterized by the active interaction of individual trends and individual creative systems. Post-impressionism usually ranks as the work of neo-impressionist masters, the Nabis group, as well as V. van Gogh, P. Cezanne, P. Gauguin. |
Background and biographical data of the "Small Bay Planet Art Galleries" are prepared on the basis of materials "History foreign art"(edited by M.T. Kuzmina, N.L. Maltseva)," Art Encyclopedia foreign classical art", "Great Russian Encyclopedia".
Edouard Manet (1832-1883), French painter. He studied at the Paris School of Fine Arts under T. Couture (1850-1856). Edouard Manet worked mainly in Paris, visited Brazil (1848-1850), Germany, Spain (1865), Great Britain (late 1860s), Holland (1872). A significant influence on the formation of Manet as an artist was exerted by the work of Giorgione, Titian, Hals, Velasquez, Goya, Delacroix. In the works of the late 1850s and early 1860s, which formed a gallery of sharply conveyed human types and characters, Manet combined the life-like authenticity of the image with the romanticization of the external appearance of the model (“Lola from Valencia”, 1862, Musee d'Orsay, Paris). Using and rethinking the plots and motifs of the paintings of the old masters, Manet sought to fill them with relevant content, in a polemical, sometimes shocking way, to introduce the image of modern man into famous classical compositions (“Breakfast on the Grass”, “Olympia” - both 1863, Musee d "Orsay).
In the 1860s, Edouard Manet turned to the themes of modern history (“The Execution of Emperor Maximilian”, 1867, Kunsthalle, Mannheim), but Manet’s penetrating attention to modernity was manifested primarily in scenes that seemed to be snatched from the everyday flow of life, full of lyrical spirituality and internal significance (“Breakfast in the Studio”, New Gallery, Munich; “Balcony”, Musee d "Orsay, Paris - both 1868), as well as in portraits close to them in terms of artistic installation (portrait of Emile Zola, 1868, Musee d" Orsay , With his work, Edouard Manet anticipated the emergence, and then became one of the founders of impressionism.In the late 1860s, Manet became close to Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, moved from deaf and dense tones, intense color with a predominance of dark colors to light and free plein air painting (“In a Boat”, 1874, Metropolitan Museum of Art; “In Papa Lathuille’s Tavern”, 1879). Many of Manet’s works are characterized by impressionistic pictorial freedom and fragmentation of composition, light-saturated colorful vibrating scale (“Argenteuil”, Museum of Fine Arts, Tour). At the same time, Manet retains the clarity of the drawing, gray and black tones in color, gives preference not to the landscape, but everyday plot with a pronounced socio-psychological background (the clash of dreams and reality, the illusory nature of happiness in a sparkling and festive world - in one of Manet's last paintings “The Bar at the Folies Bergère”, 1881-1882, Cortold Institute, London). In the 1870s-1880s, Manet worked a lot in the field of portraiture, expanding the possibilities of this genre and turning it into a kind of study of the inner world of a contemporary (portrait by S. Mallarmé, 1876, Musee d'Orsay, Paris), painted landscapes and still lifes (“ Lilac Bouquet", 1883, Art Gallery, Berlin-Dahlem), acted as a draftsman, master of etching and lithography. Manet's work updated the traditions of French painting of the 19th century and largely determined the further development of world fine art
49. Creativity O. Renoir. E. Degas and his special place in the Impressionist group.
Renoir Pierre Auguste (1841-1919), French painter, graphic artist and sculptor. In his youth he worked as a porcelain painter, painting curtains and fans. In 1862-1864, Renoir studied in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, where he became close to his future colleagues in impressionism, Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. Renoir worked in Paris, visited Algeria, Italy, Spain, Holland, Great Britain, Germany. In the early works of Renoir, the influence of Gustave Courbet and the works of the young Édouard Manet (Mother Anthony's Tavern, 1866, National Museum, Stockholm) is felt.
At the turn of the 1860s and 1870s, Renoir switched to painting in the open air, organically including human figures in a changeable light and air environment (“Bathing in the Seine”, 1869, Pushkin Museum, Moscow). Renoir's palette brightens, a light dynamic stroke becomes transparent and vibrating, the color is saturated with silver-pearl reflections (“The Lodge”, 1874, Cortold Institute, London). Depicting episodes snatched from the stream of life, random life situations, Renoir preferred the festive scenes of urban life - balls, dances, walks, as if trying to embody in them the sensual fullness and joy of being (Moulin de la Galette, 1876, Musee d'Orsay, Paris ). A special place in the work of Renoir is occupied by poetic and charming female images: internally different, but outwardly slightly similar to each other, they seem to be marked by a common seal of the era (“After Dinner”, 1879, Shtedel Institute of Art, “Umbrellas”, 1876, National Gallery, London; portrait of the actress Jeanne Samary, 1878, Hermitage, St. Petersburg).
In the depiction of the nude, Renoir achieves a rare sophistication of carnations, built on a combination of warm flesh tones with gliding light greenish and gray-blue reflexes, giving a smooth and dull surface to the canvas (“Nude Woman Seated on a Couch”, 1876). A wonderful colorist, Renoir often achieves the impression of monochrome painting with the help of the finest combinations of tones close in color (“Girls in Black”, 1883, Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow). From the 1880s, Renoir gravitated more and more towards classical clarity and generalization of forms; features of decorativeness and serene idyllicity are growing in his painting (“Great Bathers”, 1884-1887, Tyson collection, Philadelphia). Numerous drawings and etchings (“Bathers”, 1895) by Renoir are distinguished by laconicism, lightness and airiness of the stroke.
Degas Edgar (Degas Edgar) (1834-1917), French painter, graphic artist and sculptor. He studied at the Paris School of Fine Arts (1855-1856), in 1854-1859 he went to Italy to study the art of the Early Renaissance, he also visited the USA (1872-1873) and Spain. In his youth, he was influenced by Ingres, who intensified Degas' predilection for revealing the linear basis of pictorial form.
Starting with strict composition of historical paintings and portraits (The Bellelli Family, circa 1858, Musee d'Orsay, Paris), Edgar Degas in the 1870s became close to representatives of impressionism, turned to the image of modern urban life - streets, cafes, circus, theater performances (“Place de la Concorde”, circa 1875; “Absinthe”, 1876, Musée d'Orsay, Paris). In many works, Degas shows the characteristic behavior and appearance of people, generated by the peculiarities of their way of life, reveals the mechanism of a professional gesture, posture, movement of a person, his plastic beauty (“Ironers”, 1884, Musee d "Orsay).
In the affirmation of the aesthetic significance of people's lives, their everyday activities, the peculiar humanism of Degas's work is reflected. The art of Degas is characterized by a combination of the beautiful, sometimes fantastic, and the prosaic: conveying the festive spirit of the theater in many ballet scenes (“Star”, pastel, 1878, Musée d'Orsay, Paris). The artist, as a sober and subtle observer, at the same time captures the tedious everyday work hiding behind the elegant spectacle (“Dance Exam”, pastel, 1880, private collection, New York).
Degas's works, with their strictly adjusted and at the same time dynamic, often asymmetric composition, accurate flexible drawing, unexpected angles, active interaction of figure and space, combine the seeming impartiality and randomness of the motive and architectonics of the picture with careful thoughtfulness and calculation.
Late works by Degas are distinguished by the intensity and richness of color, which are complemented by the effects of artificial lighting, enlarged, almost planar forms, and the constraint of space, which gives them a tense and dramatic character (“Blue Dancers”, pastel, State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow). Since the late 1880s, Degas has been sculpting a lot, achieving expressiveness in the transfer of instantaneous movement (“Dancer”, bronze, Wallraf-Richartz-Ludwig Museum, Cologne).
50. Post-impressionism as a transitional period between the art of the 19th and early 20th centuries
Post-impressionism (French postimpressionisme, from Latin post - “after” and “impressionism”) is an artistic direction, a conventional collective designation of a heterogeneous set of main trends in European (mainly French) painting; a term adopted in art history to designate the main line of development of French art since the second half. 1880s to early 20th century
Artists of this trend refused to depict only visible reality (like realists), or a momentary impression (like impressionists), but sought to depict its main, regular elements, long-term states of the surrounding world, essential states of life, while sometimes resorting to decorative stylization.
Prominent representatives of post-impressionism in painting include Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin and Paul Cezanne. Post-impressionism is characterized by different creative systems and techniques, united in essence only by the fact that they were repelled from impressionism. They greatly influenced the subsequent development of fine arts, becoming the basis of trends in modern painting. With their problematics, great masters laid the foundation for many trends in the fine arts of the 20th century: the works of Van Gogh anticipated the emergence of expressionism, Gauguin paved the way for symbolism and modernity. At the same time, many small directions (for example, pointillism) existed only in this chronological period.
51. The main problems of Cezanne's work
Paul Cezanne was very talented artist and a prominent representative of his time.
He radically differed from other masters in his vision of art. For example, if his contemporaries tried to reveal in their painting the inner feelings and the spiritual world of a person, then Paul Cezanne wanted first of all to decompose the whole material world and its environment. Initially, the artist collaborated with the Impressionists for some time. He got acquainted with their technique of working in the open air, on clean air. With them, he began to participate in various exhibitions, showing his paintings to the audience. Nevertheless, Cezanne did not like their work. He did not like the transfer of changeable glare of light, characteristic of impressionism. Cezanne sought to see the geometry of the essence of things. And so the special style of the artist began to take shape - a clear and dense brushstroke. In 1886, the artist's father dies, leaving him a fortune. Cezanne arrives at his home, at the estate. Nature itself becomes his muse. For example, only one and the same mountain Saint-Victoire Cezanne writes more than sixty times. The artist tried to carefully, to the details to work out each theme of the picture with the help of theoretical methods and calculations
52. Creativity of Gauguin, Van - Gogh
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), French painter. In his youth he served as a sailor, in 1871-1883 - as a stockbroker in Paris. In the 1870s, Paul Gauguin began painting, took part in exhibitions of the Impressionists, and used the advice of Camille Pissarro. From 1883 he devoted himself entirely to art, which led Gauguin to poverty, a break with his family, and wanderings. In 1886, Gauguin lived in Pont-Aven (Brittany), in 1887 - in Panama and on the island of Martinique, in 1888, together with Vincent van Gogh, he worked in Arles, in 1889-1891 - in Le Pouldu (Brittany).
The rejection of contemporary society aroused Gauguin's interest in the traditional way of life, in the art of archaic Greece, the countries of the Ancient East, primitive cultures. In 1891, Paul Gauguin left for the island of Tahiti (Oceania) and, after a short (1893-1895) return to France, he settled on the islands forever (first in Tahiti, since 1901 - on the island of Hiva-Oa).
Even in France, the search for generalized images, the mysterious meaning of phenomena (“Vision after the Sermon”, 1888, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh; “Yellow Christ”, 1889, Albright Gallery, Buffalo) brought Gauguin closer to symbolism and brought him and a group of people working under his influence young artists to create a kind of pictorial system - “synthetism”, in which the light-and-shadow modeling of volumes, light-air and linear perspectives are replaced by a rhythmic juxtaposition of individual planes of pure color, which completely filled the shapes of objects and plays a leading role in creating the emotional and psychological structure of the picture (“Cafe in Arles ”, 1888, Pushkin Museum, Moscow).
This system was further developed in the paintings painted by Gauguin on the islands of Oceania. Depicting the juicy full-blooded beauty of tropical nature, natural, unspoiled by civilization people, the artist sought to realize the utopian dream of an earthly paradise, of human life in harmony with nature (“Are you jealous?”, 1892; “The King’s Wife”, 1896; “Collecting fruits ”, 1899, - all paintings in the Pushkin Museum, Moscow; “Woman holding a fruit”, 1893, Hermitage, St. Petersburg). Gauguin's canvases, in terms of decorative color, flatness and monumentality of composition, generalization of stylized drawing, carried many features of the Art Nouveau style that was developing during this period, influenced the creative searches of the masters of the Nabis group and other painters of the early 20th century. Gauguin also worked in the field of sculpture and graphics.
Van Gogh Vincent (1853-1890), Dutch painter. In 1869-1876 he served as a commission agent for an art trading company in The Hague, Brussels, London, Paris, and in 1876 he worked as a teacher in England. Van Gogh studied theology, in 1878-1879 he was a preacher in the mining district of Borinage in Belgium. Protecting the interests of the miners brought van Gogh into conflict with church authorities.
In the 1880s, van Gogh turned to art, attending the Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels (1880-1881) and Antwerp (1885-1886). Van Gogh used the advice of the painter A. Mauve in The Hague, enthusiastically painted ordinary people, peasants, artisans, and prisoners. In a series of paintings and studies from the mid-1880s (“Peasant Woman”, 1885, State Museum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo; “Potato Eaters”, 1885, Vincent van Gogh Foundation, Amsterdam), written in dark pictorial scale, marked by painfully sharp perception of human suffering and feelings of depression, the artist recreates the oppressive atmosphere of psychological tension.
In 1886-1888 Vincent van Gogh lived in Paris, visited a private art studio, studied Impressionist painting, Japanese engraving, "synthetic" works of Paul Gauguin. During this period, Van Gogh's palette became light, earthy colors disappeared, pure blue, golden yellow, red tones appeared, his characteristic dynamic, as if flowing brushstroke ("Bridge over the Seine", 1887, "Papa Tanguy", 1881). In 1888, van Gogh moved to Arles, where the originality of his creative manner was finally determined.
A fiery artistic temperament, a painful impulse towards harmony, beauty and happiness, and at the same time a fear of forces hostile to man, are embodied either in landscapes shining with sunny colors of the south (“Harvest. La Croux Valley”, 1888), or in sinister, reminiscent of night nightmare images (“Night Cafe”, 1888, private collection, New York). The dynamics of color and stroke in Van Gogh's paintings fills with spiritual life and movement not only nature and the people who inhabit it (“Red Vineyards in Arles”, 1888, Pushkin Museum, Moscow), but also inanimate objects (“Van Gogh's Bedroom in Arles”, 1888) .
Van Gogh's strenuous work in recent years was accompanied by bouts of mental illness, which led him to the insane asylum at Arles, then Saint-Remy (1889–1890) and Auvers-sur-Oise (1890), where he committed suicide. The work of the last two years of the artist’s life is marked by ecstatic obsession, extremely heightened expression of color combinations, abrupt mood swings – from frenzied despair and gloomy visionary (“Road with cypresses and stars”, 1890, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo) to a quivering sense of enlightenment and peace (“Landscape at Auvers after the rain”, 1890, Pushkin Museum, Moscow).
European sculpture of the 2nd half of the 19th century F. Rud. The work of O. Rodin, his influence on the development of modern sculpture
A new page in the history of European sculpture was opened by Auguste Rodin (1840-1917), a French sculptor and graphic artist, one of the most famous French sculptors, one of the founders of Impressionism in sculpture. Rodin's work tends to complex symbolic images, to reveal a wide range of human emotions - from clear harmony and soft lyricism to despair and gloomy concentration ("Prodigal Son"). Rodin's works acquire a sketchy, as it were, unfinished character, which allows the master to create the impression of the painful birth of forms from spontaneous, amorphous matter (“Eternal Spring”). At the same time, Rodin always retained the plastic definiteness of forms and gave special meaning their textural tangibility ("Thinker"). The most significant work of Rodin, on which he worked for thirty-seven years, but did not have time to finish, is the so-called "Gates of Hell". The reliefs of the gates, symbolically embodying the world of human passions, are inspired by Dante's "Divine Comedy", motifs of ancient mythology, biblical legends, the poetry of Villon, Baudelaire, Verlaine and others. A number of sculptures and sculptural groups intended to be included in overall composition gates, became independent works ("The Kiss"). The attitude of contemporaries to the work of Rodin was ambiguous. The works of the great master seemed so unusual that customers often refused them. Rodin's work gave impetus to the artistic searches of many masters of European sculpture of the 20th century, different in orientation, and first of all his students, among them E.A. Bourdelle, A. Maillol, Ch. Despiaux, A.S. Golubkin.
Rude François (Francois Rude) (January 4, 1784, Dijon - November 3, 1855, Paris), French sculptor. He was born into a family of a stove-maker and was originally engaged in the craft of his father. From 1798 he studied with the painter F. Devozh in Dijon, from 1807 - with the sculptors E. Gaulle and P. Cartelier in Paris.
In 1815, during the period of the Bourbon restoration, Rude emigrated to Belgium, where he became close friends with Jacques Louis David. Vivid emotionality, the rejection of canons, the expansion of the range of topics and, in particular, the appeal to the historical theme are characteristic of French romantic sculptors, including Francois Rude. The monumental relief of François Rude “The performance of the volunteers in 1792” (“La Marseillaise”, 1833-1836), which adorns the Arc de Triomphe on the Place des Stars in Paris, has something in common with Delacroix’s “Freedom”. It also boldly combines the images of allegory and reality.
This is a picture full of heroism and pathos of the militias, inspired by the great ideas of freedom, who are walking with a wide, swift step, overshadowed by the daring genius of victory. Here is a courageous warrior dressed in antique clothes and a very young naked teenager. Sharp contrasts of light and shadow emphasize the powerful modeling of forms, the solidity of the group, perceived as a crowd. Her images are deeply typical. A dynamic rhythm pervades this high relief. The variety and richness of textural techniques that convey a naked body and folds of clothes, the metal of chain mail and the quivering of flying hair, the softness of the wings of the genius of victory cutting through the air, calling the people behind him - all this is in harmony with the solemn smooth surface of the arch.
54.20 century as a new era in the development and exacerbation of the contradictions of capitalist society. The crisis of bourgeois culture, the growth of anarcho-individualist tendencies. Modern and symbolism.
Painting styles.
Symbolism.
Symbolism is a movement in literature and the visual arts that did not have a rigid organizational structure, which flourished around 1885-1910.
The movement declared a rejection of the direct, literal reflection of phenomena, an appeal to associations and conjectures. It was part of a more general anti-materialist, anti-rationalist way of thinking and approach to art that took shape in the late 19th century. In particular, symbolism arose as a response to impressionism with its naturalistic ideas.
Symbolism refers to the comprehension of the spiritual laws governing the universe, strives to recreate the world according to the principles of pan-aestheticism (all-conquering beauty). Creativity is understood as the involvement of the artist in the transcendent secrets, which are seen through the search for correspondences between the real world and the "invisible with the eyes". A symbol is an aesthetic category distinct from allegory and artistic image. According to the definition of the poet and theorist of symbolism Vyach. Ivanov, the symbol "says in its sacred and magical language of hint and suggestion something inadequate external word[...], inexhaustible and boundless in its meaning, ambiguous and always obscure in the last depth [...]. The symbol is the core and germ of myth. "The symbol marks the existence higher worlds. Refracted in the inner vision of the symbolists, the real world turns into a poetic metaphor or myth.
Symbolists tried to express spiritual experience, emotional experiences in visual images. As the poet Jean Morsa put it in the Symbolist Manifesto, published in the newspaper Le Figaro on September 18, 1886, symbolism was supposed to "clothe the idea in the form of feeling." Symbolist poets believed that there was a close connection between the sound, rhythm of words and their meaning. Similarly, artists assumed that color and line could express an idea in and of themselves.
Critics of that period were inclined to draw parallels between different types of art. Many symbolist artists looked for inspiration in the same images as the poets (such a common theme, for example, was the image " femme fatale", femme fatale).
A characteristic feature of the movement was a strong, mystical religious feeling, but equally the symbolists were also attracted to erotic subjects, themes of vice, death, disease and sin.
Stylistically, the symbolism movement was highly heterogeneous. Some paid attention to completely exotic details, others reached an almost primitive simplicity in depicting objects. The contours of the figures could be clear, could be lost in a soft misty haze. However, The general trend led to a flattening of forms and to painting large areas of the canvas in one tone, which on the whole corresponded to the line of “post-impressionism”.
By freeing painting from what Gauguin called "the fetters of certainty," symbolism created the prerequisites for the formation of much of artistic movements XX century.
While the symbolism is usually associated with France, it has been shared throughout the world. In Russia, symbolism was embodied in the poetry of A. A. Blok, K. D. Balmont, V. Ya. Bryusov, the painting of M. A. Vrubel, V. E. Borisov-Musatov, early K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (see Petrov -Vodkin K. S.), artists of the association "World of Art" and "Blue Rose". The originality of Russian symbolism is manifested in the desire to comprehend the secret of nature, the past, the human soul and their consonance in the world of ideal reality created by art.
Modern style in European and American art late XIX - early XX centuries (from the French moderne - the latest, modern).
It received different names in different countries: in Russia - "modern", in France, Belgium and England - "arnouveau", in Germany - "art nouveau", in Austria-Hungary - "secession", in Italy - "liberty", etc. d.
ideological basis the emergence of modernity were the philosophical and aesthetic views of F. Nietzsche, A. Bergenson and others. According to its theorists, modernity was supposed to become a lifestyle of a new society, to create a whole, aesthetically rich object-spatial environment around a person.
The range of ideas of Art Nouveau often borrowed from symbolism. However, Art Nouveau was distinguished by internal inconsistencies: it was focused on refined, refined taste, supported the principles of "art for art's sake" and at the same time strove to serve and "educate" the mass consumer.
Of exceptional importance in modernity were the special principles of shaping. They consisted in assimilation to natural, organic forms and structures. A significant place in the artistic practice of Art Nouveau was occupied by ornament, especially floral.
The color scheme of modern - mostly cold, faded tones.
Art Nouveau painting is characterized by an accentuated decorative beginning, spot work and the exclusive role of smooth lines and contours.
A distinctive feature of the modern era was the programmed universalism of artists who were engaged in a wide variety of artistic activities. This was especially clearly manifested in the work of the masters of the "World of Art" association and the Abramtsevo circle near Moscow, many of whom were at the same time painters, book graphic artists, decorators, fashion designers, etc.
P. Gauguin, M. Denis, P. Bonnard in France, G. Klimt in Austria, E. Munch in Norway, M. Vrubel, V. Vasnetsov, A. Benois, L. Bakst, A. Golovin, are associated with art nouveau, K. Somov in Russia.
55. Metis and the wild aesthetic positions of the wild, their rebellion against disciplines in art. Creativity Matisse
Matisse was a brilliant colorist. One of the "constants" of his work is the search for harmony and purity of color and form.
Start: realism
Matisse is different. At times, his artistic world resembles a mosaic composed of elements of different techniques and styles. The artist began with quite realistic works, in which he acted as a faithful follower of Chardin and Corot, but very quickly set off to discover new artistic "continents". Lawrence Gowing, Matisse's biographer, noted that "each of his paintings is written in a new manner."
Given the inconstancy of the artist, which has become one of the hallmarks of his work, it will not be possible to fit him into a “cell” of any one direction (the same can be said about the master’s genre preferences - he did literally everything). If we try to somehow designate such a “cell”, then it will be, no matter how common it sounds, a search for harmony. It is to this search that Matisse dedicated his life.
When you look at the modest home scenes written by the young Matisse, it is hard to believe in his future artistic "zigzags". Over time, his technique began to show traces of his studies with the Impressionists. The interiors of the paintings are clearly "dared".
Pointillism
Blind copying of reality bothered the artist. There was a need not to "display" the realities, but to express one's attitude to the world. In the early 1900s, his manner - under the influence of the ideas of Seurat and Signac - changed dramatically again. Matisse briefly became a "pointillist".
The passion turned out to be fruitless, crowned with a real masterpiece: we mean the painting "Luxury, Peace and Pleasure" (1904). The name of the work was given by a line from a poem devotedly loved by Matisse Baudelaire. But the artist did not stop at divisionism. A little later, he already criticized him: “The decomposition of color,” wrote Matisse, “leads to the destruction of form and line. The canvas covered with colored dots remains flat and can only irritate the retina of the eye. He was drawn to movement and musical rhythm. The narrow framework of pointillism fettered this impulse. And he refused pointillism without regret.
"Wild" creativity (Fauvism)
Matisse and his friends Albert Marquet, André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck and Georges Rouault were called fauvists, that is, "wild" at the Autumn Salon of 1905. They are usually considered as members of the same artistic group, although such a representation is an obvious stretch. They were different, converging only on their attitude to color. Fauvism asserted the predominance of color over form. Among the forerunners of Fauvism, one must first of all note Gauguin; in the future, his ideas were developed by the expressionists.
“The starting point of Fauvism,” wrote Matisse, “is a decisive return to beautiful blues, beautiful reds, beautiful yellows – the primary elements that excite our senses. Matisse refused to mix the colors of chiaroscuro and small parts- nothing should have reduced the sonority of the paint. Another expressive means in his paintings was a finely worked out line. The artist emphasized every movement, every contour with a line; it sometimes looked like a kind of frame in which the form is enclosed.
The term itself was “invented” by the critic L. Vauxcelles, who, comparing the bronze figure of Albert Marquet exhibited at the Autumn Salon with the work of the 15th-century sculptor Donatello located next door, exclaimed: “Poor Donatello! He was surrounded by savages!” The painting "Young Sailor", 1906 was created by Matisse during the years of his passion for Fauvism. Later artist wrote: “Fauvism was a short-lived trend. We came up with it in order to show the meaning of each color without giving preference to any of them.
Fauvism (together with cubism) can be considered the beginning of abstractionism. Abstractionism (from Latin abstractus-abstract), non-objective art, configurative art, concrete art - a direction in the art of the twentieth century, which puts formal elements at the forefront - a line, a color spot and an abstract configuration. Among its largest Russian representatives, one can name V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. Malevich.
56. Formalist trends in art on the eve of the First World War
CUBISM
Cubism (French cubisme, from cube - cube) - an artistic direction in french art early twentieth century, the founders and major representatives of which were Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. The term "cubism" arose from a critical remark about the work of J. Braque that he reduces "cities, houses and figures to geometric schemes and cubes." artistic concept cubism was based on an attempt to find the simplest spatial models and forms of things and phenomena that would express all the complexity and diversity of life.
The development of sculpture during the reign of Alexander 1
Empire style in Russian architecture in the 1st half of the 19th century (A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, Thomas de Thomon, K. Rossi)
Creativity O.A. Kiprensky, V. A. Tropinin
Creativity of A. G. Venetsianov, I. K. Aivazovsky
Romanticism in painting of the 19th century (manifestation of romanticism)
Academic and romantic traits in the work of K. Bryullov. The development of academicism in Russia during the reign of Nicholas 1.
The role of critical realism in cultural life Russia. Creativity V. Petrov
Russian art during the reign of Alexander 2. Architecture of the 2nd half of the 19th century. (V. A. Shreter, V. A. Gartman, A. N. Pomerantsev)
Characteristics of the station and commercial architecture of the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Characteristics of exhibition and museum architecture of the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Characteristics of theatrical and administrative architecture 2nd floor. 19th century.
Characteristics of church architecture and architecture tenement house 19th century
Eclectic style in Russian art of the 19th century.
Byzantine style in the work of K. Ton. Neo-Russian style in architecture of the 19th century.
Historicism in Russian art
The development of sculpture in the second half of the 19th century. (G. R. Zaleman, S. I. Ivanov, M. V. Kharlamov, F. F. Kamensky)
The influence of the society of the Wanderers in the 2nd half of the 19th century
history painting Wanderers.
Genre and landscape painting of the Wanderers
Battle and household genre in the work of the Wanderers
Reformation of the Academy of Arts in the 19th century.
Creativity of V. M. Vasnetsov, creativity of V. V. Vereshchagin
Creativity of N. N. Ge, Creativity of I. N. Kramskoy
Creativity of V. I. Surikov, Creativity of I. E. Repin
Creativity of I. I. Shishkin, Creativity of I. I. Levitan
creative direction"World of Art": representatives, features, features
Creative groupings of the early 20th century: "jack of diamonds", "donkey's tail"
Symbolism in Russian Art: "Blue Rose"
MUZHVZ: Creation and reformation of the 19th-20th century
Synthesis of arts in Russian culture of the 19th century.
Question 16: The development of sculpture in the second half of the 19th century. (G. R. Zaleman, S. I. Ivanov, M. V. Kharlamov, F. F. Kamensky)
The development of Russian sculpture in the second half of the 19th century proceeded in more complex and less favorable conditions than the development of painting. The need for monumental and decorative sculpture has drastically decreased, since instead of magnificent palaces, now mainly profitable residential buildings were built. It is possible to name only a small number worthy of mention of the monuments erected at this time. First of all, they should include the monument to A.S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880) Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin (1844 - 1923). This monument organically entered the architectural ensemble of Moscow, becoming an integral part of its appearance.
The most talented sculptor of the second half of the XIX century. was Mark Matveyevich Antokolsky (1843 - 1902). The sculptor was especially concerned about social and ethical problems. His specific historical images: Peter I (1872), Ivan the Terrible (1875), Spinoza (1882), Ermak (1891) - and mythological: Christ (1876), Mephistopheles (1883) - personify the ideas of the struggle of two principles in man - good and evil.
Serious difficulties experienced in the second half of the XIX century. Russian architecture. The development of capitalist relations, the growth of cities required multi-apartment apartment buildings, large shops, railway stations, and factories. The large scale of construction stimulated the use of new materials (glass, iron), but the architecture of this period did not develop either a new style or new traditions. Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century. architects tried to dress up new building techniques and new practical requirements in "old costumes", taking them either from classicism, or from baroque or renaissance. Attempts were also made to use some of the techniques of ancient Russian architecture. For example, in the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (1875 - 1881), forms of Russian architecture of the 19th century were used. (architect V.O. Sherwood).
Hugo Robertovich Zaleman(1859-1919) - a talented Russian sculptor, professor at the Academy of Arts, author of many sculptural works.
Born in St. Petersburg with a family famous sculptor Robert Karlovich Zaleman. In 1870 he entered the famous German school of St. Peter, where he graduated full course gymnasium in 1877. In the same year he entered the Academy of Arts as a student, where in 1883 he was awarded a small gold medal for the statue Orestes Pursued by Furies, and in 1884 a large gold medal for the bas-relief Battle of the Titans with the Olympians. The following year, he went abroad for four years as a pensioner of the Academy, visited Dresden and Munich, but worked mainly in Florence and Rome and executed there the bas-relief "Charon transports the bodies of the dead through the Styx." Upon returning to St. Petersburg, he attracted everyone's attention great group"Cimbri", shown at the academic exhibition of 1890.
Among his students are the sculptor Matvey Genrikhovich Manizer, painter, graphic artist, theater designer, sculptor Alexander Nikolaevich Samokhvalov, sculptor Viktor Alexandrovich Sinaisky, Igor Vsevolodovich Krestovsky, Lithuanian sculptor Juozas Zikaras, as well as the well-known in Latvia founder of the national monumental sculpture Karlis Zale, author of the sculptural frame Statue of Liberty in Riga.
Sergei Ivanovich Ivanov(1828 - 1903) - Russian sculptor.
He received his artistic education at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under the leadership of N. A. Ramazanova. In 1854, for the statue "Boy in the Bath" (a marble copy - in the Tretyakov Gallery, in Moscow), he was elevated to the rank of academician. After Ramazanov's death (in 1863) he took his place as a teacher of sculpture at the same Moscow School.
With his works at public exhibitions appeared only occasionally. Among his works stand out the statues "Neapolitan fisherwoman with a shell", and "Apostle Andrew" (performed for the Moscow Historical Museum), the groups "Mother's Love", "Boy on a Horse", "Kiss of Judas", "Tiger, dug into the neck of a deer" and “Lioness with cubs”, a sketch of the statue “Moses exuding water from a stone”, a project for a monument to A.S. Pushkin, busts of the actors Shumsky, Zhivokini and Sadovsky and the fabulist Krylov.
When writing this article, material from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907) was used.
Fyodor Fyodorovich Kamensky(2 (21) August 1836, Lesnoye, near St. Petersburg, Russia - August 26, 1913, Clearwater, Florida, USA) - Russian sculptor. From 1873 he worked in the USA.
Kamensky was born into the family of a major general, administrator of the St. Petersburg Forestry Institute. In 1852-1860 he studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts under Nikolai Pimenov, Pyotr Klodt and Fidelio Bruni. At the academy, he received a gold medal for bas-relief "The Senate asks Cincinnatus to stay in Rome" and "Regulus returns to Carthage." He made busts of Taras Shevchenko and Fidelio (Fyodor) Bruni. Vladimir Stasov praised Kamensky's work because, according to Stasov, he did not idealize. In 1863 the academy sent Kamensky to study in Italy, where he stayed until 1869.
In Italy, he created sentimental sculptures such as the First Steps, the Young Sculptor, the Widow and Son, the monument to M. Glinka. For sculpture Widow he became an Academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and returned to St. Petersburg.
But already in 1870 Kamensky again left for Florence, and in 1873 he emigrated to the USA. There, in Florida, he became a farmer, but continued to make art. Among the famous fruits of his activity: the scenery for the federal building in Kansas, the project "Roman fountains" in New York, the Cupid sculpture for the city of Tampa in Florida.
In 1893, while preparing for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, he became "Commissioner of Fine Arts for the Russian exposition". He created "huge concrete sculptures for the pavilion" and personally selected 130 paintings and statues from Russia to be shown during the exhibition. In recent years, he worked on complex sculpture World(not finished). Fyodor Kamensky died at Clearwater, Florida on August 26, 1913.
Matvey Yakovlevich Kharlamov, sculptor-monumentalist
Matvey Yakovlevich Kharlamov (11/27/1870-11/18/1930), is a monumental sculptor who actively worked in the construction of St. Petersburg at the beginning of the century, and after the 1917 revolution, mainly devoted himself to creating monuments to Lenin for different cities of the country. During the Great Patriotic War, the sculptor's workshop was destroyed, many of his works have come down to us only in photographs. However, you can still admire the majestic and strict forms allegorical statues decorating the Russian Ethnographic Museum and giving an idea of the scale of the master's talent. M.Ya.Kharlamov managed to convey interest and love for sculpture to his daughter Maria Matveevna Kharlamova, born in 1917, a member of the Union of Artists of Russia. “Even on the way, in Manchuria, it was decided to erect a monument to fallen comrades in Peterhof. Announced a fee voluntary donations among officers, soldiers, residents of Peterhof. We have been collecting money for several years. The officer was due two rubles a month. The soldiers gave "according to their conscience." This meant that from the fifty kopecks they were entitled to per month, they snatched out a penny. Money was collected for several years, until October 1, 1910, the laying of the monument took place. The sculptural part of the monument was made by the famous muralist Matvey Yakovlevich Kharlamov, who lived in Ligovo. Peterhof architect Alexander Konstantinovich Minyaev took part in the design. From several draft proposals, a variant with three figures was chosen. When sculpting the figures, participants in the war posed for the sculptor: the denominator of the regiment, sergeant major Blokhin, captain of the first company Ivan Smirnov. The name of the soldier, unfortunately, remained unknown. It was a private of the 1st company, who distinguished himself in battles. The work progressed well. The Peterhof Palace Administration allowed to take for the monument a huge boulder stone weighing 5 thousand pounds, lying in the Alexandrinsky Park behind the arena of the Ulansky regiment. At the Obukhov plant, a special device was made for the transportation and installation of this stone. The memories of Valentina Vasilievna Morozova, the daughter of an officer of the Caspian regiment, about the transportation of this stone to the installation site have been preserved: “It was extremely difficult to transport a heavy block to the right place. First, horses were harnessed to the drag, but it was impossible to ensure that the horses took at the same time and dragged the stone evenly. We decided to drag ourselves under the “Dubinushka”. The soldiers and officers harnessed themselves to the ropes and began to carefully roll the boulder over the logs. It was especially hard at the railway crossing, where they had to work at night, by the light of camping lanterns, so as not to delay the movement of trains during the day. Many people gathered then to look at this extraordinary spectacle. Eyewitnesses later recalled that never in their lives had they heard such a “Dubinushka” as this time.
