XIX century in the history of Russia was a direct continuation of the previous one. Russia continued to expand its territories. After the annexation of the North Caucasus. Central Asia and other lands, it became not just a huge, but a truly immense country - empire. The transformations begun by Peter I also continued. Russia slowly and, as it were, reluctantly emerged from its medieval past and was increasingly drawn into the New Age. However, its development was uneven.
The most profound and impressive changes took place in spiritual culture. In this area, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. If in the XVIII century. Russia loudly declared to the whole world about its existence, then in the XIX century. she literally burst into world culture, taking one of the highest and honorable places there.
The main merit in this belongs to two great Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky And L.N. Tolstoy. Acquaintance with their work was a real discovery, revelation and shock for the West. Their enormous success contributed to the rise of the authority of the entire Russian spiritual culture, the strengthening of its influence and the rapid spread throughout the world.
As for material culture, economic and socio-political areas, here Russia's achievements were much more modest. Of course, there have been some successes in these areas as well. In particular, already in the first half of the XIX century. in Russia, domestic engineering is born. Steam engines are widely used. The first steamboat appears (1815). Between Moscow and St. Petersburg, the first railway begins to operate (1851).
The basis of the emerging industry is the rapidly developing metallurgy, where the Demidov plants in the Urals play a key role. The textile industry is developing successfully. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities, an increase in their population. Cities are increasingly beginning to dominate the countryside.
Nevertheless, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is proceeding slowly. The main brake is the remaining serfdom and autocracy. In this respect, Russia still remained a medieval feudal society.
The reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, changed the situation. However, this reform was inconsistent and half-hearted, it retained many factors hindering development, so its impact was limited. In addition, the political system of the autocracy remained practically unaffected. At the same time, the same factors had a stimulating effect on the spiritual life. They encouraged the Russian intelligentsia again and again to raise and seek answers to the eternal questions that have become for them: “Who is to blame?”, “What is to be done?”.
In general, the main and most important events and phenomena that determined the development of Russian culture XIX century, there were the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrist uprising of 1825, serfdom and the reform of 1861 to abolish it.
Patriotic War of 1812 caused the growth of national self-consciousness and an unprecedented rise in patriotism. It awakened in Russians a sense of pride in their fatherland, in their people, who managed to defeat such a strong enemy, who defended not only their national freedom, but also the freedom of European peoples. All this contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance extreme forms admiration for everything western that took place in higher strata Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on Russian art. Many artists devoted their works to the theme of war. As an example, we can point to L. Tolstoy's novel War and Peace.
The Patriotic War was also one of the main reasons for the emergence Decembrist movements - movements of the Russian revolutionary nobility. The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that the Russian people who had won it had not gained anything for themselves. It was as if his victory had been stolen from him. Having defended the freedom of others, he himself remained in "slavery and ignorance" as before.
Based on the emancipatory ideas of Western philosophers and thinkers and influenced by the French and American revolutions, the Decembrists set radical tasks for their movement: the overthrow or restriction of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a republican or constitutional system, the destruction of estates, the assertion of individual and property rights, etc. . The implementation of these tasks they considered as the fulfillment of "duty to the people." For the sake of this, they went to an armed uprising and were defeated.
The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge in social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and deep. A.S. expressed his closeness to the ideas and spirit of Decembrism in his work. Pushkin, as well as other artists.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought was the theme of choosing the path of development, theme of the future of Russia. This theme came in the 19th century. from the previous century. It tormented the Decembrists and was inherited by two important currents of Russian thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. Both currents rejected the existing regime of autocracy and serfdom, however, they deeply diverged in their understanding of the ways of reorganizing Russia. They looked differently at the transformations of Peter I.
Westerners - among whom were P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky - stood on the positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly appreciated the reforms of Peter the Great, advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it universal and inevitable for all peoples. Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, defining the role of laws and law in the organization of public life.
Slavophiles, who were represented by I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky. A.S. Khomyakov, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed the Petrine reforms, which, in their opinion, violated the natural evolution of Russia. The Slavophils rejected the Western European path of development, insisted on the original development of Russia, and emphasized its religious-historical and cultural-national originality.
They did not reject the need for a modern industry and Agriculture, trade and banking, but believed that in this case one should rely on their own forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which are the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.
Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov and others) laid the foundation for the development of an original and original Russian philosophy, which is based not on Western rationalism, but on Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. Slavophiles develop the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities participate in cognition - feelings, reason and faith, as well as will and love.
Truth, moreover, does not belong to an individual, but to a group of people united by a single love, from which a conciliar consciousness is born. catholicity opposed to individualism and disunity. Considering freedom, the Slavophils emphasized its conditionality by internal motives and motives, and rejected its dependence on external circumstances. A person in his actions and deeds should be guided by his conscience, spiritual, and not material interests.
Slavophiles were skeptical legal forms regulation of people's behavior. Therefore, they were not worried about the modest role of the legal principle in the life of Russian society. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith and the true Church. The Slavophils believed that only the Christian worldview and the Orthodox Church could lead mankind to the path of salvation. They were convinced that it was Russian Orthodoxy that most fully embodies the truly Christian principles, while Catholicism and Protestantism departed from the true faith. For this reason, they put forward the idea of the messianic role of Russia in the salvation of mankind. The ideas of Slavophilism had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian philosophy, they were continued in soil ideology, one of the main representatives of which was F. Dostoevsky.
Russian science and education of the 19th century.
The basis of the cultural rise of Russia in the XIX century. have been significant successes in development of education. By the beginning of the century, education in the country lagged noticeably behind the level of Western countries. The vast majority of the illiterate were not only the lower classes - peasants and philistines, but also the upper classes - merchants and even many nobles. The need for educated and knowledgeable people was keenly felt at all levels of government and society.
Therefore, already at the beginning of the century, the government of Alexander I decided to create a unified education system, which includes four levels: parochial one-class schools - for the lower strata, county two-class schools - for townspeople, merchants, and philistines; provincial four-class gymnasiums - for the nobility; universities and other higher education institutions.
After the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, the development of the education system accelerated. In the post-reform period, literacy in Russia increased from 7 to 22% of the population. By the end of the century, there were 63 institutions of higher education, including 10 universities. The total number of students was 30 thousand. women's education develops, and in the 1870s. originates higher education for women. In 1869, the Lubyanka Higher Women's Courses were opened in Moscow, and in 1870, the Alarchinsky Courses in St. Petersburg. Bestuzhev women's courses in St. Petersburg became most famous. However, the formation of women's education was not without difficulties. Therefore, in the 1870s. at the University of Zurich, girls from Russia accounted for 80% of all foreign students.
Advances in education and awareness have contributed to further progress Russian science, which is in full bloom. At the same time, one unusual, but characteristic tradition for Russia, is emerging: to successfully develop without having the necessary and sufficient conditions for this, and remain unclaimed by society. In the 19th century Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries and achievements alone looks very impressive.
In area mathematics they are associated primarily with the names of N.I. Lobachevsky, A.A. Markova and others. The first created non-Euclidean geometry, which made a revolution in the ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. The second developed the so-called Markov chains, which laid the foundation for a new direction in probability theory.
IN astronomy the works of V.Ya. Struve, who made the first determination of stellar parallax (mixing), established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. The achievements of astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world.
Russian scientists have made a huge contribution to the development physics especially in the study of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc, which found wide practical application. E.Kh. Lenz formulated a rule (later named after him) determining the direction of the inductive current; experimentally substantiated the Joule-Lenz law. B.S. Jacobi invented the electric motor, created electroforming, together with the submarine. Schilling Invented the electric telegraph and designed the first telegraph recorder, which operated on the St. Petersburg-Tsarskoye Selo line. Russian scientists have a great merit in creating the theory of electrolysis, in the development of electronic, atomic and quantum physics.
The progress of chemistry also owes much to Russian scientists. D.M. Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements, which became greatest achievement world science. N.N. Zinin discovered a method for obtaining aromatic amines, synthesized quinine and aniline for the first time. A .M Butlerov created a new theory of the chemical structure of matter, laying the foundations of modern organic chemistry, discovered the polymerization reaction.
IN geography in January 1820, the greatest discovery was made by Russian navigators: the expedition F.F. Bellingshausen - M.P. Lazareva discovered a sixth of the world - Antarctica.
Great achievements have been made in the development biology And medicine. Russian doctors were the first to use painkillers - anesthesia. N.I. Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions, created the atlas "Topographic Anatomy", which received world fame.N.F. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.
The social sciences also developed successfully, the leading among which was story. Russian scientists paid the main attention to the study of national history. N.M. Karamzin created the twelve-volume "History of the Russian State", which was an unprecedented success and was reprinted more than once. A major and respected historian was CM. Solovyov. He owns the "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes, containing rich factual material. A significant contribution to the study of the history of the fatherland was made by IN. Klyuchevsky. He wrote The Course of Russian History, as well as works on the history of serfdom, estates, and finances.
Significant achievements have been made linguistics. Here the activity deserves special mention. IN AND. Dalia, compiler of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, on which he worked for about 50 years and which has retained its significance to this day.
The 19th century was the time of formation as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought in the person of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Nietzsche, and others. At the same time, it develops a rich spectrum of original schools and trends, from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, B.C. Solovyov.
The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also going through a period of active formation.
Russian literature of the 19th century.
The most favorable and fruitful XIX century. turned out to be for the artistic culture, which experienced an unprecedented upsurge and flourishing and became a classic. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. The main role belonged to literature.
Founder and central figure sentimentalism was in Russia N.M. Karamzin. In the story "Poor Liza" he clearly showed the characteristic features of this trend in art: attention to the common man, disclosure of his inner world of feelings and experiences, glorification of the "natural simplicity" of the patriarchal way of life. To one degree or another, sentimentalism was present in the work of many Russian writers, but as an independent direction it was not widely used.
Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. It had several currents. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets: K.F. Ryleeva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Kuchelbecker. Civil and freedom-loving motifs also sound in the work of A.A. Delviga, I.I. Kozlova, N.M. Yazykov. The depths and state of the spiritual world with a touch of fantasy and melancholy are the content of the works of V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov. Philosophical lyrics, deep psychologism, Slavophile ideas and reverent love for Russia found expression in the works of F.I. Tyutchev and V.F. Odoevsky.
By the beginning of the 1830s. in Russian literature asserts realism and becomes the focus. In its formation, an important role was played by the work of A.S. Griboyedov And AND.A. Krylov. However, the greatest names of Russian realism, of all Russian literature and culture, are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.
A.S. Pushkin became the founder of Russian literature, the creator of the Russian literary language. It is in his work that the Russian language for the first time appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. His early works- "Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Gypsies", "Prisoner of the Caucasus", etc. - are in line with romanticism.
Then he moves to the position of realism. All types and genres of literature are represented in his work. In poetry, he acts as a singer of freedom. In the novel "Eugene Onegin" he draws large-scale pictures of Russian life. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" and the story "The Captain's Daughter" are dedicated to significant events in the history of Russia.
A.S. Pushkin was not only a great artist, but also an outstanding historian and thinker. In a dispute with P. Chaadaev, he gives a more subtle, deeper and more convincing understanding of the place and role of Russia in world history. Critically evaluating the Asiatic ignorance existing in Russia, wild arbitrariness and violence, the lack of rights of the people, he opposes violent methods of changing the existing situation. A.S. Pushkin had an enormous influence on the entire subsequent development of Russian literature, philosophy and all culture.
F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Russian literature and culture owe their world fame and recognition to Tolstoy. In his work F.M.Dostoevsky wrestled with what he defined as "the mystery of man." His main works, Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Brothers Karamazov, and others, are devoted to unraveling this mystery. passion and duty. At the same time, Dostoevsky goes beyond the bounds of literature and acts as a deep philosopher and thinker. With his work, he had a huge impact on such philosophical movements as existentialism And personalism, for the entire modern spiritual culture.
In the work of L.N. Tolstoy one of the central themes is the search for a moral ideal and the meaning of life. This theme runs through almost all of his works - the novels Anna Karenina, Resurrection, the story The Death of Ivan Ilyich, etc. In the grandiose epic War and Peace, Tolstoy examines the origins of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, which he sees in an extraordinary upsurge of patriotic spirit.
Tolstoy is the creator of the religious and philosophical doctrine, the basis of which is the development of the "true religion" of universal love, kindness and non-violence. He had a huge impact on world literature and culture.
Among the great Russian writers who have received worldwide recognition are also M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.WITH. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov.
Along with literature, an amazing flourishing is going through Russian music. Already in the first decades of the XIX century. a number of excellent composers appear, many of whom gravitate towards romanticism. Romance is the leading genre. He is represented by A.A. Alyabiev, P.P. Bulakhov. A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, A.L. Gurilev and others.
most popular romances A.A. Alyabyeva became "Nightingale", "Beggar". P.P. Bulakhov is the author of no less popular romances and songs - "Troika", "Here is a big village on the way." A.E. Varlamov He became famous primarily for the song “A blizzard sweeps along the street” and the romance “At dawn, you don’t wake her up.” In total, he wrote about 200 romances and songs. A.L Gurilev belong to "Separation", "Bell", "Mother Dove" and other romances and songs. A .N. Verstovsky is one of the main representatives of Russian romanticism in music. In addition to romances, he also created the famous opera Askold's Grave.
The greatest names in Russian musical art are M.I. Glinka And G1.I. Chaikovsky. Glinka became the pinnacle in the development of Russian music in the first half of the 19th century. He is the founder of Russian classical music. His main works are the operas A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan and Lyudmila. With his compositions "Kamarinskaya", "Spanish Overtures" and others, the composer laid the foundations of Russian symphony. All subsequent Russian musical art developed under the strong influence of Glinka.
Tchaikovsky became the pinnacle of the development of Russian music in the entire 19th century. It is to him that she first of all owes her world fame. He created genuine masterpieces in all musical genres. His most famous operas are Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades. The ballets "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty" received worldwide recognition. "Nutcracker". He created six symphonies, several piano and violin concertos. musical genius Tchaikovsky is comparable to the genius of Mozart.
A huge contribution to the development of Russian and world musical culture was made by " mighty bunch"- a group of outstanding Russian composers, which included M.A. Balakirev (head), A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.
The opening of conservatories in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866) contributed to the successful development of Russian music.
Russian painting and art of the XIX century.
Great achievements were also noted in the development of fine arts, especially painting. Romanticism in Russian painting of the XIX century. represent O.A. Kiprensky and S.F. Shchedrin. The former is known mainly as a portrait painter, who painted Self-Portrait with Tassels Behind the Ear, A.S. Pushkin”, “E.P. Rostopchin” and others. The second created poetic images of Italian nature, in particular the series “Harbors in Sorrento”.
In creativity K.P. Bryullov romanticism is combined with classicism. His brushes belong to such famous paintings, as "The Last Day of Pompeii", "Bathsheba", etc.
From the middle of the XIX century. realism becomes the leading trend in Russian painting. Its approval and successful development was facilitated by the Association of Wanderers, which arose in 1870, which included almost all the best Russian artists of that time. The highest flourishing realism in painting reached in the works I.E. Repin And IN AND. Surikov. The first created such masterpieces as "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "Religious Procession in the Kursk Province", as well as portraits of "Protodeacon". "Mussorgsky" and others. The second is known for the canvases "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Boyar Morozova", "Mentikov in Berezov", etc.
Outstanding realist artists were also I.N. Kramskoy, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, P.A. Fedotov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin.
Also developing very successfully Russian theater. Its heyday is associated with the name of the great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky, whose creative destiny was connected with the Maly Theater in Moscow. He created the plays "Thunderstorm", "Profitable Place", "Forest", "Dowry", the production of which made the Russian theater a classic. An outstanding actor on the Russian stage was M.S. Shchepkin.
The impressive successes and achievements of Russian culture still seem amazing and incredible today. But they really were and allowed Russia to take its rightful place among the advanced countries of the world.
Introduction
The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that it occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture in the 19th century. This is the century of the unprecedented rise of Russian culture, the century when Russia brought forth geniuses in all areas of spiritual culture - in literature, painting, music, science, philosophy, culture, etc. Russia of the 19th century made a huge contribution to the treasury of universal culture. In the XIX century, the process of folding the Russian literary language and the formation of national culture was completed. It was in the 19th century that Russian artistic culture became classical, having the meaning of an immortal model for all subsequent generations of people. If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind the advanced European countries, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but in many respects was ahead of them. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. Russian scientists of Russian culture of that time turned out to be relevant even now and therefore are at the center of ethical, philosophical reflections of our time. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era the "golden age" of Russian culture.
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the patriotic upsurge associated with it gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian national culture. The most educated estate in Russia was then the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time come from 113 nobles or people who are somehow connected with noble culture.
The purpose of this work is to analyze the Golden Age of Russian culture.
When working on the abstract, I used the works of the following authors: Berezova L.G. , Bulgakova-Toporkova M.V. , Georgieva T.S. , Markova A.N.
To achieve the goal of the work, the following methods were used:
material selection method
by the level of penetration into the essence - empirical: the study of literature, the study of the results of activities; theoretical: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization.
1. Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, literature occupied a dominant position in the system of spiritual culture, and it was the main and, perhaps, the only area where it was possible to express the requirements and aspirations of the people. The process of development and change of artistic trends took place in the conditions of the decomposition of the feudal-serf system and social thought. These trends were: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism. Realism has come to an end. At the end of his work, the poet G.R. came to classicism. Derzhavin. The most prominent representative of sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin.
The heroic events of the war of 1812 contributed to the emergence of romanticism. One of the founders of Russian romanticism was V.A. Zhukovsky. His poetry is imbued with melancholy dreams, romantic rethought images of folk fiction. Another direction - civil, revolutionary romanticism manifested itself in the work of K.F. Ryleeva. His lyrics, historical "Dumas", poems are full of political associations. Odes, poems by K. Kuchelbecker called for the fight against autocratic-serfdom. Romanticism also influenced the early work of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov.
The founder of Russian realism is the brilliant Pushkin (1799-1837). It is with his work that the beginning of the golden age in literature is connected. Pushkin was the founder new literature. Responding to questions that worried society and reflecting Russian reality in unsurpassed artistic images. [Markova A.N.-c.321]
He was the first to come to the conclusion that true nationality is not a description of a Russian sundress, but life's authenticity, the truth about the relationship between people, the individual and society. A.S. Pushkin turned to the innermost folk art and imbued with a deep understanding of the soul, psyche and character of the Russian people. His genius soberly assessed the past of Russian history, its present, and foresaw some pages of Russia's future.
Pushkin created the poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus" (1823-1821), "Robber Brothers" (1821-1822), "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai" (1821-1823), "Gypsies" (1824-1825) these works shine bright colors of romanticism. In the southern poems, a realistic beginning also breaks through, which is a feature of Pushkin's talent. “You only want freedom for yourself” in these words addressed by the old gypsy to Aleko, Pushkin expressed his rejection of that romantic individualism that occupied the imagination of his Western contemporaries.
After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, Pushkin begins to look closely at reality, studies the life of the people in the past and present, strives for historical objectivity, unshakable realistic truth. Based on Karamzin and his own study of sources, he creates the national historical tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1824-1825), dedicated to the "epoch of many rebellions" of the early 17th century. An amazing penetration into the spirit of Russian antiquity, a strict and clear form of tragedy put it on a huge height in Russian and world art. [Bulanova-Toporkova, 384c.]
At the end of the 1920s, Pushkin turned to the image of Peter 1. In the poem "Poltava" (1828), the central moment of which is the battle of Poltava, and in the first chapters of the unfinished historical novel "Arap of Peter the Great", the poet depicts a turning point with historical objectivity in the life of Russia.
Since 1823, Pushkin has been working on his greatest creation, a novel in verse, Eugene Onegin (1823-1831). In Onegin, a broad picture of the life of Russian society is given, and the personality of the poet himself is reflected in the lyrical digressions of the novel, sometimes thoughtful and sad, sometimes caustic and playful. In "Eugene Onegin" Pushkin realistically continues what he began in the romantic poems of an earlier period, revealing the image of his contemporary, young man of the noble era in the Russian social movement of the 19th century.
"Little Tragedies" (30s) depicts a clash of a daring human personality with laws, tradition and authority. Pushkin highly appreciates the beauty of free individuality, but he condemns demonic egoism, preferring artless people's truth. This theme is refracted in a peculiar way in the story "The Queen of Spades" (1833), which depicts the bearer of an egoistic passion for enrichment, striving to break the prize of life, to rise up at any cost.
In the poem "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), Pushkin embodied his ideas about historical development. In the old society, progress came at the cost of individual suffering. The petty official Yevgeny raises a revolt against the "ruler of the semi-world", but retreats in fear, because it is impossible to delay the inexorable course of history, it is impossible to prevent it.
Pushkin's special attention is drawn to the problem of peasant movements. He touched on this topic in the novel "Dubrovsky" (1832-1833), but did not finish it. Having carefully studied all the materials available to him about Pugachev, having collected information on the site of the uprising, Pushkin created the book "The History of Pugachev", the first historical study of the peasant war of the 18th century. Relying on artistic principles Walter Scott, Pushkin wrote The Captain's Daughter (1836), historical story with classic clarity of storylines and depth of psychological characteristics. In The Captain's Daughter, Pushkin showed not only the spontaneous nature of the peasant movement, but also its poetry and its doom.
The unique beauty of Pushkin's art manifested itself with great force in his lyrics. Pushkin's lyrics reveal the inner world of a person no less deeply than the lyrical poetry of the romantics, but the great poet's soul and heart are harmoniously combined with the mighty power of the mind. Pushkin's works are fanned by the spirit of humanity. In terms of depth of feeling and classical harmony of form, they, together with Goethe's lyrical poems, belong to the best creations of world poetry.
Pushkin was the central figure of Russian literature in the first decades of the 19th century. Belinsky directly calls this period of Russian literature "Pushkin's". The name of Pushkin is associated not only with the high flowering of Russian poetry, but also with the formation of the Russian literary language. Pushkin showed the spiritual beauty and power of the Russian people, the charm of native nature, folk poetry - fairy tales, songs, legends. Its significance for Russian literature is immeasurable. “He is the beginning of all beginnings,” Gorky said about Pushkin.
Pushkin contributed to the creation of scientific historiography, proving the need to rely on an objective analysis of facts and phenomena, a conscientious study of life, and argued that a person is a full-fledged character in a great human history.
The value of A.S. Pushkin is huge, he is among the greatest and unique phenomena of world culture. In his work and outlook, he was accepted not only in the 19th century, not only in Russia. At the end of the 20th century, he comes to people from different countries as a contemporary and educator of noble feelings. [Bulanova-Toporkova M. V-c.385]
Pushkin passed away, having an heir and successor to his social and literary work - M.Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841), a remarkable poet and artist, who at the age of 16 announced his mighty talent. Romanticism is close to the individual warehouse of Lermontov the poet. His early works are imbued with a dream of freedom, longing for a rebellious hero. His romanticism is not characterized by contemplation and infantilism.
Hatred for the "secular mob", for the blue gendarmerie uniforms of Nikolaev Russia runs through all of Lermontov's poetry. Motifs of rebellion, a bold challenge, and the expectation of a storm sound in his lyrics. Images of rebels seeking freedom and rebelling against social injustice often appear in his poems (Mtsyri, 1840; Song about the merchant Kalashnikov, 1838). Lermontov is a poet of action. It is precisely for inaction that he castigates his generation, brought up by the era of reaction, incapable of struggle and creative labor ("Duma").
At the center of the most significant works of Lermontov is the image of a proud personality, looking for strong sensations in the struggle. Such are Arbenin (drama "Masquerade", 1835-1836), Demon ("Demon", 1829-1841) and Pechorin ("Hero of Our Time", 1840). Disappointed in the surrounding petty life, the poet went through a passion for such a demonic personality, but in his works of recent years he debunks the romantic poetry of proud loneliness. In his work, there was clearly a deep sympathy for simple people, but full of real selflessness and heroism, the mood that forms the main pathos of Russian literature of the 19th century.
He confidently moved towards realism and romanticism. “A Hero of Our Time”, with the image of an extra person who has lost the meaning of life, was a mature realistic work filled with a deep social and psychological sound. Lermontov's work, imbued with fatalism, expresses the conflict of Russian society.
Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol (1809-1852) completed an extremely important for Russian literature of the XIX century. turn to prose genres - short stories and novels.
Gogol's first significant work, "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" (1831-1832), introduces the reader to the world of folk legends. The fantasy of this book and its light-heartedly cheerful tone have little in common with subsequent works by Gogol the realist. This work is imbued with lyrical romanticism. The second book - "Mirgorod" (1835), although it is a continuation of "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka", is more mature. The four stories that make up Mirgorod seem to contrast with each other. In "Taras Bulba" Gogol conveys the courage and heroism of the Cossack freemen. The story “On how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled” shows the dominance of vulgarity and petty interests in modern life and plays out insignificant incidents that make every living soul sad and bored. The terrible fantasy of "Viya" is opposed by the patriarchal idyll of the "Old World Landowners".
A special place in Gogol's legacy is occupied by his "Petersburg Tales", depicting Gogol's contemporary big city with its social contrasts. One of these stories, "The Overcoat" (1842), had a particular influence on subsequent literature. Sympathetically portraying the fate of a downtrodden and disenfranchised petty official, Gogol opened the way for all democratic Russian literature from Turgenev, Grigorovich and early Dostoevsky to Chekhov. "We all came out of Gogol's "Overcoat"" - in this phrase of Dostoevsky there is a true recognition of the significance of Gogol's story.
In the comedy The Inspector General (1836), Gogol acts as a continuer of the tradition of Fonvizin and Griboyedov. He gives a deep and merciless exposure of the bureaucratic camarilla, its lawlessness and arbitrariness. Gogol discarded the traditional love affair and built his work on the depiction of social relations. Gogol's satire is directed not against individual "abuses", but against the very foundations of the social system, the reality that gives rise to whiplash and mayor.
In the 40-50s. XIX century, a new generation of Russian writers entered the literary path. This is I.S. Turgenev (1818-1883), I.A. Goncharov (1812-1891), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889), A.N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886), poets N.A. Nekrasov (1821-1878), F.I. Tyutchev (1803-1873), A.A. Fet (1820-1892) and others. The protest against autocracy and serfdom, the desire for happiness and freedom for all the people and the country permeated their work.
In a wonderful galaxy of Russian writers, the work of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) and F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was a natural continuation and completion of the spiritual take-off that makes Russian literature great.
Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821-1878)
The people are depicted in many of Nekrasov's poems, such as "Red Nose Frost" (1863), "Who Lives Well in Rus'" (1863-1877). The poet showed not only the suffering of people from the people, but also their physical and moral beauty, revealed their ideas about life, their tastes. The poet affirms the superiority of the peasants over the masters, depicts the self-interest and cruelty of bar-parasites. In his poems, the images of those whom Nekrasov calls "people's defenders" are also displayed - fighters for the interests of the people. Nekrasov's lyrical poems reveal the image of the poet himself, an advanced citizen writer, feeling the suffering of the people, chivalrously devoted to him, ready to go "to death for the honor of the fatherland." [Bulanova-Toporkova M. V-c.386]
Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889) - a satirist of world significance. His satire, imbued with a conscious revolutionary-democratic tendency, is directed against the social system of autocratic Russia, exposes the ugliness of this system, brings them to the point of caricature and grotesque. Shchedrin shows great freedom in choosing forms and genres, resorting to satirical essay and feuilleton, novel and dialogue, comedy and pamphlet. In The History of a City (1869-1870) he gives a generalized satirical depiction of tsarism, the supreme power of the Russian empire. In the novel "Lord Golovlevs" (1870-1880), the disintegration of a noble family is shown, and the abomination and stench of serfdom are embodied in the image of Judas. Mine artistic analysis Shchedrin clarified and supplemented in "Poshekhonskaya antiquity" (1887-1889), where he processed the same life material in a form close to memoirs. In "Fairy Tales" (1869-1886), Shchedrin, using a conventionally fantastic form, showed with exceptional force, clarity and expressiveness the social aspects of Russian life - peasants, officials, gentlemen generals, as well as the relationship between them.
Shchedrin is ruthless to all liberal attempts to clean up and correct the old feudal order, to "reveal" its secondary vices in order to save the main one. The mockery of liberal phrase-mongers, who easily yield their positions and grovel before the feudal lords, is one of Shchedrin's constant themes. At the same time, Shchedrin, an incorruptible and staunch defender of the people, was a stranger to sentimental embellishment and idealization of the "muzhik." On the contrary, with bitterness, anger and merciless irony, he speaks of servility, darkness and ignorance that help the oppressors of the people.
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky (1823-1886) is an exceptional figure against the backdrop of the literature of the 19th century. In the West, before the appearance of Ibsen, there was not a single playwright who could be put on a par with him. In the life of the merchants, dark and ignorant, entangled in prejudices, prone to tyranny, absurd and amusing whims, he found original material for his stage works. Pictures of the life of the merchants gave Ostrovsky the opportunity to show an important side of Russian life in general, the "dark kingdom" of old Russia.
Ostrovsky is a folk playwright in the true and deep sense this word. His nationality is also manifested in the direct connection of his art with folklore - folk songs, proverbs and sayings, which even make up the titles of his plays, and in a truthful depiction of folk life imbued with a democratic trend, and in the extraordinary convexity, relief of the images he created, clothed in an accessible and democratic form and addressed to the public spectator.
Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818-1883) began his literary activity in the 40s, when liberal and democratic tendencies had not yet completely demarcated in Russian public life. He experienced the beneficial influence of Belinsky's ideas. The essays that Turgenev published on the pages of Sovremennik under the general title Notes of a Hunter (1847-1852) show the inhuman oppression of peasants under serfdom. In the novels "Rudin" (1856) and " Noble Nest"(1859) the writer depicts an advanced representative of the nobility who feels deep dissatisfaction with his environment, but does not find the energy in himself to break with it and become a fighter against it. Like Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin", which served as a prototype for these novels, Turgenev confronts his "extra person" with a woman with a strong moral disposition. The subtlety and depth of psychological analysis, the penetrating depiction of Russian nature, the classical completeness of style make these novels excellent works of Russian and world literature.
Turgenev did not limit himself to the image " extra people". In the novel "On the Eve" (1860), he showed the Bulgarian revolutionary Insarov, who was followed by the Russian girl Elena Stakhova with abandon. But Turgenev was looking for a hero who had developed on Russian soil and devoted himself to the service of Russia. He found such an image in the person of the commoner Bazarov, depicted by him in the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862). Bazarov denies poetry and lofty feelings that representatives of the nobility are proud of (therefore, in their eyes he is a “nihilist”, a denier), he thinks that the main task is to spread the natural sciences. Although some features of Bazarov jar the writer, Turgenev still portrays his hero as a deep and tragic personality, a true giant next to the small figures of educated landowners.
In the last years of his life, the writer almost constantly lived abroad. He acted in the West as a propagandist of Russian literature; his own writings contributed greatly to her worldwide influence.
The outstanding Russian novelist Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov (1812-1891) shared with Russian enlighteners the hostility to serfdom and the belief that its destruction would bring prosperity to Russia. However, according to his political views, Goncharov leaned towards the liberal-conservative position. Goncharov's novels "Ordinary History" (1847) and "Oblomov" (1859) appeared before 1861, i.e. until the final demarcation of liberal and democratic tendencies. Like Turgenev, Goncharov was influenced by Belinsky. In "An Ordinary History" he ridiculed noble romanticism, idleness and groundlessness of noble dreamers.
An artist of immense talent, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was a complex and controversial writer. He created pictures of the suffering of people under the yoke of capitalism, unsurpassed in strength and expressiveness, but he rejected the revolutionary path and for many years waged a fierce struggle against the ideas of the revolutionary democratic camp.
Dostoevsky entered literature as a representative of the "natural school", continuing the traditions of Pushkin and Gogol. His first story "Poor People" (1846) was enthusiastically received by Belinsky. In this story, Dostoevsky with deep sympathy depicts the suffering of "poor people" living in big city, protects the dignity common man, shows his superiority over representatives of the aristocracy. But already in this story, some features of Dostoevsky's future views appeared in embryo. He does not see in the "little man" the ability to protest and fight, he does not believe in the possibility of actively influencing reality.
Young Dostoevsky was a member of Petrashevsky's circle and was sentenced in 1849 to death penalty, replaced by hard labor. After serving hard labor, he was enrolled in military service as a private. It was during these years that the writer experienced an internal breakdown. He became disillusioned with the ideas of the revolutionary intelligentsia, declared the revolutionaries to be people far from the people, and urged them to turn to the people's truth, the basis of which he considered humility, long-suffering, and simple-hearted faith. Returning from exile, Dostoevsky, as a publicist and writer, repeatedly entered into polemics with supporters of the revolutionary camp, wrote pamphlets against them, and parodied them.
But even during this period of his work, Dostoevsky creates works of enormous critical scope, depicts the screaming contradictions of post-reform Russia. Such is his book Notes from the House of the Dead (1861-1862), which shows the suffering of people in the tsarist penal servitude.
The largest work of Dostoevsky is the novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866). It depicts a man imbued with the consciousness of his exclusivity, contempt for the masses and confidence in his right to violate moral norms. Dostoevsky debunks this individualist and reveals the inner collapse of his aspirations. The novel gives a stunning image of the poverty and suffering of people under capitalism, shows the disintegration of the individual and the family, the humiliation and desecration of human dignity.
The reactionary views of Dostoevsky are already clearly reflected in this book. The writer believes that bourgeois individualism is characteristic of representatives of the revolutionary camp and passes off an individualist as a revolutionary. By debunking him, Dostoevsky wants to debunk the entire revolutionary movement in his person. On the other hand, Dostoevsky can oppose selfishness and the "Napoleonic" principle of suppressing the weak only by the morality of humility, humility and meek faith.
Dostoevsky embodied his positive ideal, the ideal of a morally beautiful person, in the novel The Idiot (1868). This book also gives an image of cruelty, selfishness, fanaticism of the ruling bourgeois-noble circles. They are opposed positive hero, the embodiment of meekness, sympathy for human suffering, with features of Don Quixote. He is helpless in the fight against social evil, but nevertheless represents the only beginning that can be put forward against the cruelty of modern life.
Dostoevsky's work has received worldwide recognition. His reactionary ideas, his statements that dark, egoistic instincts dominate in the human mind, which must be suppressed with the help of religious humility, were used by the ideologues of the ruling classes for reactionary propaganda. But, as a great realist and a passionate denunciator of capitalism, Dostoevsky serves progressive humanity with his art.
Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy (1828-1910) occupies an outstanding place among world cultural figures. Tolstoy came from the highest noble nobility, but he broke with his class and acted as a spokesman for the ideas and sentiments of the many millions of Russian peasants, embodying in his work both his hatred of the ruling landowner-bourgeois regime, and his ignorance of the ways of struggle, political underdevelopment, appeal to God , naive ideas about the possibility of "non-resistance to evil." In the biographical trilogy "Childhood, adolescence and youth" (1851-1856), the protagonist Nikolenka Irteniev is one of those morally sensitive people from the ruling class who are acutely aware of social injustice and the lies of life around them. The image of such a person, painfully seeking the truth, wanting to understand what is happening, runs through all of Tolstoy's work.
Service in the army in the Caucasus and Crimea, participation in the heroic defense of Sevastopol brought Tolstoy closer to the masses, with peasants dressed in soldier's overcoats. gg.) Tolstoy painted pictures of the war, free from false battle heroism, and depicted the greatness of the Russian soldier, performing his duty simply and calmly, without posture and loud phrases.
Tolstoy brought out in his novel numerous Russian people courageously and modestly accomplishing great feats. These people represent people's Russia, which is infinitely far from the false life of the ruling classes. Tolstoy also sees the greatness of the commander Kutuzov in his alienation from the narrow interests of the ruling elite and in his closeness to the people. Russia won the war of 1812 because this war was of a patriotic, nationwide character.
But the reactionary aspects of Tolstoy's views also showed up in War and Peace. Defending the idea of the impossibility of active and conscious leadership of military operations, he attributes to Kutuzov fatalistic passivity and non-interference in the spontaneous course of events. Tolstoy's false idea was also manifested in the fact that the image of Kutuzov is internally connected in the novel with the image of the peasant Platon Karataev, personifying humility and Christian submission to fate.
Tolstoy - a brilliant psychologist, a master of depicting people's life - already in the period under review is one of the peaks to which world literature has risen.
2. Theater
From the end of the XVIII century. theater in Russia, as in other European countries, is entering a new era of its development. A rapid growth in the number of theaters in the provinces begins, often due to the transition of landlord serf theaters to a commercial basis. Large theatrical enterprises that combine drama, opera and ballet companies, are created in St. Petersburg and Moscow. In 1824, an independent drama troupe Small Theatre. In St. Petersburg in 1832, the Alexandrinsky Drama Theater was founded.
At the beginning of the century, the Russian theater was the theater of classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism. The repertoire of the theaters included tragedies based on ancient mythological and historical plots.
The assertion of realism in the theater is associated with the productions of the plays “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov (1829), and "Inspector General" N.V. Gogol (1836) on the stage of the small theater in Moscow, where M.S. Shchepkin (1788-1863). Having developed his realistic manner of playing, he created generalized images that denounced the serfdom, tyranny, ignorance and stupidity of the nobles, merchant and bureaucratic life.
At the end of the XVIII beginning of the XIX century. in the Russian theater, enlightenment sentimentalism takes on leading importance. Enlightenment idea of the innate equality of all people, the idea of a “natural person”, turned in the work of a number of playwrights and actors to reveal contradictions feudal system helped to reveal the social and moral inadmissibility of slavery. At the same time, the attention of playwrights was attracted by the inner world of a person, his spiritual conflicts (dramas by N.I. Ilyin, F.F. Ivanov, tragedies by V.A. Ozerov, etc.). On the other hand, in those sentimental dramas that were imbued with protective tendencies, there was a desire to smooth out life's contradictions, features of sugary idealization, melodramatism (the works of V.M. Fedorov, S.N. Glinka, etc.). [Birch L.G part 1 - 254c.]
Increased "sensitivity", sincerity of the stage experience, often enriched with elements of social and everyday truth in the portrayal of the character, distinguished the acting of Ya.E. Shusherina (1753-1813), A.D. Karatygina (1777-1859) and other actors of that time. Sentimentalism freed actors from the power of the rationalistic principles of classicism and contributed to the destruction of the epigone traditions of this system, the development of romantic and realistic tendencies in the performing arts.
The development of romanticism in the Russian theater at the beginning of the 19th century. associated with an increase in the drama and acting creativity of motives of dissatisfaction existing reality, individualistic protest, violent experiences of a freedom-loving personality. These romantic features are characteristic of the art of the outstanding Russian actor A.S. Yakovlev (1773-1817).
significant impact on the development of the theater had aesthetic views Decembrist writers. The themes of the struggle against national and political oppression are developed, images of strong, freedom-loving heroes are created, seized with a thirst for patriotic deeds (“Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod” by F.F. Ivanov, “Beelzen, or the Liberated Holland” by F.N. Glinka, “Andromache " P. A. Katenin, "Argives" V. K. Kuchelbeker and others). The performing style was determined by a combination of great emotionality, sincerity and naturalness in the expression of feelings with the heroic scale of the characters and the plastic severity of the external drawing of the image. This style found its highest and most complete expression in the work of the greatest tragic actress of that era, E.S. Semenova (1786-1849).[ Georgieva T.c.-313]
At the same time, the development of realistic tendencies continued in comedy and drama, limited, however, by the narrow possibilities of vaudeville (A.A. Shakhovskoy, N.I. Khmelnitsky, A.I. Pisarev) and the family-household, conservative in spirit play (M.N. Zagoskin). The desire of the actors for the truth of life was based both on the sincerity of experience, simplicity, naturalness (young M.S. Shchepkin), and on the art of external reincarnation, copying individual bright types (I.I. Sosnitsky, E.I. Guseva, etc.) .
In the 1930s, in an atmosphere of violent political reaction that set in after the defeat of the Decembrist movement, the direction of progressive romanticism performed important tasks. Romantic theater reveals the inner drama of a person endowed with a desire for freedom and social justice, and expresses the revolt of a thinking person against the world of violence and arbitrariness that surrounds him. On the Russian stage in these years, many works of world classics and, above all, Shakespeare's tragedies, in which the theme of the struggle for human dignity appears with extraordinary force, receive a deep interpretation. The revolutionary tendencies of theatrical romanticism of the 1930s were most fully revealed in the work of the brilliant Russian romantic actor P.S. Mochalov (1800-1848) - an artist of extraordinary spiritual power and expression, who shocked the audience with the rapid rise of his inspiration, the high humanistic aspiration of his art. The development of progressive emancipatory tendencies in the theater was severely limited by the government. Outside the theatre, the dramaturgy of M.Yu. Lermontov: his drama "Masquerade" in 1835-1836. banned three times by censorship (excerpts from the play were first staged thanks to the perseverance of the actors in 1852, and it was played in full only in 1864). They are not allowed to stage the drama of V. Hugo. A prominent place in the repertoire is occupied by Russian and translated melodrama and romantic drama, expressing conservative tendencies (including monarchist plays by N.A. Polevoy, N.V. Kukolnik, R.M. Zotov, etc.). The influence of the reactionary ideology also affects the art of acting. Progressive criticism rightly pointed to the internal limitations of the St. Petersburg tragedian V.A. Karatygin (1802-1853) and actors of his type, on the lack of a great humanistic content in their work, on their commitment to pomp and external effects.
literature theater architecture romanticism
3. Painting
Classicism was the official trend in painting in the first half of the 19th century. The achievements of academic classicism were deep knowledge European culture of the past, excellent drawing skills, high skill in creating complexion.
A major role in this conquest of the real world by art, in strengthening the emotional, lyrical beginning was played by romanticism, which manifested itself especially noticeably in portrait and landscape painting. Fruitful development in this period receives a household genre. Marked by the features of romanticism, portraits by O.A. Kiprensky (1782-1836) stand out among his contemporary works of portrait art with spirituality and captivating simplicity of images. In the portraits of O.A. Kiprensky (1782-1836) reflected the influence of romanticism and at the same time, elements of realism are visible in them, a view of a person as an independent person. The founder of realism in painting was P.A. Fedotov (1815-1852) creator of the paintings "The Fresh Cavalier", "The Picky Bride", "The Gambler".
Subtle poetry was able to feel in the nature of Italy S.F. Shchedrin (1751-1830). In his landscapes, fanned by a soft, dreamy mood, he sought to capture the living life of nature, its various states. Deep attention to the people, awakened by the progressive social movement, was reflected in the work of V.A. Tropinin (1776-1857) and especially A.G. Venetsianov (1780-1847), in whose genre paintings and portraits the moral qualities of serfs were revealed, a sincere image of Russian nature was drawn. [Markova A.N-p.232]
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov (1806-1858) deeply reflected in his work the exciting ideas of the present. Acutely feeling social injustice, full of foreboding of future changes, he sought to find a topic that would allow him to show, according to his concepts, a turning point in the life of mankind. He settled on the gospel story about the coming of the Messiah, which seemed to him full of lofty historical meaning. For more than 20 years, the artist worked on his monumental painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People”, the main theme of which was the spiritual rebirth of people mired in suffering and vices. The complex religious and moral idea of the need to liberate mankind from oppression and slavery reflected the contradictions in the artist's worldview, characteristic of many representatives of the noble intelligentsia in those years, who resolved social issues in moral terms. As he worked on the picture, the image of a slave acquired especially great importance in it, in which, according to the artist himself, “consolation first appeared through the usual suffering”, consciousness of oneself as a person. Of great importance in the development of realistic art were Ivanov's numerous studies for the painting, especially his landscapes. In the late period, Ivanov tried to translate his ideas and artistic searches into a series of sketches on biblical stories, in a new way comprehending religious myths. In a highly poetic and perfect artistic form, he conveyed the beauty of ancient legends, born of folk fantasy, having gone far from the church's understanding of the Bible.[ Georgieva T.S. -149c.]
Products of decorative and applied art of this time, marked by classical clarity and simplicity of forms, are distinguished by great perfection. Furniture, works of cast iron and bronze, ceramics, woodcarving contribute to the richness and attractiveness of the interior and exterior decoration of buildings, participating in the overall creation of a mature classicism style.
The development of painting and graphics in the early nineteenth century. It was determined by realistic searches, the desire of artists for direct life observations, which reflected the general process of bringing art closer to reality. Having broken the old, conditional and limited framework of artistic creativity established by classic aesthetics, painters and graphic artists of this time are approaching a freer and broader, sometimes colored by emotional excitement, perception and comprehension of the surrounding nature and man.
In the 30-50s, the aggravation of social contradictions after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, the oppression of reaction and at the same time the progressive people's unceasing search for ways to further develop Russia, the maturation of the revolutionary democratic ideology determined the complex nature of art.[ Georgieva T.S-c. 312]
Classicism in this period finally loses its progressive sides, degenerating into reactionary academicism. On the basis of the denial of the autocratic system and, at the same time, disappointment in the possibility of close social changes that engulfed many circles of Russian society, as well as with the advent of new philosophical views, romanticism is gaining significant popularity, compared to the beginning of the 19th century. more controversial. Along with this, a new, sternly objective perception of reality gave rise to profound realistic aspirations, sometimes carried out within the framework of the same romanticism (in its advanced manifestations). But already by the 1940s there was a clear eradication of romantic tendencies, the assertion of consistently realistic principles in art.
4. Architecture
Russian architecture of the first three decades of the 19th century is associated with the Empire style, completed by the development of classicism. Empire style, like classicism, was focused on decorativeness, monumentality and should be, as it were, the personification of a powerful state. This style manifested itself in the work of the architect A.D. Zakharova (1761-1811), A.N. Voronikhin (1750-1814), K.I. Rossi (1775-1849), V.P. Stasov (1769-1848).
A characteristic feature of the architecture of that time was the creation of large architectural ensembles, which was especially evident in St. Petersburg, many apartments, many apartments that amaze with amazing harmony and unity. According to the project of Zakharov, the Admiralty was erected. On Nevsky Prospekt, Voronikhin built the Kazan Cathedral, designed by A.A. Montferrand (1786-1858) St. Isaac's Cathedral was created.
After a fire in 1882, Moscow was rebuilt in the traditions of classicism and empire. The architectural structures of Moscow at that time were characterized by the features of lyricism, intelligence, simplicity and care.
But then classicism and empire were replaced by various eclectic trends, including the Russian-Byzantine style. [Markova A.N-p.239]
The architecture of the 1930s and 1950s is dominated by the style of late classicism, but features of institutional coldness and abstraction are growing in it. The buildings of that time are notable for the violation of the former harmonic relationship of forms and in some cases are overloaded with decorative decoration. In sculpture, they are noticeably enhanced household features. In the most significant monuments - the monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly B.I. Orlovsky and in sculptures. PC. Klodt (figures of horses on the Anichkov Bridge) - the desire to combine classical rigor and monumentality with new methods of realistic characterization of the image is reflected.
The tasks of depicting the surrounding everyday Russian life, which did not receive a real response from the masters history painting, corresponded to the development of the everyday genre, as well as satirical graphics. Imbued with lively sympathy, and sometimes with great bitterness, scenes of folk life are found in watercolors and drawings by T.G. Shevchenko, paintings by a number of students of A.G. Venetsianov. By the end of the 1930s, a group of draftsmen appeared, illustrating the works of writers of the so-called natural school. [Birch, 292c.]
In the mid-40s, the art of Pavel Andreevich Fedotov (1815-1852), deeply democratic in content, took shape, marking a new stage in the development of the everyday genre. Drawing the life of officials, merchants, impoverished nobles, although not losing their claims, Fedotov made images and themes that had not previously been touched upon by genre painting become the property of art. He showed the swagger and stupidity of officials, the naive complacency and cunning of moneybag merchants, the hopeless emptiness of the existence of officers in the provinces in the era of the Nikolaev reaction, the bitter fate of his fellow artist. With apt observation, with the help of eloquent details, he was able to characterize the situation, the typical life environment of the figures, develop a complex, sometimes dramatic action, and depict the characters and behavior of people with satirical sharpness. Small intimate portraits painted by him were also distinguished by subtle psychologism. Showing ugliness and dark sides social life, Fedotov's work, consonant with the contemporary direction of Russian literature, laid the foundations of critical realism in painting.
5. Music
The traditions of Russian musical culture developed by the end of the 18th century. Composers A.A., Alyabiev (1787-1851), A.E. Varlamov (1801-1848), A.L. Gurilev (1803-1858), N.A. Vitov (1800-1875) in the first half of the 19th century created remarkable works of the chamber genre. The representative of the romantic direction in music A.N. Verstovsky (1799-1862) created the opera Askold's Grave, which is still very popular today. The founder of Russian classical music was M.I. Glinka (1804-1857). In terms of his contribution to the development of musical culture, Glinka occupies a place equal to Pushkin in literature. He laid the foundations for two main directions of Russian opera classics: folk musical dramas and operas, fairy tales of the epic genre. His style was truly Russian in its melodic sound and expression of the thoughts, aspirations and worldview of the people.
Glinka's work is a magnificent beginning of the classical period of Russian music. The historical merit of Glinka lies, first of all, in a deep understanding of the tasks of nationality and realism. In his art, he expressed the fundamental features of the Russian national character, the best aspirations, thoughts and aspirations of his people. Creatively mastering cutting-edge achievements Western European culture, he managed to become a great national artist, a singer of his homeland. folk song appeared for him not only creative material, but also the basis of musical thinking, which determined the characteristic features of the classical "Glinka" style. The essence of Glinka's aesthetics is expressed in his famous words: "The people create music, and we, the artists, only arrange it." [Georgieva T.S-c.311]
Glinka clearly showed himself in the field of chamber lyrics. His romances are characterized by the typical features of his style: the plasticity and clarity of a wide, sing-song melody, the completeness and harmony of the composition. In his striving for artistic perfection of form, Glinka draws closer to Pushkin. Poetic thought finds in him a uniquely beautiful, harmonious, clear expression. Like Pushkin, Glinka can be called a "poet of reality" (Belinsky). He introduced a lofty, truly realistic content into Russian musical art, an enormous power of artistic generalization.
A younger contemporary of M.I. Glinka was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1812-1869). In his first opera, Esmeralda (based on the novel by V. Hugo, Notre Dame de Paris), the romantic features characteristic of early period creativity. Following Glinka, he strengthened realism in Russian music and was the first to create the folk-domestic musical drama-opera Mermaid, in which the image of a miller poisoned sympathy for the “little” person.
Dargomyzhsky's innovative searches find their greatest expression in his latest opera, The Stone Guest, based on the plot of Pushkin's drama. Having preserved the entire Pushkin text, the composer builds the opera on the basis of a continuous recitative, without division into complete parts, and subordinates the vocal parts to the principles of speech expressiveness, flexible intonation of the verse. Dargomyzhsky consciously abandons the traditional forms of opera - ensembles and arias - and turns it into a psychological musical drama. Russian opera did not follow the path of The Stone Guest. However, the innovative principles of Dargomyzhsky played an important role, enriching opera music with new means of flexible, expressive recitative.
Thus, Russian realistic traditions were established in Russian musical art by the middle of the century, the growing importance of Russian culture began to be increasingly recognized, and advanced and artistic images of great sound merged into world culture.
The nineteenth century is a brilliant time in the history of Russian music. [Markova, p. 96.]
Under the influence of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, the heroic-patriotic theme, embodied in the work of S.A. Degtyarev, the author of the first Russian oratorio "Minin and Pozharsky", D.N. Kashina, S.I. Davydova, I.A. Kozlovsky. On the basis of folk melodies, rich and diverse song lyrics grow up, deeply expressing the world of feelings of a simple person. Created "Russian songs" in the folk spirit, everyday romances, ballads.
In the 60s, Russian music enters a period of its maturity and all-round flourishing. In the new historical conditions of post-reform Russia, there is an upsurge in musical and social life. Through the efforts of outstanding musicians-educators - M.A. Balakireva, A.G. and N.G. Rubinsteinov - a new type of musical organization is being created, the first Russian conservatories. In the works of the largest art historians V.V. Stasov and A.N. Serov laid the solid foundations of classical Russian musicology.
The ideological and artistic principles of the Glinka school find fruitful development in the work of the great composers of the new generation: Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov. Their activity, which began in the 60s, marked the highest rise of Russian music, the culmination of its historical path in the next period.
Conclusion
I believe that none of the previous periods of Russian history knew such a rapid flowering of culture as the 19th century, which began with the work of the genius Pushkin. The phenomenal rise of the spiritual culture of Russia meant the achievement of the highest peaks in literature, music, painting, history and philosophy. This allows us to call the 19th century the "golden age" of Russian culture, which acquired worldwide significance. There are two stages in the development of the culture of the 19th century. The first covers the time from the beginning of the century to 1861. During this period, cultural achievements were concentrated in the nobility, it was this class that was the bearer of culture. In the figurative and cultural level, there was a huge gap between the privileged estates and the working people. In addition, the cultural life of Russia was full-fledged only in the capitals, while in the provinces and outskirts they were in cultural stagnation. The second stage covers the 60-80s. XIX century. This is the time of the development of capitalism, which required the solution of theoretical and practical problems of education and science. Literature occupied a special place at the end of the 19th century. Developing in various directions (as well as other types of art), the leading one of which was critical realism. She distinguished herself with humanism, genuine nationality, social sharpness, attention to the difficult fate of the “little man”, which was in tune with the mood of private Russian society. Therefore, the works of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy formed the golden fund of world literature of the past.
So, the 19th century was the time of the final formation of the Russian national culture and the Russian nation as a community of people, emerging in the process of development of capitalist relations. Humanistic ideas have been embodied in all areas of Russian culture, designating the extra-class value of the individual as a dominant. Social transformations and a patriotic upsurge have changed the spiritual image of the population, its way of life, living conditions, and the growth of cultural needs. Russia entered the world cultural community with an undeniable advantage of its own national cultures. [Bulanova-Toporkova -385c.]
Bibliography
1. Berezovaya L.G. Berlekova N.P. History of Russian culture
part 2002.- 396s.
Berezovaya L.G. Berlekova N.P. History of Russian culture, part 2, 2002. - 383 p.
Bulanova-Toporkova M. V. Culturology for technical universities. Series K90 "Textbook for technical universities". Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2001. - 448s.
Georgieva T.S. History of Russian culture 1998. - 356s.
Markova A.N. Textbook on cultural studies. -M: Bustard, 1998. - 469s.
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Introduction
The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century was based on the transformations of the previous time. The penetration of elements of capitalist relations into the economy increased the need for literate and educated people. Cities became the main cultural centers. New social strata were drawn into social processes. Culture developed against the background of the ever-increasing national self-consciousness of the Russian people and, in this regard, had a pronounced national character. The Patriotic War of 1812 had a significant impact on literature, theatre, music, and fine arts.
However, conservative tendencies in the policy of Emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I held back the development of culture. The government actively fought against manifestations of advanced social thought in literature, journalism, theater and painting. It hindered broad public education. Serfdom made it impossible for the entire population to enjoy high cultural achievements. The cultural demands and needs of the top of society were different than those of the people, who developed their own cultural traditions.
extraordinary takeoff national culture in the first half of the 19th century allowed to call this time the "Golden Age". If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind the advanced European states, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but often outstripped them.
The first half of the 19th century is characterized by the rapid growth and spread of culture.
The general trend of this period is the growing democratization of culture, the coverage of education by ever wider sections of the people. The diverse strata of society not only join the culture developed by the Russian nobility, but also become the creators of Russian culture, setting its new motives and trends. The Church, subordinate to the state and having adopted the forms of Western learning, is a model of asceticism, affirming the Orthodox tradition. Having fully mastered the limits of European education, Russian culture is intensely looking for an image of national cultural identity, developing national forms of being in modern civilization. The ideas of citizenship and nationality become the arena of the struggle of ideologies.
The purpose of the control work is to consider the development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century, which was ultimately determined by the economic and socio-political processes that took place in the life of the country. In addition, in the middle of the 19th century, the growing global significance of Russian culture was increasingly recognized.
1. Enlightenment and education.
The level of education of the society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the country. In the first half of the 19th century, a closed class system of enlightenment and education was legally formed in Russia. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created.
School education was not provided for serfs. Only a few had the opportunity to receive the rudiments of literacy from the parish deacon. For state peasants, parochial schools were created (especially after the reform of P.D. Kiselev) with a one-year training program. In cities, children of non-noble origin studied in district schools, children of nobles in gymnasiums. In addition, special secondary educational institutions, cadet corps and others were opened.
Since 1811, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum has become an exemplary educational institution. The teaching program in it almost corresponded to the university one. Writers A.S. Pushkin, V.K. Kuchelbecker, I.I. Pushchin, A.A. Delvig, M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin; diplomats A.M. Gorchakov and N.K. Gire; Minister of Public Education D.A. Tolstoy; publicist N.Ya. Danilevsky.
The system of home education was widespread. It focused on the study of foreign languages, literature, music, painting, rules of conduct in society.
In the first half of the 19th century, there was no system of female education in Russia. Only for noblewomen were opened several closed institutes (secondary educational institutions), created on the model of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. The program was designed for 7-8 years of study and included arithmetic, literature, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, and home economics. At the beginning of the 19th century, schools for girls were created in St. Petersburg and Moscow, whose fathers had an officer's rank. In the 1930s, several schools were opened for the daughters of guards soldiers and sailors from the Black Sea. However, the majority of women were deprived of the opportunity to receive even primary education.
Government policy towards primary and secondary education was dominated by conservative tendencies. Many statesmen realized the growing need for educated or at least literate people. At the same time, they were afraid of a broad enlightenment of the people. This position was substantiated by the chief of gendarmes A.Kh. Benkendorf. "One should not hurry too much with enlightenment, so that the people do not become on the level of the monarchs in terms of their concepts and then encroach on the weakening of their power." All programs were under strict government control. educational institutions. They were intensely filled with religious content and principles that nurtured monarchist feelings.
However, even in these difficult conditions, higher education continued to develop. New universities were opened in Dorpat (now Tartu), St. Petersburg (based on the Pedagogical Institute), Kazan, Kharkov. The legal status of universities was determined by the Charters of 1804 and 1835. The latter clearly showed the strengthening of the conservative line in government policy. Universities lost their autonomy, and higher tuition fees hurt the underprivileged, knowledge-seeking youth. For the training of qualified personnel, special higher educational institutions were created: the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Technological, Construction and Land Survey Institutes, the Higher School of Law, the Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Languages and others.
Universities and institutes became the main centers that promoted modern scientific achievements and formed national identity. Public lectures by professors of Moscow University on problems of Russian and world history, commercial and natural sciences were very popular. The lectures on the general history of Professor T.N. Granovsky.
Despite the obstacles placed by the government, there was a democratization of the student body. Raznochintsy - people from non-noble strata, sought to get a higher education. Many of them were engaged in self-education, replenishing the ranks of the emerging Russian intelligentsia. Among them are the poet A. Koltsov, publicist and historian N.A. Field, literary critic and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences A.V. Nikitenko, many other well-known scientists in the future.
An important task in the process of the formation of national culture was the development of rules and norms of the Russian literary and colloquial language. This was of particular importance due to the fact that many nobles could not write a single line in Russian, did not read books in their native language.
There were different opinions about how the Russian language should be. Some scientists advocated the preservation of archaisms characteristic of the 18th century. Some protested against the servility to the West and the use of foreign words, mainly French, in the Russian literary language. Great importance to solve this problem, the creation of a verbal department at Moscow University and the activities of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature had. The development of the foundations of the Russian literary language was finally realized in the work of writers N.M. Karamzin,
A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V. Gogol. Publicist N.I. Grech wrote "Practical Russian Grammar".
Many scientific societies contributed to the spread of knowledge: Geographical, Mineralogical, Moscow Society nature testers. The Society of Russian History and Antiquities, the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature mentioned above. They organized public lectures, printed reports and reports on the most outstanding achievements of domestic science, and financed various studies.
Of particular importance for the enlightenment of the people was the publication of books.
At the beginning of the 19th century, only state printing houses existed; in the 1930s and 1940s, private book publishing spread. It is primarily associated with the name of A.F. Smirdin, who managed to reduce the cost of books, increase circulation and make the book widely available. He was not only an entrepreneur, but also a well-known publisher and educator.
In the first half of the 19th century, the newspaper and magazine business noticeably revived. In addition to "St. Petersburg" and "Moskovsky Vedomosti", many private newspapers appeared ("Northern Bee", "Literaturnaya Gazeta" and others). The first Russian socio-political journal was Vestnik Evropy, founded by N.M. Karamzin. Materials of patriotic content were published in the journal Son of the Fatherland. The literary and art magazines Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski, in which V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen and other progressive public figures.
In 1814, the first public library appeared in St. Petersburg, which became the national book depository. In the future, public and paid libraries were opened in many provincial cities. Large private book collections have become common in the homes of not only wealthy people.
In the first half of the 19th century, public museums began to open, which became a place of storage of material monuments of historical, cultural and artistic value. It is noteworthy that the museum business developed more rapidly in provincial cities: Barnaul, Orenburg, Feodosia, Odessa. In 1831, the Rumyantsev Museum was founded in St. Petersburg. It contained books, manuscripts, coins, ethnographic collections. All this was collected by Count N.P. Rumyantsev and transferred after his death to the state. In 1861, the collection was moved to Moscow and served as the basis for the Rumyantsev Library (now the Russian State Library). In 1852, the Hermitage's art collection was opened to the public.
In one of his works, A. I. Herzen wrote about the Russian people, “ powerful and undiscovered", which " retained stately features, a lively mind and a wide revelry of a rich nature under the yoke of serfdom and ... to the royal order to form - he answered a hundred years later with Pushkin's enormous appearance". Of course, not only A.S. Pushkin was meant by Herzen. Pushkin became a symbol of his era, when there was a rapid rise in cultural development of Russia. Pushkin's time first third of the 19th century, dig up "golden age" of Russian culture.
The golden age of Russian culture - architecture
Architecture and sculpture. Late 18th and early 19th centuries - This is the era of classicism in Russian architecture, which left a bright mark on the architectural appearance of St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities.
Classicism is a European cultural and aesthetic trend that focused on ancient (Ancient Greek and Roman) art, on ancient literature and mythology.
Buildings in the style of classicism are distinguished by balance, a clear and calm rhythm, and well-balanced proportions. main laws architectural composition there were symmetry, emphasizing the center, general harmony. The main entrance was usually located in the center and was designed in the form of a portico (protruding part of the building with columns and a pediment). The columns had to be different in color from the walls. Most often, the columns were painted white, and the walls yellow.
In the middle of the XVIII century. Petersburg was a city of solitary architectural masterpieces, immersed in the greenery of estates. Then the regular building of the city began along straight avenues, rays diverging from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is not the architecture of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles that amaze with their unity and harmony.
In 1806 - 1823. a new building of the Admiralty was built according to the project Andrey Dmitrievich Zakharov (1761 - 1811). In a huge building, the architect emphasized the central tower. It is distinguished by a dynamic vertical rhythm. The Admiralty is crowned by a gilded needle with a ship rapidly flying up. The solemn major rhythm of the Admiralty set the tone for the entire architecture of the city on the Neva, and the boat became its symbol.
The construction at the beginning of the 19th century was of great importance. the Exchange building on the spit of Vasilyevsky Island. It was this building that was supposed to unite the ensembles that had developed around the widest section of the Neva channel. The design of the Exchange and the design of the arrow were entrusted to the French architect Thomas de Thomon. A. D. Zakharov participated in the finalization of the project. Their creative collaboration led to a brilliant solution to the problem. The mirror of the Neva united the system: the Peter and Paul Fortress - the arrow of Vasilyevsky Island - Palace embankment. The Exchange building is relatively small, but the power of its architectural forms, combined with rostral columns, allowed it to confidently withstand the vast expanse of the water surface. The theme of dominance over the water element was developed in the monumental sculpture that complemented the ensemble. Mighty figures personifying the main rivers of Russia (Volga, Dnieper, Volkhov and Neva) were created by sculptors S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebnev and V. I. Demut-Malinovsky.
Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of the capital, acquired the form of a single ensemble with the construction in 1801-1811. Kazan Cathedral. Project author Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin (1759 - 1814), the son of a serf, took the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome by Michelangelo. Using his motives, Voronikhin created an original architectural work. The ashes of M. I. Kutuzov were transferred to the cathedral. Monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, made by B. I. Orlovsky, were erected in front of the cathedral. When he first saw these monuments, Pushkin said: “Here is the initiator Barclay, and here is the performer Kutuzov”.
In the 40s - 50s of the XIX century. Nevsky Prospekt was decorated with bronze sculptures Peter Karlovich Klodt (1805 — 1867 ) "Horse Tamers" installed on the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka.
The golden age of Russian culture in the 19th century (p. 1 of 5)
Klodt's sculptures in allegorical form reveal the theme of man's struggle with the elemental forces of nature and victory over them.
Another work of Klodt is a monument to Nicholas I on St. Isaac's Square In Petersburg. The emperor is depicted on horseback. The horse is dancing, the emperor is motionless - a clear contrast compared to the monument to Peter I located not far away.
For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg was built - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Inside the cathedral there can be 13 thousand people. From the gallery on its dome you can see Kronstadt, Peterhof, Pulkovo, Tsarskoe Selo, Gatchina and the sea in the distance. The project of St. Isaac's Cathedral was developed] by a French architect Auguste Montferrand (1786 - 1858). In the design of appearance and interior decoration the sculptor P. K. Klodt, the artist K. P. Bryullov and others participated. According to the government's plan, the cathedral was supposed to personify the power and inviolability of the autocracy, its close alliance with the Orthodox Church. The majestic building of the cathedral makes a strong impression. Although the author of the project and customers can be partly reproached for gigantomania. Contemporaries recalled that the service in such a cathedral was very solemn, but there was no reverence, prayer did not reach the soul, especially among those who stood behind.
According to the project of Montferrand, a 47-meter column of granite monolith was erected on Palace Square(1829-1834) - a monument to Alexander I and at the same time - a monument in honor of the victory of Russian weapons in 1812. The figure of an angel holding a cross was made by B. I. Orlovsky.
The triumphal motifs of the Alexander Column were picked up in the sculptural decoration of the arch of the General Staff Building, which engulfed Palace Square from the south. At the same time, the building of the General Staff, built according to the project of K. I. Rossi, seemed to repeat the solemn major motifs of the Admiralty, located obliquely from it. Thus, the ensemble of Palace Square was connected with the ensemble of Admiralteisky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi (1775 — 1849 ), the son of an Italian ballerina, was born and lived in Russia. The final work on the creation of St. Petersburg ensembles is connected with his work. According to Rossi's design, the buildings of the Senate and the Synod, the Alexandrinsky Theater, and the Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum) were built. Not limited to the construction of individual buildings, the famous maestro rebuilt the streets and squares adjacent to them. These works acquired such a scope that Rossi at one time seemed to be close to fulfilling his dream - to turn the whole city into a work of art. To some extent, this idea was realized.
Old Petersburg, left to us as a legacy by Rastrelli, Zakharov, Voronikhin, Montferrand, Rossi, and other Russian and foreign architects, is a masterpiece of world architecture. Its careful preservation for children and grandchildren is the sacred duty of every new generation of Russian citizens.
At the beginning of the XIX century. sculptor Ivan Petrovich Martos (1754 — 1835 ) received an order for a monument to Minin and Pozharsky for Nizhny Novgorod. While the work was going on, Russia was subjected to the Napoleonic invasion. The patriotic upsurge of 1812 inspired the master to create a highly artistic and deeply inspired work. It was installed on Red Square in Moscow, which had not yet healed its wounds, had not built up its ashes. Another monument was erected in Nizhny Novgorod.
After the fire in Moscow, such buildings of outstanding beauty as the Bolshoi Theater and the Manege (both designed by O. I. Bove) were erected. The fire did not eliminate the traditional diversity of Moscow streets, the picturesque randomness of buildings. It was difficult to deploy architectural ensembles on narrow and curved streets with buildings from different eras. Therefore, Moscow classicism was imprinted not in ensembles, but in separate buildings. It is not as monumental as the one in St. Petersburg, more free, closer to a person and sometimes touchingly naive (when a portico was attached to a one-story wooden house). One of the best Moscow mansions classical style- the Lopukhins' house on Prechistenka (now the Leo Tolstoy Museum). It was built by the architect A. G. Grigoriev, a native of the serfs.
Provincial classicism was closer to Moscow. A number of major architects came to the fore in the provinces. So, for example, a student of Voronikhin M.P. Korinfsky, a native of Arzamas, built in Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Simbirsk. In his hometown, he supervised the construction of the cathedral, which was built at the expense of the local merchants in memory of the events of 1812. The rumor about the magnificent Arzamas Cathedral spread far across Russia.
In Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. Baroque buildings were still being built. Its features are visible in the Moscow Gates of Irkutsk, in the Resurrection Cathedral in Tomsk. But then classicism came to Siberia. One of the first and best of his monuments - "The White house" in Irkutsk, built by merchants Sibiryakovs. In Omsk, designed by a famous architect Vasily Petrovich Stasov (1769 - 1848) Nikolsky Cossack Cathedral was erected. It contained the banner of Yermak.
In the 30s of the XIX century. Classicism entered a time of crisis. People began to be oppressed by the monotony of buildings with columns. The rules of classicism, too rigid, had difficulty adapting to the changing environment. At that time, the construction of profitable (apartment) houses was unfolding in the cities. In such a house, several entrances were needed, and according to the canons of classicism, only one main entrance could be made - in the center of the building. Shops were located on the lower floors of tenement houses, but their wide windows did not match the norms of classicism. And he left, swept away by the criticism of his contemporaries and the urgent demands of life.
The creative thought of the architects settled on the principle of "smart choice".
It was believed that the building should be built in the style that meets its purpose. In practice, everything was determined by the desire of the customer and the taste of the architect. Landlords began to build estates in the medieval Gothic style. Tenement houses with Venetian windows appeared in the cities. The period of eclecticism (mixing of styles) began.
In 1839 - 1852. According to the project of the German architect Leo Klenze, the building of the New Hermitage was built in St. Petersburg. The calm balance of its parts, the decoration in the modern Greek style, the powerful granite atlantes at the entrance - all this created an impressive image of the museum - a repository of masterpieces of world art.
Konstantin Andreevich Ton (1794 — 1881 ) in his work tried to revive the traditions of ancient Russian architecture. He built five-domed churches with narrow arched (rounded) windows, used Russian and Byzantine decor. All this was subject to the strict proportions and symmetry of classicism, which Tone could not renounce. The Russian-Byzantine style of Ton seemed artificial to many. But in fact, Ton simply did not comprehend for certain all the secrets ancient Russian architecture- so firmly they were forgotten.
Nicholas I liked Ton's work. The architect received two large orders for Moscow. In 1838 - 1849. under his leadership, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built. In 1839, on the banks of the Moskva River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid to commemorate the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. Construction dragged on for many years.
The solemn consecration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior took place in 1883. Marble plaques with the names of killed and wounded officers were installed in the temple, the number of dead soldiers in each battle was reported, the names of people who gave their savings to the cause of victory were immortalized. The majestic 100-meter bulk of the temple organically fit into the silhouette of Moscow.
The patronage of Nicholas I played a fatal role for the legacy of Ton. His creations began to be regarded as a symbol of Nicholas's reign. This explains the sharp reviews of Herzen. Not favored Ton and other opposition-minded critics. During the years of Soviet power, Ton's work was hushed up or belittled. Many of the churches he built were demolished. In 1931 the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was blown up. It didn’t occur to me just to blow up the Moscow railway station in St. Petersburg and the Petersburg railway station in Moscow - also Ton’s creations, in the architecture of which the motifs of the Moscow Sukharev tower, demolished in the same fatal years for Russian culture, are subtly read. Badly damaged, Ton's legacy lives on and serves the people.
The golden age of Russian culture - painting
Russian painting. In 1827, a Russian artist visited the excavations of the ancient city of Pompeii Karl Pavlovich Bryullov (1799 - 1852). He walked along the ancient pavements, admired the frescoes, and in his imagination that tragic night arose when the city was covered with hot ashes of awakened Vesuvius. It took about six years to work on the painting. "The last day of Pompeii". The death of this city in the view of the artist was connected with the death of the entire ancient world. Its beauty, as it were, personifies central figure paintings - a beautiful woman, who fell from the chariot and crashed to death.
In Russia "The last day of Pompeii" expected a real triumph. The rumor about the masterpiece brought from Italy spread throughout St. Petersburg, and merchants, artisans, and artisans flocked to the halls of the Academy of Arts. Russian secular painting first attracted a mass audience.
Bryullov was abroad on a business trip from the Academy of Arts. In this educational institution, the teaching of the technique of drawing and painting was well established. But the Academy focused on the ancient heritage and heroic themes. Scenes from modern life, a simple Russian landscape were considered unworthy of the artist's brush. Classicism in painting was called academism.
Bryullov was associated with the Academy with all his work. But he had a powerful imagination, a keen eye and a faithful hand - and he produced living creations, only outwardly consistent with the canons of academism. With his inherent grace alone, he was able to capture both the beauty of A. A. Ivanov's naked human body, and the trembling of a sunbeam on a green leaf. Academic painting reached its peak in creativity Alexander Andreevich Ivanov (1806—1858 ). For more than 20 years he worked on the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", in which he put all the strength and brightness of his talent. In the foreground of the grandiose canvas, the courageous figure of John the Baptist stands out, pointing to the approaching Christ. His figure is given in the distance. He has not yet come, but he will definitely come, says the artist. And the faces and souls of those who are waiting for the Savior brighten, cleanse.
Two remarkable portrait painters of their time - Orest Adamovich Kiprensky (1782 — 1836 ) And Vasily Andreevich Tropinin (1776 — 1857 ) - left us lifetime portraits Pushkin. Kiprensky's Pushkin looks solemn and romantic, in a halo of poetic glory. " You flatter me, Orestes”, Pushkin sighed, looking at the finished canvas. In the portrait of Tropinin, the poet is charming in a homely way. Some special old-Moscow warmth and comfort emanates from Tropinin's works. Until the age of 47 he was in bondage. Therefore, probably, the faces of ordinary people are so fresh and inspired on his canvases. And the youth and charm of his "Lacemaker" are endless.
Folk motifs are inherent in painting Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov(1780 — 1847 ). He began his career as an artist as a secular portrait painter, but then left the capital and went to his estate in the Tver province. Here, on his canvases, a series of peasant faces was displayed: a bearded old man, an old woman with a stick, a child taking its first steps, a girl with cornflowers. Pegasus horses were by no means reminiscent of classic Pegasus. And in the background, the native Russian landscape loomed: fields of ripe rye, copses, thatched roofs.
And yet the artist's work remained mainly within the framework of classicism. The Russian village on the canvases of Venetsianov is too conditional and decorative. Peasant women go out to corvee in bright sundresses and kokoshniks. Their work is not hard at all. In one of the paintings, a young woman easily and smoothly leads two horses harnessed to a harrow across the arable land. The Venetian village is elegant, festive, serene. And only sometimes, as if by chance, slips such a detail as the overworked hands of an old peasant woman.
Creativity clearly did not fit into the framework of academicism Pavel Andreevich Fedotov (1815 — 1852 ). The makings of a satirical artist were discovered in him while still serving in the guard. Then he made funny, mischievous sketches of army life. In 1848, his painting appeared at the academic exhibition "Fresh Cavalier", a daring mockery not only of the stupid and swaggering bureaucracy, but also of academic traditions.
The dirty robe that the protagonist of the picture put on was very reminiscent of an antique toga. Bryullov looked at the picture for a long time, and then said to the author, half in jest, half seriously: “ Congratulations, you have defeated me.". Other paintings by Fedotov also have a comedy-satirical character ( "Aristocrat's Breakfast", "Major's Marriage"). His last paintings are very sad ( "Anchor, more anchor!", "Widow").
In 1852, a remarkable event took place in the cultural life of Russia. The Hermitage opened its doors, where the artistic treasures of the imperial family were collected. The first public art museum appeared in Russia.
The golden age of Russian culture (part II).
§Golden Age of Russian Culture II
§Russian Orthodox Church of the 19th century
§Metropolitan Philaret
§Persecution of the Old Believers
§Alexander II
Features of Russian culture of the nineteenth century
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Education. . The development of society objectively required increased attention to education. As a result, a system of primary, secondary and higher education, the number of educational institutions has increased many times, the level of teaching has increased. In accordance with the new educational charter, four types of interconnected educational institutions were introduced: parish and district elementary schools, gymnasiums and universities. Teacher training was carried out at the Main Pedagogical Institute. The growth of education led to the intensification publishing, book trade. The number of periodicals more than tripled from the beginning to the middle of the century. Socio-political and art magazines began to be published: Teleskop, Moscow Telegraph, Sovremennik, Otechestvennye Zapiski. Librarianship improved. The basic principles of education were based first on the theory of Count S. Uvarov about the special predestination of the Russian people, the main criteria for the life of which were three principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality, and the central issue was the question of class in education. Gradually, the main requirements for pedagogy as a science were formed, consisting in the harmonious, comprehensive education of the individual (physical, moral, labor and mental), in the formation of a materialistic worldview, the organization of secular education, and the development of didactic principles of education.
Literature. In terms of the degree of influence on Russian society, literature occupied the first place. It reflected different aspects of public life, contributed to the development of public consciousness. Russian literature primordially acted as a teacher, preaching the ideas of goodness, looking for the causes of evil and ways of correcting and transforming social reality. The socio-political processes taking place in Russia in the 19th century shaped the mood in society, determined the state of literature, in which the process of the formation of new trends and styles took place.
The classicism of G. Derzhavin was replaced by the sentimentalism of N. Karamzin and V. Zhukovsky. Supporters of this trend advocated the rapprochement of the literary language with the spoken language, created the Arzamas society, among whose members were P. Vyazemsky, A. Pushkin, M. Orlov, and others. Soon sentimentalism gave way to romanticism, which responded to the mood in society that arose after the war 1812 Russian romanticism found its highest expression in a ballad in which the character faced the higher forces of being on the very edge of the possible (“Svetlana” by V. Zhukovsky). Later, A. Pushkin extended the principle of the ballad genre to the sphere of Russian history, writing “The Song of prophetic Oleg". Second form romantic literature there was a poem, and in it, as a rule, reality appeared in a forked form (“The Demon” by M. Lermontov). But the highest achievement of Russian romanticism in literature was the lyrics (Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev). Pushkin's works had a powerful influence on the development of prose, giving impetus to the work of N. Gogol. N. Nekrasov, F. Dostoevsky, I. Turgenev, I. Goncharov, A. Ostrovsky, L.
"Golden" age of Russian culture
Tolstoy. Realism, clearly manifested in their work, later became the leading and mass trend in Russian literature.
Scientific achievements. The development of science in Russia must be considered in line with those socio-economic and socio-political processes that shaped the culture of Russia in the 19th century, i.e., in line with the formation of bourgeois-capitalist relations. This required a new approach to understanding the role of scientific knowledge. The Academy of Sciences and the largest Russian universities have made a huge contribution to world science: well-known scientific schools were formed in them, scientific societies were created under them: the Russian Technical Society, the Russian historical society, Russian Chemical Society (about 20). Large scientific congresses and symposiums were also held in Russia, which further strengthened the status of domestic science. In 1818, the degrees of doctor and master of sciences were introduced in Russia according to the European model. Russian science was glorified by M. V. Ostrogradsky, N. I. Lobachevsky (mathematicians), E. Kh. Lenz, B. S. Jacobi (physicists) , A. A. Voskresensky, N. A. Zinin (chemists), V. A. Basov, I. G. Glebov (physiologists), N. I. Pirogov, I. F. Bush (surgeons). They were the founders scientific schools, whose traditions were continued later in the field of chemistry by A. M. Butlerov, D. I. Mendeleev, who discovered the periodic law in 1869; I. M. Sechenov, who created the fundamental work on physiology "Reflexes of the brain." K. A. Timiryazev developed the theory of plant photosynthesis, V. V. Dokuchaev laid the foundations of genetic soil science. The Russian mathematical school is on the same level as the European one, and its representatives P. L. Chebyshev, S. V. Kovalevskaya, V. N. Krylov and A. A. Markov have gained worldwide fame along with the names of the luminaries of medicine and biology I. I. Mechnikov, V. M. Bekhterev, N. E. Vvedensky, I. P. Pavlov. The founders and organizers of clinical medicine S. P. Botkin, N. V. Sklifosofsky, V. B. Serbsky were known not only in Russia, but and throughout Europe.
It would be wrong to think that science developed only in the natural-technical field. In the second half of the XIX century. powerful philosophical, social and humanitarian knowledge is being formed in Russia. Literary criticism, linguistics, linguistics, economics, history, philosophy occupy an increasing place in Russian science, thus confirming the traditional for our country desire for high spirituality and depth of understanding of the world. N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky deal with issues of Russian history, V. I. Dal, P. V. Annenkov, F. F. Fortukatov deal with issues of linguistics and philology. Philosophy abounded in various directions and currents, representing the richness of Russian philosophical thought, expressing all the complexities of the intellectual and spiritual life of the 19th century.
Theater. The existence of the monopoly of the capital's imperial theaters persisted until 1880. In addition to the capital's, there were many serf theaters in Russia, which gradually disappeared in the post-reform period. Their place was occupied by folk theaters, charitable or commercial, which appeared as a result of the democratization of public life. After the abolition of the monopoly of the imperial theaters in Russia, many private theaters appeared, which also played a very prominent role and contributed to the penetration of theatrical art to the periphery. Of the most famous playwrights of this time, one should name A. N. Ostrovsky, A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, A. K. Tolstoy, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, who continued the traditions of Fonvizin and Griboyedov. Classical European dramatic works were also staged in theaters. The abundance of theatrical genres, including opera, operetta, vaudeville, drama, ballet, satisfied the tastes of all segments of the population and diversified the theatrical repertoire. The leading theaters of Russia remained the most famous: the Maly and the Alexandrinsky. The intensive development of the art of the theater led not only to the emergence of dramatic genres in literature, but also to the development of the art of scenography, theatrical costume, and theatrical painting.
Art. Art of the first half of the XIX century. imbued with the ideas of patriotism, service to the Motherland, a sense of national identity, formed after the war of 1812. Artists glorified the exploits of Minin and Pozharsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Alexander Nevsky, turned to the era of Peter I. The historical genre gained particular popularity. Interest in the portrait genre did not weaken either (O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin), and landscape painting became much more emotional. Gradually, the landscapes lost their former convention of compositions, acquired a more lively color. The versatility of the themes of landscape painters is amazing: S. Shchedrin creates amazing solar work full of living warmth; I. Aivazovsky masterfully paints seascapes (marina), he is also fond of the realistic method; I. Shishkin creates many soft, soulful landscapes in which he glorifies the virgin Russian nature; A. Ivanov, starting his work with a landscape, comes to the main masterpiece of his life - the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People." Ancestor genre painting K. Bryullov glorified the Russian school of painting with the canvas “The Last Day of Pompeii”. On this occasion, the poet E. Baratynsky wrote: “You brought peaceful trophies with you to your father's canopy. And the "Last Day of Pompeii" became the first day for the Russian brush.
19th century was the time of the final formation of the Russian national culture and the Russian nation as a community of people, emerging in the process of development of capitalist relations. Humanistic ideas have been embodied in all areas of Russian culture, designating the extra-class value of the individual as a dominant. Social transformations and a patriotic upsurge have changed the spiritual image of the population, its way of life, living conditions, and the growth of cultural needs. Russia entered the world cultural community with an undeniable advantage, its own national idea, and the richness of a multinational culture.
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Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century
The beginning of the 19th century is the time of the cultural and spiritual upsurge of Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national identity of the Russian people, its consolidation.
The growth of the national self-consciousness of the people during this period had a huge impact on the development of literature, fine arts, theater and music. The autocratic-feudal system with its estate policy held back the development of Russian culture. Children of non-noble origin received their primary education in parish schools. Gymnasiums were created for the children of nobles and officials, they gave the right to enter the university.
In the first half of the 19th century, seven universities were formed in Russia. In addition to the functioning Moscow, Derpt, Vilna, Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg and Kiev universities were established. Higher government officials were trained in privileged educational institutions - lyceums.
The book publishing and magazine and newspaper business continued to develop. In 1813 there were 55 state printing houses in the country.
Public libraries and museums played a positive role in the cultural life of the country. The first public library was opened in St. Petersburg in 1814 (now the State National Library). True, at that time her richest book collection remained inaccessible to the general reader.
The first third of the 19th century is called the "golden age" of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art.
Buildings built in the style of classicism are distinguished by a clear and calm rhythm, well-balanced proportions.
Even in the middle of the 18th century, Petersburg was buried in the greenery of estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Then the regular building of the city began. St. Petersburg classicism is not the architecture of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles that amaze with their unity and harmony. The work began with the erection of the Admiralty building according to the project of AD Zakharov. The construction of the Stock Exchange building at the beginning of the 19th century on the spit of Vasilevsky Island was of fundamental importance. Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, acquired the appearance of a single ensemble with the construction of the Kazan Cathedral. For forty years, starting from 1818, St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg was built - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. According to the plan of the government, the cathedral was supposed to personify the power and inviolability of the autocracy, its close alliance with the Orthodox Church.
According to Rossi's design, the buildings of the Senate and the Synod, the Alexandrinsky Theater, and the Mikhailovsky Palace were built. Old Petersburg, left to us as a legacy by Rastrelli, Zakharov, Voronikhin, Montferrand, Rossi and other outstanding architects, is a masterpiece of world architecture.
In the palette of diversity in Moscow, classicism brought its own bright colors. After the fire of 1812, the Bolshoi Theater, the Manege, the monument to Minin and Pozharsky were erected in Moscow, and the Grand Kremlin Palace was built under the guidance of the architect Ton. In 1839, on the banks of the Moskva River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid in memory of the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. In 1852, a remarkable event took place in the cultural life of Russia. The Hermitage opened its doors, where the artistic treasures of the imperial family were collected. The first public art museum appeared in Russia.
Foreign troupes and serf theaters continued to play an important role in the theatrical life of Russia. Some landowners became entrepreneurs. Many talented Russian artists came out of the serfs. M. S. Shchepkin was a serf until the age of 33, P. S. Mochalov grew up in the family of a serf actor. A great event in the theatrical life of Russia was the premiere of Gogol's The Inspector General, where Shchepkin played the role of the mayor. In the same years, the opera “Life for the Tsar” by M.I. Glinka was staged at the Bolshoi Theater. Some scenes in the opera are striking in their penetration into the very depths of folk art. Glinka's second opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" was coldly received by the audience. In those days, not everyone was aware of the true significance of his work. Charmingly talented Alyabyev, Varlamov, Gurilev enriched Russian music with charming romances. In the first half of the 9th century, Russian musical culture rose to an unprecedented height.
What is famous for the Golden Age in Russian culture
S. Pushkin became a symbol of his era, when there was a rapid rise in the cultural development of Russia. Pushkin's time is called the "Golden Age" of Russian culture. In the first decades of the century, poetry was the leading genre in Russian literature. In the poems of the Decembrist poets Ryleev, Odoevsky, Kuchelbeker, the pathos of high citizenship sounds, the themes of the motherland and service to society were raised. After the defeat of the Decembrists, the mood of pessimism intensified in literature, but there was no decline in creativity. Pushkin is the creator of the Russian literary language. His poetry has become an enduring value in the development of not only Russian, but also world culture. He was a singer of freedom and a staunch patriot who condemned serfdom in his homeland. It can be said that before Pushkin there was no literature in Russia worthy of the attention of Europe in depth and diversity equal to the amazing achievements of European creativity. In the works of the great poet, there is a highly patriotic pathos of love for the motherland and faith in its power, an echo of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, a magnificent, truly sovereign image of the motherland. A. S. Pushkin is a brilliant poet, prose writer and playwright, publicist and historian. Everything he created is classic examples of the Russian word and verse. The poet bequeathed to his descendants: “It is not only possible, but also necessary, to be proud of the glory of your ancestors ... Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery ...” Even during the life of Pushkin, N. V. Gogol began to gain wide popularity. Gogol's acquaintance with Pushkin took place in 1831, at the same time in St. Petersburg, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” came out in two parts. The first printed form of the Inspector General appeared in 1836.
In his works, the reconstruction of the truth of life was accompanied by merciless exposure of the autocratic Russian order.
Pushkin's sonorous lyre was taken over by M. Yu. Lermontov. The death of Pushkin revealed Lermontov to the Russian public in all the strength of his poetic talent. Creativity Lermontov proceeded during the years of the Nikolaev reaction. His poetry awakened younger generation thought; the poet refused to accept the existing despotic orders. The poem "The Death of a Poet", which circulated in manuscripts and others poetic works aroused such hatred for the author from the crowd standing at the throne that the poet was not allowed to live ten years to the age of Pushkin.
The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century was ultimately determined by the economic and socio-political processes that took place in the life of the country. In addition, in the middle of the 19th century, the growing global significance of Russian culture was increasingly recognized.
Bibliography:
1. I. A. Zaichkin, I. N. Pochkov “Russian history from Catherine the Great to Alexander II”
2. “History of Russia” Managing editor A. N. Sakharov
INTRODUCTION
2. CULTURE OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The 19th century absorbed, rethought or developed many of the trends that had developed in Russian culture in the Petrine and post-Petrine eras, but the main problems of the last century still remained unresolved - the state reorganization of society, the choice between Western and Slavic paths of further development, the position of the peasantry. This is probably why not a single century of Russian history has known so many theories, teachings, options for updating and “saving” Russia, never before has the state been shaken by such numerous social movements: revolutionaries, commoners, nihilists, anarchists, populists, Marxists ...
Russia continued to expand its territories and became a huge country-empire. Started in the 18th century reforms and transformations also continued, and Russia was rapidly changing, finding its rightful place among the leading powers of the world.
In the sphere of culture, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. In terms of the richness of literature, fine arts, music, this century is incomparable with any other period in the history of not only Russian, but also world culture. If in the XVIII century. Russia loudly declared to the whole world about its existence, then in the XIX century. she literally burst into world culture, taking one of the most honorable places there. This happened due to the fact that Russia gave the world geniuses in literature, painting, music, architecture, philosophy and thus made a huge contribution to the treasury of human culture. It was in the 19th century. Russian culture, having become classical, created perfect images and works that many generations of people and artists were guided by in their lives and work.
All this makes it possible to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture.
1. THE "GOLDEN AGE" OF RUSSIAN CULTURE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the further evolution of Russian culture. A powerful upsurge of social and philosophical thought followed - the central problem was the choice of the path of development, the future of Russia. This question was not new for the country, but now it has taken shape in the form of two major trends in spiritual culture - Westernism And Slavophilism. Both currents rejected the regime of autocracy and serfdom, but took opposite positions in understanding the ways of reorganizing Russia.
Westerners stood on positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly valued the reforms of Peter the Great, advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it common and inevitable for all peoples. The Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, bourgeois transformations, which could be implemented, in their opinion, only through reforms.
The Slavophils, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed the Petrine reforms, which, in their opinion, violated the natural evolution of Russia. They advocated a fundamentally different path of development for Russia than the Western European one. The Slavophils insisted on the original development of Russia, focusing on its religious-historical and cultural-national identity, relying on the forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which were the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.
The ideas of the Slavophiles received a wide public response and laid the foundation for the development of an original and original trend in Russian philosophy, the basis of which was not Western rationalism, but Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. The Slavophils developed the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities participated in cognition - feelings, reason, faith, will and love.
Truth can belong not to an individual person, but only to a group of people united by a single faith, hope and love, from which a conciliar consciousness is born. Sobornost, thus, is opposed to individualism and disunity. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith, the bearer of which is the Orthodox Church. The Slavophiles were convinced that it was precisely Russian Orthodoxy that embodies the truly Christian principles to the fullest extent possible, while Catholicism and Protestantism departed from the true faith. In this regard, they put forward the idea of the messianic role of Russia in the salvation of mankind and world culture.
By the middle of the century, the "fermentation of minds" reached its climax. Writers, artists, composers of that era did not stand aside from the burning problems of our time. Socio-political thought and artistic creativity developed in close relationship, sometimes overlapping and complementing each other. Culture has become a vivid and direct reflection of the social problems of its time.
Finally, the cultural-historical process in Russia in the 19th century. had another important feature, which to a large extent determined its results. The fact is that over the course of a century, the main creators and bearers of Russian culture were two social strata: in the first half of the century, the noble intelligentsia, and in the second half, the raznochintsy, i.e. educated representatives of all classes of the bourgeoisie. This layer consisted mainly of people from the bureaucratic, petty-bourgeois, merchant and peasant classes. They introduced a new attitude, ideas and images into the artistic culture, increased the number of writers, poets, artists, and thus significantly changed its face in the second half of the century. On this basis, the culture of Russia in the XIX century. It is customary to divide into two main stages, the time boundary between which runs just in the middle of the century, i.e. at the turn of the 50-60s.
2. CULTURE OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY
Culture of the first half of the XIX century. characterized by rapid change of direction. In the public consciousness, there was a gradual departure from the normativity of the educational ideology that underlay the style of classicism. And as a result, attention to the person, his inner world, where feeling, and not duty, was an important motive for his actions, increased.
Widespread and influential in Russian culture at the beginning of the century had romanticism. In Russia, it arose during the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of the romantic style was the desire to oppose reality to a generalized ideal image, whose bright personality and unique appearance did not fit into the framework of generally accepted stereotypes of thinking and behavior. The personality is in contradiction with the reality surrounding it - such is the initial position of romanticism. The fact is that Romanesque art was created by artists who themselves were often in a difficult discord with "hostile reality." They sought peace in an idealized past, in folk tales, in the peace and quiet of nature. On the basis of the enthusiasm for the "eternal beauty" of folk art, interest in the original origins of culture is being revived.
Russian romanticism is inseparable from pan-European, but at the same time it has a pronounced specificity, due to the entire course of the previous historical and spiritual development. Attention to national history was characteristic of the entire culture as a whole. Many writers, poets, and composers addressed historical issues. But the Russian artistic intelligentsia, in accordance with its mission as a herald of freedom and liberalism, did not feel any attachment to the abstractions of dreams and illusions, to fantasies far from reality. The world around was perceived by Russians artists of the XIX V. as the main subject of creativity. This stimulated the development of realistic imagery, which was combined with romantic means of expression. Historians of Russian culture rightly believe that romanticism has become an important link in the overall process of cultural development from classicism to realism. It was this simultaneous interweaving of styles that contributed to the birth of outstanding works of Russian art.
In the culture of the Golden Age, literature played the main stabilizing and creative role, since it was perhaps the only art form that could most fully express the needs of its time. Classical writers have always gravitated toward a voluminous, multidimensional worldview that retains ambiguity and imagery. Classical literature of the 19th century was more than literature. It has become a synthetic artistic phenomenon, it has turned out to be, in fact, a universal form of social consciousness, performing the functions of other types of art.
The character and content of Russian culture was significantly influenced by the Decembrist movement, which gave it special features of citizenship and political freedom. This influence was the reason for the emergence of a new way of reproducing reality, which later received the name critical realism, one of the main methods in Russian literature of the XIX century. The ideas of struggle and freedom of the individual are reflected in the work of the leading Russian writers Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov.
Starting with Pushkin and Gogol, Russian writers and poets - I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.N. Ostrovsky, N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Fet and others constantly strived to embody in their work a lofty social-humanistic moral ideal.
In the first decades of the century, architecture, developing in the forms of late classicism - empire, acquires special solemnity. Unlike the palace and temple buildings of the previous era, architects work mainly on projects of buildings of a public and utilitarian nature: theaters, ministries, barracks, etc. In other words, the appearance of architecture was determined by buildings of a citywide purpose.
The first in line with late classicism (Empire) in Russian architecture created A.N. Voronikhin And A.A-Zakharov.
By the beginning of the 30s. classicism as the leading style of Russian architecture has completely exhausted itself: the rise of national feeling, the civic pathos of serving the fatherland, which were the spiritual basis of classicism in the first quarter of the century, after the defeat of the Decembrists, practically lost their significance. This was the main reason for the crisis in architecture in the second third of the 19th century. Outwardly, the crisis manifested itself in the loss of harmony of architectural forms, their excessive geometry, overcomplicated decorative details. An example of this is the buildings included in the ensemble of St. Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg, and the main of them is St. Isaac's Cathedral, built according to the project of Auguste Montferrand.
In the 30s. in connection with the decline of classicism, the empire was replaced by various eclectic forms, including the Russian-Byzantine (or pseudo-Russian) style. One of the leading architects of this style was K.A. Tone- the author of the projects of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory.
From the first years of the 19th century in the artistic tastes of Russian society, obvious changes are noticeable in connection with the rejection of the artistic canons of classicism. In Russian painting, there is a growing interest in the human personality, the lives of ordinary people. As in literature, in painting the world of romantic feelings united with real images, bringing to life new names of artists and creative discoveries.
The development of romanticism, and then realism in the visual arts, led to serious changes in academic painting. In the 30-50s. the ideological foundations of academicism, based on the hierarchical value of genres, became more and more outdated. The artistic attitudes of academism came into conflict with the demands of life and the social tasks of art. The need for new expressive means in painting. Under these conditions, the priority of the historical genre was still preserved, while the everyday genre as an independent genre had not yet received recognition. The approval of romantic ideas then predetermined the rapid development of the portrait genre in painting.
In the first half of the XIX century. Russian musical culture has entered a qualitatively new era of its development. Under the influence of the historical events of 1812, composers increasingly turned to heroic-patriotic and national subjects. On this wave already in the first decade of the XIX century. many composers gravitated towards romanticism. Romance became the leading genre of that time, and prominent adherents of this genre were A.A. Alyabiev, A.E. Varlamov, Ya.N. Verstovsky, P.P. Bulakhov, A.A. Turilev. It was these composers who wrote romances that are still very popular today: Nightingale (Alyabyev), Troika (Bulakhov), A snowstorm sweeps along the street, Don’t wake her up at dawn (Varlamov), Bell ;" (Gurilev).
Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century, reflecting the fruitful dialogue of different directions, took an important step forward. The idea of Russian national identity was embodied in the work of artists of all types of art. The fruitfulness of this idea was confirmed in the even higher achievements of literature, painting and music of the second half of the century.
3. CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
The metropolitan nobility was the main carrier of culture until about the middle of the century, when new socio-political forces emerged in Russia - raznochintsy, people from new social strata and a revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. These forces saw their historical mission in solving two main problems - the image of Russia and the fate of man. Ways to solve these problems have received a variety of socio-political, moral, religious and spiritual expression. In the work of writers, composers, artists, architects, the solution of these problems and their corresponding expression acquired the features of a new picture of the world, through the prism of which there was a reassessment of the social role and significance of culture.
In addition, the raznochintsy made Russian culture more social in terms of issues and much more democratic in direction and forms. From now on, the main social conflicts of Russian reality are realized much more actively and critically. Never before has culture participated so directly in major social movements. Hence her characteristic features became citizenship, high morality and democratic orientation.
The style of realism is increasingly taking on a critical character and, as such, is becoming the main artistic direction. Critical realism significantly changed the social functions of art, which was supposed not only to reproduce and explain life, but also to pass a "sentence on its phenomena."
Russian literature of the post-reform period gave the world a "bright constellation of great names." A new generation of realist writers entered literature in the 1960s and 1970s. and offered the society new themes, genres, ideological and artistic principles. Rethinking and reworking the old principles and forms of depicting life led to the development of the genre of the social novel and short story. Outstanding achievements in this genre belonged to I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.
Start creative activity Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev refers to the 40s, when the writer was fond of the philosophy of romanticism. Under her influence, life credo Turgenev - he was an opponent of violent measures to solve any problems, including social ones. However, the passion for romanticism passed quite quickly, and already from the mid-40s. Turgenev becomes a realist writer.
At the turn of the 40-50s. in the public life of Russia, a new generation of intelligentsia, distinguished by sharp radicalism and rejection of serfdom, more and more clearly declared itself. Turgenev was the first of the Russian writers to bring out in his novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons” heroes who expressed the views of “new people”. In these novels, he reflected the conflict of generations in the form of antagonism of two worldviews - noble liberals and raznochintsy revolutionaries. The writer presented the views of the new heroes of the era as a destructive force that breaks the usual foundations of public life. At the same time, the author himself does not approve of their radicalism, but treats their moral principles, courage, selflessness, asceticism with sympathy and respect. The writer (being himself a nobleman) considers the nobility to be the bearer of the highest spiritual values of Russian culture. At the same time, he understands that the “time” of the nobility is running out and it is no longer able to actively resist the extremism of the “new people”. In his novels, the writer reveals the best features of the Russian noble intelligentsia, its love for the people, devotion to the interests of the country. These qualities serve as an excuse for the romantic pessimism that permeates many of the images of the best people of the nobility.
He played a completely different role in Russian culture. Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to world culture. Possessing a unique gift of prophecy and the ability to analyze the human soul, the writer professed ideas that went beyond the limits of the ideas of a particular historical time into the sphere of "eternal" interests of people.
Dostoevsky entered Russian literature as an established master. Already in his first novels (“Poor People”), the writer turned to the problem of the “little man”. However, unlike his predecessors, he does not idealize poverty. The desire to show the realism of life forced Dostoevsky to abandon the romanticization of images " common people". He portrays them in accordance with the logic of characters and the truth of life.
60-70s became the most important stage in the work of Dostoevsky - he wrote the famous novels - "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "Demons", "The Brothers Karamazov". In these novels, he substantiated and developed a number of profound philosophical ideas. Expressing his disagreement with the existing world order, the writer at the same time denies the violent measures of the reorganization of the world. He believes that the special historical path of Russia and the rapprochement of the people with the intelligentsia will help resolve social problems without revolutionary upheaval. Dostoevsky warned that revolutionary practice is capable of adopting the principle "the end justifies the means." At the same time, the writer was convinced that only social means of combating evil were not enough. He believed that a person necessarily needs moral support, faith in God.
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy entered the history of Russian and world culture not only as a realist writer, but also as the founder of Russian nihilism, the creator of a kind of philosophy and pedagogy. Tolstoy saw his destiny in the criticism of socio-historical experience, as well as philosophical, religious, and ethical teachings. The writer considered the opinion of the people as the source of his judgments. The theme of the search for a moral ideal, corresponding to the "natural life" of ordinary peasants, runs through all his works (the novels "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Sunday", novels and dramas).
Tolstoy's work was devoted to the image of post-reform Russia. In his works, he raised many great questions, conveyed the mood of the broad masses, their indignation and protest against the existing order. Wide coverage of reality, deepest penetration into human psychology, reflection of the history of the people through private life individual person, the tireless search for a spiritual ideal - all this makes the phenomenon of Tolstoy a unique phenomenon in Russian and world literature.
The fine arts of the post-reform period, as well as literature, were closely connected with the turbulent processes of social life. It reflected disputes about the ways of transforming Russia, a harsh assessment of social reality, populist views on the peasantry, and the eternal search for a moral ideal. The social function of painting has changed radically. If the art of classicism obeyed the idea of decorating life, then in the art of the 60-70s. the aesthetic side is no longer considered the main one. It seemed to the artists much more important to truthfully reflect the social problems, thoughts and feelings of people of different classes. The desire to reflect, to convey the main thing that distinguishes its time, enlightenment beliefs and illusions gave rise to critical painting.
The most important role in the Russian art of painting of that time was played by the Wanderers, who opposed the official academic classicism with its outdated canons.
As Russian realistic painting developed, artists more and more often aroused interest not in momentary, but in “eternal” questions of social life, which history helped to answer. A talented spokesman for the genre of Russian historical painting was Vasily Ivanovich Surikov.
By the beginning of the 80s. the radicalism that dominated the previous 20 years has lost its militant character and has been replaced by a calmer perception of reality. In this situation, painting got the opportunity to free itself from the dictates of journalism. In Russian art, the landscape acquired a very special meaning. At art exhibitions in the 1980s. mainly landscapes were exhibited. Remarkable masters who managed to reveal the amazing beauty, sincerity of Russian nature, became A. I. Kuindzhi("Moonlit night on the Dnieper"), I. Shishkin("Rye"), I. Levitan("Above Eternal Peace"), K. Savrasov("The Rooks Have Arrived"), V.D. Polenov("Overgrown Pond"), etc.
In Russian music of the second half of the century, a tendency to assimilate the best achievements of other types of artistic culture, especially literature, clearly emerged. And it was not a simple translation from the language of literature into the language musical images; interacting with the achievements of other arts, music simultaneously formed its own picture of the world and its own ways of understanding the life and history of the fatherland. Therefore, the musical art of these years is distinguished by a wide variety of genres. Opera art reached perfection, which used the plots of Russian history, culture, life and revealed the psychology of the national character. A whole galaxy of composers appeared, in whose works the central place was occupied by man with his complex spiritual world and the people, oppressed, suffering, but possessing tremendous moral strength. Let's call here A.P. Borodin("Prince Igor"), MP. Mussorgsky("Boris Godunov", "Khovanshchina"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov("Pskovityanka", "The Tsar's Bride").
However, a special role in the musical culture of the post-reform period was played by the circle of St. Petersburg composers, organized by M.A. Balakirev and went down in history under the name "Mighty Handful", or "New Russian Music School". This team, a creative community of like-minded people, consisted of five Russian composers - M.A. Balakireva, A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky And ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov.
CONCLUSION
Despite the fact that there are practically no epochs in history that would not have a strong influence on the subsequent course of cultural development, the 19th century in Russia can be called its most striking stage. This is a period of growth of national self-consciousness, formed in the process of struggle against the French invasion. But at the same time, a sharply critical view of the social structure of Russian reality is taking shape and developing. The result is the Decembrist uprising, which demonstrated the emergence of a new mentality of the Russian intelligentsia and, to a certain extent, marked the emergence of this layer of society.
The social thought of this period is trying to find a solution to the main problems of the time: the state reorganization, the peasant reform and the man himself. This is how the path along which Russian society should go is being sought. The views of thinkers are radically divided: not only Slavophiles and Westernizers, but also Petrashevists, Narodniks, socialists, etc. offer their own cardinal ways to solve Russian problems.
In the 19th century, Russian art reached a special flowering, in all its forms and forms, it revealed to the world an inflorescence of great names of geniuses on a world scale. In art, in just one century, the process of development of the most diverse styles and trends from classicism to realism took place.
Thus, Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century has the right to be proud of great names. Literature, painting and music reached classical perfection. The works of the geniuses of Russian art made it possible to reveal the immense world of the human personality. The method of realism was the first attempt in the knowledge of this world. In the Russian culture of the 19th century, all the prerequisites for the modern culture of Russia were formed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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In the XVIII century. Russia declared itself as a mighty power, and in the XIX century. - as a country of great culture. Period from 1800 to 1880 called the “golden age” of Russian culture, followed by the “silver”. Periodization is conditional, it is very difficult to draw a clear line. The beginning of the Silver Age is usually considered the speech of F.M. Dostoevsky at the opening of the monument to A.S. Pushkin In Moscow in 1880, the end - an article by A.A. Block "Intelligentsia and Revolution", published in 1920. Russia's achievements in the field of culture were so great that it is only possible to list them briefly, it is impossible to cover them completely.
The level of education of the society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the country. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. this figure was low. The peasantry, the main group of the population, was illiterate or semi-literate. In this regard, much attention has been paid to the development of the network primary schools. Secondary education was provided by classical and real gymnasiums. In 1858, women's gymnasiums appeared. By the end of the century - Sunday schools for adults. In 14 universities of the country by the beginning of the 1860s. about 3 thousand students studied. For the training of qualified personnel, special higher educational institutions have been created: the Practical Technological Institute in St. Petersburg (now - St. SPbGLTU named after S.M. Kirov), etc. In the 1870s. in Moscow, Vladimir, Kyiv, Kazan, St. Petersburg, higher women's courses with a university program. In 1875, professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (hence the name of the courses - "bestuzhev").
In the 19th century Russian science has acquired international significance.
The main achievements of Russian scientists in the XIX century.
| Names of scientists and inventors, travelers | Their contribution to the development of science and technology |
| I.F. Kruzenshtern, Yu.F. Lisyansky | Made the first Russian round-the-world expedition |
| F.F. Bellingshausen, M.N. Lazarev | Led the expedition that discovered Antarctica |
| F.P. Litke | Studied the Arctic Ocean and the territory of Kamchatka |
| N.I. Lobachavsky | Created the doctrine of non-Euclidean geometry |
| N.N. Zimin | Received a dye for the textile industry |
| B.S. Jacobi | Developed an electric motor, telegraph devices. Discovered electroforming |
| V.Ya. Struve | Created the Pulkovo observatory |
| N.I. Pirogov | He laid the foundation for military field surgery |
| T.N. Granovsky | Substantiated the commonality of the historical path of Russia and the West |
| DI. Mendeleev | Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements |
| THEM. Sechenov | Studied physiology human brain |
| A.S. Popov | Invented the first telegraph |
| A.F. Mozhaisky | He was the first aircraft in the world to be built |
| P.V. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin | Created the first light bulbs |
| K.E. Tsiolkovsky | Developed a project for an airship and the principles of rocket engines, interplanetary flights |
| I.A. Vyshnegradsky | Laid the foundations of the theory of automatic control |
| F. pancakes | Created the world's first caterpillar tractor |
| CM. Solovyov | Wrote an encyclopedic work on the history of Russia in 29 volumes |
| IN. Klyuchevsky | Works on the history of Russia from the standpoint of multi-linearity and multi-variant development |
The rise of Russian culture and the very definition of the "golden age" are associated primarily with literature. There were various artistic styles, the supporters of which held opposing beliefs, but the fundamental principles were laid down that determined the entire further development of literature: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship, a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice.
| Name | Most famous works |
| N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) | (Sentimentalism) "Poor Lisa" |
| V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852) | (Romanticism) The first official anthem of Russia "Russian Prayer", "Odyssey", "Maryina Grove" |
| A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) | (The founder of realism in Russia) "Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov", "Little Tragedies", "The Queen of Spades", "The Captain's Daughter" |
| M.Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841) | "Borodino", "Death of a Poet", "Mtsyri", "Hero of Our Time" |
| N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) | "Inspector", "Dead Souls", "Overcoat", "Taras Bulba", "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka" |
| I.S. Turgenev (1818-1883) | "Hunter's Notes", "Mumu", "Noble Nest", "Fathers and Sons" |
| ON THE. Nekrasov (1821-1877) | “Who should live well in Rus'”, “Russian women”, “Frost. Red nose" |
| F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) | "Humiliated and Insulted", "Crime and Punishment", "Idiot", "Demons", "The Brothers Karamazov" |
| L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) | Sevastopol Stories, War and Peace, Anna Karenina |
To the treasure of the world musical culture included works by P.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1753-1840), M.I. Glinka (1804-1857), M.P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), P.I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). Operas, symphonies, ballets, romances created in the 19th century. have become classics.
F.M. Dostoevsky wrote: “... the main idea of all the art of the 19th century ... is the restoration of a dead person, crushed unjustly by the yoke of circumstances, the stagnation of centuries and social prejudices. This idea is the justification of the humiliated and rejected pariahs of society. ... It is an integral part and, perhaps, a historical necessity of the nineteenth century. This idea runs like a red thread in a large art XIX V. For the 19th century was characterized by a variety of artistic movements. However, they can be reduced to a few main ones: the beginning of the century - classicism, developing into an empire style; first decades of the 19th century. - Romanticism prevailed, which was replaced by realism, which was most widespread in the art of the middle - second half of the 19th century; since the 1880s - Decadence. IN painting reflected various aspects of the past and present.
| Artist | Most famous works |
| O.A. Kiprensky (1782-1836) | "Self-portrait", a series of portraits, including a portrait of A.S. Pushkin |
| V.A. Tropinin (1776-1857) | "Lacemaker", portrait of A. S. Pushkin |
| A.G. Vasnetsov (1780-1847) | "Threshing floor", "Peasant woman with cornflowers", "On arable land" |
| K.P. Bryullov (1799-1852) | "Italian Noon", "The Horsewoman", "The Last Day of Pompeii" |
| P.A. Fedotov (1815-1852) | "Major's matchmaking", "Anchor, more anchor" |
| A.A. Ivanov (1806-1856) | "The Appearance of Christ to the People", "Walking on the Waters" |
| V.G. Perov (1833-1882) | Portrait of F.M. Dostoevsky, "Seeing the Dead Man", "The Last Tavern at the Outpost" |
| A.K. Savrasov (1830-1897) | "Country road", "Rooks have arrived" |
| THEM. Kramskoy (1837-1887) | Portrait of L.N. Tolstoy, "Unknown" |
| N.N. Ge (1831-1894) | "Peter and Alexei", "What is truth?", "Golgotha" |
| I.E. Repin (1844-1930) | "Barge haulers on the Volga", "They did not wait", "Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan" |
| IN AND. Surikov (1848-1916) | "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Boyar Morozova", "Menshikov in Berezovo" |
| V.M. Vasnetsov (1848-1926) | "Alyonushka", "Bogatyrs", "Knight at the Crossroads" |
| V.V. Vereshchagin (1842-1927) | "The Doors of Timur", "The Apotheosis of War" |
| I.K. Aivazovsky (1832-1898) | "Black Sea", "Ninth Wave" |
| A.I. Kuindzhi (1841-1910) | "Moonlight Night on the Dnieper", "Birch Grove" |
| Sculptor | Most famous works |
| I.P. Martos (1754-1835) | Monument to M.V. Lomonosov (Arkhangelsk), a monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square |
| B.I. Orlovsky (1793-1837) | Monument to M.I. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly |
| PC. Klodt (1805-1867) | Equestrian statues on Anichkov bridge, equestrian statue of Nicholas I |
| A.M. Opekushin (1838-1923) | Monument to A.S. Pushkin in Moscow |
| MM. Antokolsky (1843-1902) | Monument to Peter I (Arkhangelsk), "Ivan the Terrible", "Nestor the Chronicler" |
Impressive progress in the 19th century were also in architecture and urban planning. In the first half of the century, Russian Empire prevailed. In the post-reform period, a national style was formed in architecture in the spirit of traditional Russian architecture (“Russian-Byzantine”). However, for the second half of the XIX century. in general, architectural eclecticism is characteristic - a variety of directions and a mixture of styles. The construction of residential buildings was dominated by the Baroque style, characterized by a wealth of forms and decoration.
| Architect | Major creations |
| A.N. Voronikhin (1759-1814) | Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg |
| HELL. Zakharov (1761-1811) | Admiralty in Petersburg |
| O.I. Beauvais (1874-1834) | Restored building of the Bolshoi and Maly theaters |
| DI. Gilardi (1785-1845) | Reconstruction of the old building of Moscow University |
| K.I. Rossi (1775-1849) | General Staff Building, Alexander Theater in St. Petersburg |
| K.A. Tone (1794-1881) | Grand Kremlin Palace, Armory. According to his project, in 1839 the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was laid (construction was completed in 1883) |
| IN. Sherwood (1833-1897) | The building of the Historical Museum in Moscow |
| D.N. Chichagov (1835-1894) | The building of the Moscow City Duma |
| A.N. Pomerantsev (1849-1818) | Upper trading rows (now GUM) |
Achievements of Russian culture of the XIX century. received worldwide recognition. Many domestic scientists were honorary members of European academies and scientific institutions. The names of Russian travelers remained on the geographical map of the world. Fine arts had a huge impact on the development of European and world culture.
In general, summing up the historical development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century, we can draw the following conclusions:
- The "Great Reforms" affected all aspects of the life of Russian society, and they should have been continued. However, due to the extreme heterogeneity of ideas in society about the future of the country and the lack of popular representation in power, the conservative trend won. The renewal of reforms took place already in the conditions of the First Russian Revolution.
The trends laid down in the second half of the 19th century had the most direct impact on the development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
Issues for discussion
1. Was there a threat of a peasant revolution on the eve of the abolition of serfdom?
2. Why did the peasants not want to switch to redemption?
3. Why liberal-bourgeois reforms of 1864-1874. were inevitable?
4. What did the populists rely on, believing that Russia would come to socialism before other countries?
5. What changes in Russia's relations with other countries took place in the second half of the 19th century?
6. How can one explain the unprecedented rise of Russian culture in the 19th century?
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Bolkhovitinov N.N. Russia discovers America. 1732-1739. Moscow: International relations, 1991. 302 p.
Bokhanov A.N. Emperor Alexander III. M.: Russian word, 2007. 509 p.
Budnitsky O.V. Terrorism in the Russian Liberation Movement: Ideology, Ethics, Psychology: (second half of the 19th - early 20th century) Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2000. 396 p.
Great reforms in Russia. 1856-1874. [Collection] / Ed. L.G. Zakharova M.: MGU, 1992. 333 p.
Dmitrieva N.A Brief history of arts. Issue. III: Countries Western Europe XIX century; Russia XIX century. Moscow: Art, 1992. 361 p.
Zakharova L.G. Russia at a turning point. (Autocracy and reforms of 1861-1874) / History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th-20th centuries / Comp. S.V. Mironenko. M.: Politizdat, 1991. - 367 p.
Lopatnikov V.A. Pedestal: Time and Ministry of Chancellor Gorchakov. M.: Young Guard, 2015. 394 p.
Semanov S.N. Alexander II: History of the Tsar-Liberator, his father and his son. M.: Algorithm: EKSMO, 2003. 414 p.
Conclusion
The features inherent in the New Age in the life of the peoples of Western Europe and America were fully formed in the 18th century. In the 19th century, bourgeois relations (industrial society) were finally established as the basis for Western civilization.
The ideology of the Enlightenment became the ideological basis of modernization. The Great French Revolution gave dynamism to the historical process. Industrialization brought about changes in social structure societies, which resulted in an aggravation of contradictions between people of hired labor and owners of capital. There have also been changes in the balance of power in Europe. The attempt made during the Napoleonic wars to unify Europe by military means failed. England and France, which occupied a leading position, began to be pushed aside by the USA and Germany. Russia was an authoritative participant in international events.
The trends in the development of Western civilization were also inherent in Russia. The beginning of the modernization of the Russian traditional society is associated with the transformations of Peter the Great. It was a response to the challenge of the time, and Russia managed to take its rightful place in the world. The reforms carried out while maintaining serfdom had contradictory consequences. The great reforms of Alexander II were designed to eliminate them. However, due to the extreme heterogeneity of the social movement and the increased terrorist activity of radical organizations, the reforms were interrupted. Up took a conservative trend. The result of the incompleteness of the reforms and the lack of popular representation in power was the revolution in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
Russia's foreign policy during the 18th and 19th centuries was characterized by intense struggle for key geopolitical positions. The country became a strong maritime power, without which not a single international issue was resolved in Europe. The victory in Patriotic War 1812 In contrast to the colonial conquests of the countries of Western Europe, Russia included the acquired territories into the state. Thus, a single geopolitical space was formed on the territory of Eurasia.
The culture of Russia, based on its own traditions and the achievements of other countries, has reached unprecedented heights. However, if the West entered the 20th century with the ideas of the common good (socialism, communism), then F.M. Dostoevsky and L. N. Tolstoy proved that happiness can only be individual.
TEST
Task 1 (choose one answer).
The coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga was strengthened behind Russia as a result of the __________ war.
Answer options:
1) North;
2) Seven years;
3) Smolensk;
4) Livonian.
Task 2 (choose two or more answers).
The activities of Peter I, aimed at the "Europeanization" of the country, were: _____________.
Answer options:
1) convocation of the Legislative Commission;
2) exemption of the nobility from compulsory service;
3) the abolition of the patriarchate;
4) the creation of a regular army.
