1830s - the heyday of Pushkin's prose. Of the prose works at that time, the following were written: “The stories of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin, published by A.P.”, “Dubrovsky”, “The Queen of Spades”, “The Captain's Daughter”, “Egyptian Nights”, “Kirdzhali”. There were many other significant ideas in Pushkin's plans.
Belkin's Tales (1830)- the first completed prose works of Pushkin, consisting of five stories: "The Shot", "Snowstorm", "The Undertaker", "The Stationmaster", "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman". They are prefaced by a "From the Publisher" preface, internally linked to "History of the village of Goryukhino" .
In the preface "From the Publisher", Pushkin assumed the role of publisher and publisher of Belkin's Tale, signing with his initials "A.P." The authorship of the stories was attributed to the provincial landowner Ivan Petrovich Belkin. I.P. Belkin, in turn, put on paper the stories that other people told him. Publisher A.P. said in a note: “In fact, in the manuscript of Mr. Belkin, above each story, the author’s hand inscribed: I heard from such and such a person(rank or rank and capital letters of the name and surname). We write out for curious prospectors: “The Overseer” was told to him by the titular adviser A.G.N., “The Shot” - by Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P., “The Undertaker” - by the clerk B.V., “Snowstorm” and “Young Lady” - maiden K.I.T.” Thus, Pushkin creates the illusion of the actual existence of I.P. Belkin with his notes, ascribes authorship to him and, as it were, documented that the stories are not the fruit of Belkin’s own invention, but actually happened stories, which were told to the narrator by people who really existed and were familiar to him. Denoting the connection between the narrators and the content of the stories (the girl K.I.T. told two love stories, Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. - a story from military life, clerk B.V. - from the life of artisans, titular adviser A.G.N. . - the story of an official, postal station keeper), Pushkin motivated the nature of the narrative and its very style. He, as it were, removed himself from the narrative in advance, transferring the author's functions to people from the provinces, who tell about different aspects of provincial life. At the same time, the stories are united by the figure of Belkin, who was a military man, then retired and settled in his village, visited the city on business and stopped at post stations. I.P. Belkin thus brings all the storytellers together and retells their stories. Such an arrangement explains why the individual manner, which makes it possible to distinguish stories, for example, of the girl K.I.T., from the story of Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P., does not show through. Belkin's authorship is motivated in the preface by the fact that the retired landowner, who, at his leisure or out of boredom, tries the pen, moderately impressionable, could really hear about the incidents, remember them and write them down. Belkin's type is, as it were, put forward by life itself. Pushkin invented Belkin to give him the floor. Here is found that synthesis of literature and reality, which during the period of Pushkin's creative maturity became one of the writer's aspirations.
It is also psychologically reliable that Belkin is attracted by sharp plots, stories and cases, anecdotes, as they would say in the old days. All stories belong to people of the same level of understanding of the world. Belkin as a storyteller is spiritually close to them. It was very important for Pushkin that the story was not told by the author, not from the standpoint of a high critical consciousness, but from the point of view of an ordinary person, amazed by the incidents, but not giving himself a clear account of their meaning. Therefore, for Belkin, all stories, on the one hand, go beyond his usual interests, feel extraordinary, on the other hand, they shade the spiritual immobility of his existence.
The events that Belkin narrates look truly “romantic” in his eyes: they have everything - duels, unexpected accidents, happy love, death, secret passions, adventures with disguises and fantastic visions. Belkin is attracted by a bright, heterogeneous life, which stands out sharply from the everyday life in which he is immersed. Outstanding events took place in the fates of the heroes, while Belkin himself did not experience anything of the kind, but he had a desire for romance.
Entrusting the role of the main narrator to Belkin, Pushkin, however, is not excluded from the narrative. What seems extraordinary to Belkin, Pushkin reduces to the most ordinary prose of life. And vice versa: the most ordinary plots turn out to be full of poetry and conceal unforeseen twists and turns in the fates of the characters. Thus, the narrow boundaries of Belkin's view are immeasurably expanded. So, for example, the poverty of Belkin's imagination acquires a special semantic content. Even in fantasy, Ivan Petrovich does not break out of the nearest villages - Goryukhino, Nenaradovo, and small towns located near them. But for Pushkin similar disadvantage Dignity is also included: wherever you look, in provinces, districts, villages - everywhere life flows the same way. The exceptional cases told by Belkin become typical thanks to Pushkin's intervention.
Due to the presence of Belkin and Pushkin in the stories, their originality is clearly visible. The stories can be considered the "Belkin cycle", because it is impossible to read the stories without taking into account Belkin's figures. This allowed V.I. Tyupe after M.M. Bakhtin to put forward the idea of double authorship and a two-voiced word. Pushkin's attention is drawn to the dual authorship, since the full title of the work is “The Tale of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin published by A.P.”. But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that the concept of “double authorship” is metaphorical, since the author is still one.
According to V.B. Shklovsky and S.G. Bocharov, there is no “voice” of Belkin in the stories. V.I. objected to them. Tyup, citing as an example the words of the narrator from "The Shot" and comparing them with the letter of the Nenaradovo landowner (the beginning of the second chapter of the story "The Shot" and the letter of the Nenaradovo landowner). Researchers who adhere to this point of view believe that Belkin's voice is easily recognized, and the reader can make two ideas about the events of the story - one that was told by the ingenuous narrator, and the other that the author kept silent about. Meanwhile, it is not known whether the cited V.I. Stupid words belonging to Belkin or the hidden narrator - Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. As for the Nenaradovo landowner, he tells the story of Belkin in the same words. Thus, already three persons (Belkin, Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. and the Nenaradovsky landowner) say the same thing in the same words. IN AND. Tyupa correctly writes that Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. indistinguishable from Belkin, but just as indistinguishable from them and the Nenaradovsky landowner. Biographies of Belkin and Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. like two drops of water are alike. In the same way, their way of thinking, their speech, their “voices” are similar. But in this case, one cannot speak of the presence of Belkin's individual "voice" in the stories.
Apparently, Pushkin did not need the individual "voices" of Belkin and the narrators. Belkin speaks for the entire province. His voice is the voice of the whole province without any individual differences. Belkin's speech typified, more precisely, summarized the speech of the province. Pushkin needs Belkin as a non-individualized stylistic mask. With the help of Belkin, Pushkin solved stylistic problems. From all this it follows that in Belkin's Tales the author is present as a stylizer, hiding behind the figure of Belkin, but not giving him an individual word, and as a rarely appearing narrator with an individual voice.
If Belkin's role is to romanticize plots and convey typical image province, then the function of the author is to reveal the real content and the real meaning of events. A classic example is a story stylized “like Belkin”, which is corrected by Pushkin: “Marya Gavrilovna was brought up on French novels and, consequently, was in love. The subject she chose was a poor army ensign who was on vacation in his village. It goes without saying that the young man burned with equal passion and that his parents kind, noticing their mutual inclination, they forbade their daughter to think about him, and he was received worse than a retired assessor. Therefore, the nerve of the narrative is formed by two contradictory stylistic layers: ascending to sentimentalism, moral description, romanticism and a refuting, parodying layer that removes the sentimental-romantic plaque and restores the real picture.
The Tales of Belkin grew up on the intersection of two views of one writer (or two views of a fictional and true narrators).
Pushkin persistently attributed the stories to Belkin and wanted readers to know about his own authorship. The stories are built on the combination of two different views. One belongs to a person of low spiritual development, the other belongs to a national poet who has risen to the heights of world culture. Belkin, for example, talks in detail about Ivan Petrovich Berestov and his neighbor, Grigory Ivanovich Muromsky. Any personal emotions of the narrator are excluded from the description: “On weekdays he went around in a plush jacket, on holidays he put on a coat made of homemade cloth, he wrote down the expense himself and did not read anything except the Senate Gazette. In general, he was loved, although they were considered proud. Only Grigory Ivanovich Muromsky, his closest neighbor, did not get along with him. Here the story concerns a quarrel between two landowners, and Pushkin intervenes in it: “The Angloman endured criticism as impatiently as our journalists. He was furious and called his Zoil a bear and a provincial. Belkin had nothing to do with journalists. He probably did not use such words as "Angloman" and "Zoil". Thanks to Pushkin, a quarrel between two neighbors fits into a wide range of life phenomena (an ironic rethinking of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Pushkin's modern press, etc.). Thus, by creating a biography of Belkin, Pushkin clearly separated himself from him.
The stories were supposed to convince of the veracity of the depiction of Russian life by documentary evidence, references to witnesses and eyewitnesses, and most importantly, by the narrative itself.
Belkin is a characteristic face of Russian life. Ivan Petrovich's outlook is limited to the nearest neighborhood. By nature, he is an honest and meek person, but, like most, unsociable, because, as the narrator put it in The Shot, "solitude was more tolerable." Like any village old-timer, Belkin dispels boredom by listening to stories about incidents that add something poetic to his monotonous prosaic existence.
Belkin's narrative style, stylized by Pushkin, is close to Pushkin's principles in its attention to living reality and the simplicity of the story. Pushkin, not without cunning, deprived Belkin of fantasy and attributed to him the poverty of imagination. Criticism blamed Pushkin himself for the same "shortcomings".
At the same time, Pushkin ironically corrected Belkin, deduced the narrative from the usual literary channel and observed accuracy in describing mores. Throughout the space of stories, the “play” with various styles has not disappeared. This gave a special artistic polyphony to Pushkin's work. It reflected that rich, mobile and contradictory life world in which the characters lived and which flowed into them. The heroes of the stories themselves constantly played, tried themselves in different roles and in different, sometimes risky, situations. In this natural property, one can feel, despite social, property and other barriers, both the unfading power of a joyful and full-blooded being, and the bright, sunny nature of Pushkin himself, for whom the game is an integral part of life, because it expresses the individual identity of the personality and runs through it. way to the truth of character.
Slyly refusing authorship, Pushkin created a multi-stage stylistic structure. This or that incident was covered from different sides. The narrator, for example, in "The Shot" spoke about his perception of Silvio both in his youth and in his mature years. The hero is known from his words, from the words of his antagonist and from the words of the observer-narrator. In general, the author's presence from story to story increases. If it is barely felt in "The Shot", then in "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman" it becomes obvious. Irony is not characteristic of Belkin, while Pushkin uses it very widely. It is Pushkin who refers to traditional plots and plot moves, to comparisons of characters with other literary heroes, parody and rethinking of traditional book schemes. At the heart of the rewriting of old plots lies the playful life and literary behavior of Pushkin, who often takes ready-made plans, ready-made characters and embroiders “according to the old canvas ... new patterns”. The range of literary works, one way or another involved in Belkin's Tale, is huge. Here are popular prints, and Shakespeare's tragedies, and novels by Walter Scott, and romantic stories by Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, and the French comedy of classicism, and Karamzin's sentimental story "Poor Liza", and the fantastic story by A. Pogorelsky, and moralizing stories by forgotten or half-forgotten authors, for example, "Paternal punishment (true incident)" by V.I. Panaev, and many other works.
So, Belkin is a collector and translator of outdated stories. The foundation for Belkin's Tales was "literary samples that have long since left the stage and are hopelessly outdated for the reader of the 1830s. The opinion sometimes encountered in the literature that Pushkin sought to reveal the far-fetchedness of their plot situations and the naivety of their characters should be refuted by this alone. There was no need in 1830 to polemize with literature that no longer existed for the educated reader and was familiar only to the provincial landowner, who read magazines and books of the past century out of boredom. But it is precisely in such works that the origins of Belkin's plots and Belkin's narrative lie. Belkin "persistently strives to "bring" his characters to certain roles, ... to the book stereotypes he knows", but Pushkin constantly "corrects" himself. Thanks to this, the stories get "a double aesthetic conclusion: Belkin tries to give edification, unambiguous seriousness and even elation to the retold anecdotes (without which literature in his eyes loses justification), and the true author erases the "pointing finger" of his "predecessor" with sly humor."
This is the artistic and narrative concept of the cycle. The face of the author peeps out from under Belkin's mask: “One gets the impression of a parodic opposition of Belkin's stories to the ingrained norms and forms of literary reproduction.<…>... the composition of each story is permeated with literary hints, thanks to which the structure of the narrative is continuously transposed into literature and vice versa, the parodic destruction of literary images by reflections of reality. This bifurcation of artistic reality, closely associated with epigraphs, that is, with the image of the publisher, puts contrasting touches on the image of Belkin, from whom the mask of a semi-intelligent landowner falls off, and instead of it there is a witty and ironic face of the writer, destroying the old literary forms of sentimental-romantic styles and embroidering based on the old literary canvas, new bright realistic patterns.
Thus, the Pushkin cycle is permeated with irony and parody. Through parody and ironic interpretation of sentimental, romantic and moralizing subjects, Pushkin moved towards realistic art.
At the same time, as E.M. Meletinsky, in Pushkin, the “situations”, “plots” and “characters” played out by the heroes are perceived through literary clichés by other characters and narrators. This "literature in everyday life" is the most important prerequisite for realism.
At the same time, E.M. Meletinsky notes: “In Pushkin's short stories, as a rule, one unheard-of event is depicted, and the denouement is the result of sharp, specifically novelistic turns, a number of which are just carried out in violation of the expected traditional patterns. This event is covered from different sides and points of view by "narrators-characters". At the same time, the central episode is rather sharply opposed to the initial and final ones. In this sense, Belkin's Tales is characterized by a three-part composition, subtly noted by Van der Eng.<…>…the character unfolds and reveals itself strictly within the framework of the main action, without going beyond these limits, which again helps to preserve the specifics of the genre. Fate and the game of chance are assigned a specific place required by the short story.
In connection with the unification of the stories into one cycle, here, just as in the case of "little tragedies", the question arises of the genre formation of the cycle. Researchers are inclined to believe that the Belkin Tales cycle is close to the novel and consider it an artistic whole of the “romanized type”, although some go further, declaring it a “sketch of a novel” or even a “novel”. EAT. Meletinsky believes that the clichés used by Pushkin belong more to the tradition of the story and the novel than to a specific short story tradition. “But their very use by Pushkin, albeit with irony,” adds the scholar, “is typical of a short story that gravitates towards a concentration of various narrative techniques…”. As a whole, the cycle is a genre formation close to the novel, and individual stories are typical short stories, and “the overcoming of sentimental and romantic clichés is accompanied by Pushkin’s strengthening of the specifics of the short story.”
If the cycle is a single whole, then it must be based on one artistic idea, and the placement of stories within the cycle should give each story and the entire cycle additional meaningful meanings in comparison with the meaning that individual, isolated stories carry. IN AND. Tyupa believes that the unifying artistic idea of Belkin's Tales is the popular popular story of the prodigal son: “the sequence of the stories that make up the cycle corresponds to the same four-phase (i.e., temptation, wandering, repentance and return - VC.) model revealed by the German "pictures". In this structure, "Shot" corresponds to a phase of isolation (the hero, like the narrator, tends to retire); “motifs of temptation, wandering, false and not false partnership (in love and friendship) organize the plot of The Blizzard”; "The Undertaker" implements the "fabulous module" by occupying a central place in the cycle and performing the function of an interlude before "The Stationmaster" "with its graveyard finale on destroyed stations"; The Young Lady-Peasant Woman assumes the function of the final plot phase. However, there is, of course, no direct transfer of the plot of popular prints to the composition of Belkin's Tales. Therefore, the idea of V.I. Tupy looks artificial. So far, it has not been possible to reveal the meaningful meaning of the placement of the stories and the dependence of each story on the entire cycle.
The genre of short stories was studied much more successfully. N.Ya. Berkovsky insisted on their novelistic nature: “Individual initiative and its victories are familiar content short stories. "Tales of Belkin" - five original short stories. Never before or after Pushkin were short stories written in Russia so formally precise, so true to the rules of the poetics of this genre. At the same time, Pushkin's stories inner meaning"opposite of what in the West in classical times was a classic novel." The difference between the Western and Russian, Pushkin's, N.Ya. Berkovsky sees in the fact that the folk-epic tendency prevailed in the latter, while the epic tendency and the European short story are hardly consistent with each other.
The genre core of short stories is, as shown by V.I. Tyupa, legend(tradition, legend) parable And joke .
legend"simulates role-playing picture of the world. This is an immutable and indisputable world order, where everyone whose life is worthy of a legend is assigned a certain role: fate(or debt)". The word in the legend is role-playing and impersonal. The narrator ("speaking"), like the characters, only conveys someone else's text. The narrator and the characters are the performers of the text, not the creators, they speak not from themselves, not from their own person, but from some common whole, expressing the common people, choral, knowledge, "praise" or "blasphemy". The saying is “domonological”.
The picture of the world being modeled parable, on the contrary, implies "the responsibility of the free choice...". In this case, the picture of the world appears value (good - bad, moral - immoral) polarized, imperative since the character carries with him and affirms a certain general moral law, which constitutes deep knowledge and moralizing "wisdom" of parable edification. The parable is not about extraordinary events and not about private life, but about what happens every day and constantly, about natural events. The characters in the parable are not objects of aesthetic observation, but subjects of "ethical choice". The speaker in the parable must be convinced, and it is precisely belief gives rise to a teaching tone. In the parable, the word is monologue, authoritarian and imperative.
Joke opposes both the eventfulness of the legend and the parable. Joke in original meaning curious, telling not necessarily funny, but certainly something curious, entertaining, unexpected, unique, incredible. The anecdote does not recognize any world order, therefore the anecdote rejects any orderliness of life, not considering rituality as the norm. Life appears in an anecdote as a game of chance, a combination of circumstances or people's different beliefs colliding. An anecdote is an attribute of private adventurous behavior in an adventurous picture of the world. The anecdote does not claim to be reliable knowledge and is opinion, which may or may not be accepted. Acceptance or rejection of an opinion depends on the skill of the narrator. The word in the joke is situational, conditioned by the situation and dialogized, since it is directed to the listener, it is initiatively and personally colored.
legend, parable And joke- three important structural components of Pushkin's short stories, which vary in different combinations in Belkin's Tales. The nature of the mixing of these genres in each short story determines its originality.
"Shot". The story is an example of classical compositional harmony (in the first part, the narrator tells about Silvio and about the incident that happened in the days of his youth, then Silvio talks about his duel with Count B ***; in the second part, the narrator talks about Count B ***, and then Count B *** - about Silvio; in conclusion, on behalf of the narrator, a "rumor" ("they say") about the fate of Silvio is transmitted). The hero of the story and the characters are illuminated from different angles. They are seen through the eyes of each other and strangers. The writer sees in Silvio a mysterious romantic and demonic face. He describes it in a more romantic way. Pushkin's point of view is revealed through the parodic use of romantic style and through the discrediting of Silvio's actions.
To understand the story, it is essential that the narrator, already an adult, is transferred to his youth and appears at first as a romantically inclined young officer. IN mature years, having retired, settling in a poor village, he looks somewhat differently at the reckless prowess, mischievous youth and violent days of officer youth (he calls the count "rake", whereas, according to previous concepts, this characteristic would not apply to him). However, when telling, he still uses a book-romantic style. Much big changes occurred in the count: in his youth he was careless, did not value life, and in adulthood learned authentic life values- love, family happiness, responsibility for a creature close to him. Only Silvio remained true to himself from the beginning to the end of the story. He is an avenger by nature, hiding under the guise of a romantic mysterious person.
The content of Silvio's life is revenge of a special kind. Murder is not included in his plans: Silvio dreams of "killing" in an imaginary offender human dignity and honor, to enjoy the fear of death on the face of Count B *** and for this purpose takes advantage of the enemy’s momentary weakness, forcing him to fire a second (illegal) shot. However, his impression of the count's tarnished conscience is erroneous: although the count violated the rules of duel and honor, he is morally justified, because, worrying not for himself, but for the person dear to him (“I counted the seconds ... I thought about her ...”), he sought to speed up shot. The graph rises above the usual representations of the environment.
After Silvio inspired himself as if he had taken revenge in full, his life loses its meaning and he is left with nothing but the search for death. Attempts to glorify a romantic person, a "romantic avenger" turned out to be untenable. For the sake of a shot, for the sake of the insignificant goal of humiliating another person and imaginary self-affirmation, Silvio destroys his own life, wasting it in vain for the sake of petty passion.
If Belkin portrays Silvio as a romantic, then Pushkin resolutely denies the avenger this title: Silvio is not a romantic at all, but a completely prosaic avenger-loser who only pretends to be a romantic, reproducing romantic behavior. From this point of view, Silvio is a reader of romantic literature who "literally brings literature into his life until the bitter end." Indeed, Silvio's death is clearly correlated with Byron's romantic and heroic death in Greece, but only in order to discredit the imaginary heroic death of Silvio (this was Pushkin's view).
The story ends with the following words: "They say that Silvio, during the indignation of Alexander Ypsilanti, led a detachment of Eterists and was killed in the battle near Skulyany." However, the narrator admits that he had no news of Silvio's death. In addition, in the story “Kirdzhali”, Pushkin wrote that in the battle near Skulyan, “700 people of Arnauts, Albanians, Greeks, Bulgars and all sorts of rabble…” opposed the Turks. Silvio must have been stabbed to death, as not a single shot was fired in this battle. The death of Silvio is deliberately devoid of a heroic halo by Pushkin, and the romantic literary hero is comprehended by an ordinary avenger-loser with a low and evil soul.
Belkin, the narrator, sought to glorify Silvio, Pushkin, the author, insisted on the purely literary, bookish-romantic nature of the character. In other words, heroism and romance did not refer to Silvio's character, but to Belkin's narrative efforts.
A strong romantic beginning and an equally strong desire to overcome it left their mark on the whole story: Silvio's social status is replaced by demonic prestige and ostentatious generosity, and the carelessness and superiority of the naturally lucky count rise above his social origin. Only later, in the central episode, Silvio's social disadvantage and the social superiority of the count are revealed. But neither Silvio nor the count in Belkin's narrative take off romantic masks and do not refuse romantic clichés, just as Silvio's refusal to shoot does not mean a refusal to take revenge, but seems to be a typical romantic gesture, meaning an accomplished revenge (“I won’t,” answered Silvio, - I am satisfied: I saw your confusion, your timidity; I made you shoot at me, that's enough for me. You will remember me. I betray you to your conscience").
"Blizzard". In this story, as in other stories, plots and stylistic clichés of sentimental and romantic works are parodied (“Poor Lisa”, “Natalya, the boyar daughter” by Karamzin, Byron, Walter Scott, Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, “Lenora” by Burger, “Svetlana” Zhukovsky, "The Groom-Ghost" by Washington Irving). Although the heroes are waiting for the resolution of conflicts according to literary schemes and canons, conflicts end differently, since life makes amendments to them. “Van der Eng sees in The Snowstorm six variants of a sentimental plot rejected by life and chance: a secret marriage of lovers against the will of their parents due to the poverty of the groom and subsequent forgiveness, the heroine’s painful farewell to the house, the death of her lover and either the suicide of the heroine, or his eternal lamentation by her, etc., etc.
The Snowstorm is based on the adventurousness and anecdotal nature of the plot, the “play of love and chance” (she went to marry one, and got married to another, wanted to marry one, and married another, the fan’s declaration of love to a woman who de jure is his wife, vain resistance to parents and their "evil" will, naive opposition to social obstacles and an equally naive desire to destroy social barriers), as was the case in French and Russian comedies, as well as another game - patterns and accidents. And here comes new tradition- the tradition of the parable. The plot mixes adventure, anecdote and parable.
In The Blizzard, all events are so closely and skillfully intertwined with each other that the story is considered a model of the genre, an ideal short story.
The plot is tied to confusion, a misunderstanding, and this misunderstanding is double: first, the heroine is married not to the lover she has chosen, but to an unfamiliar man, but then, being married, she does not recognize her betrothed in the new chosen one, who has already become a husband. In other words, Marya Gavrilovna, having read French novels, did not notice that Vladimir was not her betrothed and mistakenly recognized in him the chosen one of the heart, and in Burmin, an unfamiliar man, she, on the contrary, did not recognize her real chosen one. However, life corrects the mistake of Marya Gavrilovna and Burmin, who cannot believe in any way, even being married, legally wife and husband, that they are meant for each other. Random separation and accidental unification is explained by the play of the elements. The snowstorm, symbolizing the elements, whimsically and capriciously destroys the happiness of some lovers and just as whimsically and capriciously unites others. Elements in their arbitrariness gives rise to order. In this sense, the blizzard performs the function of fate. The main event is described from three sides, but the story of the trip to the church contains a mystery that remains so for the participants themselves. It is explained only before the final denouement. Two love stories converge to the central event. At the same time, a happy story follows from an unhappy story.
Pushkin skillfully builds a story, bestowing happiness on sweet and ordinary people who have matured during a period of trials and realized responsibility for their personal fate and for the fate of another person. At the same time, another thought sounds in The Snowstorm: real life relationships are “embroidered” not according to the canvas of bookish sentimental-romantic relations, but taking into account personal inclinations and a completely tangible “general order of things”, in accordance with the prevailing foundations, mores, property position and psychology. Here the motive of the elements - fate - a snowstorm - chance recedes before the same motive as a pattern: Marya Gavrilovna, the daughter of wealthy parents, is more appropriate to be the wife of a wealthy Colonel Burmin. Chance is an instantaneous tool of Providence, the "game of life", her smile or grimace, a sign of her unintentionality, a manifestation of fate. It also contains the moral justification of history: in the story, the case not only ringed and completed the novelistic plot, but also “spoke out” in favor of the arrangement of all being.
"Undertaker". Unlike other stories, The Undertaker is full of philosophical content and is characterized by fantasy that invades the life of artisans. At the same time, the “low” way of life is comprehended in a philosophical and fantastic way: as a result of the drinking of artisans, Adrian Prokhorov embarks on “philosophical” reflections and sees a “vision” filled with fantastic events. At the same time, the plot is similar to the structure of the parable of the prodigal son and is anecdotal. It also shows a ritual journey to " afterworld", which Adrian Prokhorov performs in a dream. Adrian's migrations - first to a new home, and then (in a dream) to the "afterlife", to the dead and, finally, the return from sleep and, accordingly, from the kingdom of the dead to the world of the living - are comprehended as a process of acquiring new vital stimuli. In this regard, the undertaker moves from a gloomy and gloomy mood to a bright and joyful one, to an awareness of family happiness and the true joys of life.
Adrian's housewarming is not only real, but also symbolic. Pushkin plays with hidden associative meanings associated with the ideas of life and death (housewarming in a figurative sense - death, relocation to another world). The occupation of the undertaker determines his special attitude to life and death. He is in direct contact with them in his craft: he is alive, he prepares “houses” (coffins, dominoes) for the dead, his clients are the dead, he is constantly busy thinking about how not to miss income and not miss the death of a still living person. This problem finds expression in references to literary works (to Shakespeare, to Walter Scott), where undertakers are depicted as philosophers. Philosophical motifs with an ironic tinge arise in Adrian Prokhorov's conversation with Gottlieb Schultz and at the latter's party. There, the watchman Yurko offers Adrian an ambiguous toast - to drink to the health of his clients. Yurko, as it were, connects two worlds - the living and the dead. Yurko's proposal prompts Adrian to invite the dead to his world, for whom he made coffins and whom he saw off on their last journey. Fiction, realistically substantiated (“dream”), is saturated with philosophical and everyday content and demonstrates the violation of the world order in the ingenuous mind of Adrian Prokhorov, the distortion of everyday and Orthodox ways.
Ultimately world of the dead does not become his own for the hero. A light consciousness returns to the undertaker, and he calls on his daughters, finding peace and joining the values of family life.
In the world of Adrian Prokhorov, order is restored again. His new state of mind enters into some contradiction with the former. “Out of respect for the truth,” the story says, “we cannot follow their example (i.e., Shakespeare and Walter Scott, who portrayed gravediggers as cheerful and playful people - VC.) and we are compelled to confess that the disposition of our undertaker was perfectly in keeping with his gloomy trade. Adrian Prokhorov was gloomy and thoughtful. Now the mood of the delighted undertaker is different: he does not remain, as usual, in a gloomy expectation of someone's death, but becomes cheerful, justifying the opinion of Shakespeare and Walter Scott about the undertakers. Literature and life merge in the same way that the points of view of Belkin and Pushkin approach each other, although they do not coincide: the new Adrian corresponds to those book images that Shakespeare and Walter Scott painted, but this does not happen because the undertaker lives according to artificial and fictional sentimental-romantic norms, as Belkin would have liked, but as a result of a happy awakening and familiarization with the bright and lively joy of life, as Pushkin depicts.
"Station Master". The plot of the story is based on contradiction. Usually the fate of a poor girl from the lower strata of society who fell in love noble lord, was unenviable and sad. Having enjoyed it, the lover threw it out into the street. In literature, such plots were developed in a sentimental and moralizing spirit. Vyrin, however, knows about such life stories. He also knows the pictures of the prodigal son, where the restless young man first sets off, blessed by his father and rewarded with money, then squanders his fortune with shameless women and the repentant beggar returns to his father, who accepts him with joy and forgives. Literary plots and popular prints with the story of the prodigal son suggested two outcomes: tragic, deviating from the canon (the death of the hero), and happy, canonical (newly found peace of mind for both the prodigal son and the old father).
1830s - the heyday of Pushkin's prose. Of the prose works at that time, the following were written: “The stories of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin, published by A.P.” , "Dubrovsky", "The Queen of Spades", "The Captain's Daughter", "Egyptian Nights", "Kirdzhali". There were many other significant ideas in Pushkin's plans.
Belkin's Tales (1830)- the first completed prose works of Pushkin, consisting of five stories: "The Shot", "Snowstorm", "The Undertaker", "The Stationmaster", "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman". They are prefaced by a "From the Publisher" preface, internally linked to "History of the village of Goryukhino" .
In the preface "From the Publisher", Pushkin assumed the role of publisher and publisher of Belkin's Tale, signing with his initials "A.P." The authorship of the stories was attributed to the provincial landowner Ivan Petrovich Belkin. I.P. Belkin, in turn, put on paper the stories that other people told him. Publisher A.P. said in a note: “In fact, in the manuscript of Mr. Belkin, above each story, the author’s hand inscribed: I heard from such and such a person(rank or rank and capital letters of the name and surname). We write out for curious prospectors: “The Overseer” was told to him by the titular adviser A.G.N., “The Shot” - by Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P., “The Undertaker” - by the clerk B.V., “Snowstorm” and “Young Lady” - maiden K.I.T.” Thus, Pushkin creates the illusion of the actual existence of I.P. Belkin with his notes, ascribes authorship to him and, as it were, documented that the stories are not the fruit of Belkin’s own invention, but actually happened stories, which were told to the narrator by people who really existed and were familiar to him. Denoting the connection between the narrators and the content of the stories (the girl K.I.T. told two love stories, Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P. - a story from military life, clerk B.V. - from the life of artisans, titular adviser A.G.N. . - the story of an official, postal station keeper), Pushkin motivated the nature of the narrative and its very style. He, as it were, removed himself from the narrative in advance, transferring the author's functions to people from the provinces, who tell about different aspects of provincial life. At the same time, the stories are united by the figure of Belkin, who was a military man, then retired and settled in his village, visited the city on business and stopped at post stations. I.P. Belkin thus brings all the storytellers together and retells their stories. Such an arrangement explains why the individual manner, which makes it possible to distinguish stories, for example, of the girl K.I.T., from the story of Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P., does not show through. Belkin's authorship is motivated in the preface by the fact that the retired landowner, who, at his leisure or out of boredom, tries the pen, moderately impressionable, could really hear about the incidents, remember them and write them down. Belkin's type is, as it were, put forward by life itself. Pushkin invented Belkin to give him the floor. Here is found that synthesis of literature and reality, which during the period of Pushkin's creative maturity became one of the writer's aspirations.
It is also psychologically reliable that Belkin is attracted by sharp plots, stories and cases, anecdotes, as they would say in the old days. All stories belong to people of the same level of understanding of the world. Belkin as a storyteller is spiritually close to them. It was very important for Pushkin that the story was not told by the author, not from the standpoint of a high critical consciousness, but from the point of view of an ordinary person, amazed by the incidents, but not giving himself a clear account of their meaning. Therefore, for Belkin, all stories, on the one hand, go beyond his usual interests, feel extraordinary, on the other hand, they shade the spiritual immobility of his existence.
The events that Belkin narrates look truly “romantic” in his eyes: they have everything - duels, unexpected accidents, happy love, death, secret passions, adventures with disguises and fantastic visions. Belkin is attracted by a bright, heterogeneous life, which stands out sharply from the everyday life in which he is immersed. Outstanding events took place in the fates of the heroes, while Belkin himself did not experience anything of the kind, but he had a desire for romance.
Entrusting the role of the main narrator to Belkin, Pushkin, however, is not excluded from the narrative. What seems extraordinary to Belkin, Pushkin reduces to the most ordinary prose of life. And vice versa: the most ordinary plots turn out to be full of poetry and conceal unforeseen twists and turns in the fates of the characters. Thus, the narrow boundaries of Belkin's view are immeasurably expanded. So, for example, the poverty of Belkin's imagination acquires a special semantic content. Even in fantasy, Ivan Petrovich does not break out of the nearest villages - Goryukhino, Nenaradovo, and small towns located near them. But for Pushkin, there is also dignity in such a shortcoming: wherever you look, in the provinces, counties, villages - everywhere life flows the same way. The exceptional cases told by Belkin become typical thanks to Pushkin's intervention.
Due to the presence of Belkin and Pushkin in the stories, their originality is clearly visible. The stories can be considered the "Belkin cycle", because it is impossible to read the stories without taking into account Belkin's figures. This allowed V.I. Tyupe after M.M. Bakhtin to put forward the idea of double authorship and a two-voiced word. Pushkin's attention is drawn to the dual authorship, since the full title of the work is “The Tale of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin published by A.P. . But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that the concept of “double authorship” is metaphorical, since the author is still one.
This is the artistic and narrative concept of the cycle. The face of the author peeps out from under Belkin's mask: “One gets the impression of a parodic opposition of Belkin's stories to the ingrained norms and forms of literary reproduction.<…>... the composition of each story is permeated with literary hints, thanks to which the structure of the narrative is continuously transposed into literature and vice versa, the parodic destruction of literary images by reflections of reality. This bifurcation of artistic reality, closely associated with epigraphs, that is, with the image of the publisher, puts contrasting touches on the image of Belkin, from whom the mask of a semi-intelligent landowner falls off, and instead of it there is a witty and ironic face of the writer, destroying the old literary forms of sentimental-romantic styles and embroidering based on the old literary canvas, new bright realistic patterns.
Thus, the Pushkin cycle is permeated with irony and parody. Through parody and ironic interpretation of sentimental-romantic and moralistic subjects, Pushkin moved towards realistic art.
At the same time, as E.M. Meletinsky, in Pushkin, the “situations”, “plots” and “characters” played out by the heroes are perceived through literary clichés by other characters and narrators. This "literature in everyday life" is the most important prerequisite for realism.
At the same time, E.M. Meletinsky notes: “In Pushkin's short stories, as a rule, one unheard-of event is depicted, and the denouement is the result of sharp, specifically novelistic turns, a number of which are just carried out in violation of the expected traditional patterns. This event is covered from different sides and points of view by "narrators-characters". At the same time, the central episode is rather sharply opposed to the initial and final ones. In this sense, Belkin's Tales is characterized by a three-part composition, subtly noted by Van der Eng.<…>…the character unfolds and reveals itself strictly within the framework of the main action, without going beyond these limits, which again helps to preserve the specifics of the genre. Fate and the game of chance have been assigned a specific place required by the short story.
In connection with the unification of the stories into one cycle, here, just as in the case of "little tragedies", the question arises of the genre formation of the cycle. Researchers are inclined to believe that the Belkin Tales cycle is close to the novel and consider it an artistic whole of the “romanized type”, although some go further, declaring it a “sketch of a novel” or even a “novel”. EAT. Meletinsky believes that the clichés used by Pushkin belong more to the tradition of the story and the novel than to a specific short story tradition. “But their very use by Pushkin, albeit with irony,” adds the scholar, “is typical of a short story that gravitates towards a concentration of various narrative techniques…”. As a whole, the cycle is a genre formation close to the novel, and individual stories are typical short stories, and “the overcoming of sentimental and romantic clichés is accompanied by Pushkin’s strengthening of the specifics of the short story” .
If the cycle is a single whole, then it should be based on one artistic idea, and the placement of stories within the cycle should give each story and the entire cycle additional meaningful meanings compared to what separate, isolated stories carry. IN AND. Tyupa believes that the unifying artistic idea of Belkin's Tales is the popular popular story of the prodigal son: “the sequence of the stories that make up the cycle corresponds to the same four-phase (i.e., temptation, wandering, repentance and return - VC.) model revealed by the German "pictures". In this structure, "Shot" corresponds to a phase of isolation (the hero, like the narrator, tends to retire); “motifs of temptation, wandering, false and not false partnership (in love and friendship) organize the plot of The Blizzard”; "The Undertaker" implements the "fabulous module" by occupying a central place in the cycle and performing the function of an interlude before "The Stationmaster" "with its graveyard finale on destroyed stations"; The Young Lady-Peasant Woman assumes the function of the final plot phase. However, there is, of course, no direct transfer of the plot of popular prints to the composition of Belkin's Tales. Therefore, the idea of V.I. Tupy looks artificial. So far, it has not been possible to reveal the meaningful meaning of the placement of the stories and the dependence of each story on the entire cycle.
The genre of short stories was studied much more successfully. N.Ya. Berkovsky insisted on their novelistic nature: “Individual initiative and its victories are the usual content of the short story. "Tales of Belkin" - five original short stories. Never before or after Pushkin were short stories written in Russia so formally precise, so true to the rules of the poetics of this genre. At the same time, Pushkin's stories, in their inner meaning, "are the opposite of what was a classic short story in the West in classical times." The difference between the Western and Russian, Pushkin's, N.Ya. Berkovsky sees in the fact that in the latter the folk-epic tendency prevailed, while the epic tendency and the European short story are hardly consistent with each other.
The genre core of short stories is, as shown by V.I. Tyupa, legend(tradition, legend) parable And joke .
legend"simulates role-playing picture of the world. This is an immutable and indisputable world order, where everyone whose life is worthy of a legend is assigned a certain role: fate(or debt)". The word in the legend is role-playing and impersonal. The narrator ("speaking"), like the characters, only conveys someone else's text. The narrator and the characters are the performers of the text, not the creators, they speak not from themselves, not from their own person, but from some common whole, expressing the common people, choral, knowledge, "praise" or "blasphemy". The saying is "domonological".
The picture of the world being modeled parable, on the contrary, implies "the responsibility of the free choice...". In this case, the picture of the world appears value (good - bad, moral - immoral) polarized, imperative since the character carries with him and affirms a certain general moral law, which constitutes deep knowledge and moralizing "wisdom" of parable edification. The parable tells not about extraordinary events and not about private life, but about what happens every day and constantly, about regular events. The characters in the parable are not objects of aesthetic observation, but subjects of "ethical choice". The speaker in the parable must be convinced, and it is precisely belief gives rise to a teaching tone. In the parable, the word is monologue, authoritarian and imperative.
Joke opposes both the eventfulness of the legend and the parable. An anecdote in its original meaning is a curiosity, telling not necessarily funny, but certainly something curious, entertaining, unexpected, unique, incredible. The anecdote does not recognize any world order, therefore the anecdote rejects any orderliness of life, not considering rituality as the norm. Life appears in an anecdote as a game of chance, a combination of circumstances or people's different beliefs colliding. An anecdote is an attribute of private adventurous behavior in an adventurous picture of the world. The anecdote does not claim to be reliable knowledge and is opinion, which may or may not be accepted. Acceptance or rejection of an opinion depends on the skill of the narrator. The word in the joke is situational, conditioned by the situation and dialogized, since it is directed to the listener, it is initiatively and personally colored.
legend, parable And joke- three important structural components of Pushkin's short stories, which vary in different combinations in Belkin's Tales. The nature of the mixing of these genres in each short story determines its originality.
"Shot". The story is an example of classical compositional harmony (in the first part, the narrator tells about Silvio and about the incident that happened in the days of his youth, then Silvio talks about his duel with Count B ***; in the second part, the narrator talks about Count B ***, and then Count B *** - about Silvio; in conclusion, on behalf of the narrator, a "rumor" ("they say") about the fate of Silvio is transmitted). The hero of the story and the characters are illuminated from different angles. They are seen through the eyes of each other and strangers. The writer sees in Silvio a mysterious romantic and demonic face. He describes it in a more romantic way. Pushkin's point of view is revealed through the parodic use of romantic style and through the discrediting of Silvio's actions.
To understand the story, it is essential that the narrator, already an adult, is transferred to his youth and appears at first as a romantically inclined young officer. In his mature years, having retired, settling in a poor village, he looks somewhat differently at the reckless prowess, mischievous youth and violent days of officer youth (he calls the count “rake”, while according to previous concepts, this characteristic would not apply to him). However, when telling, he still uses a book-romantic style. Significantly greater changes took place in the count: in his youth he was careless, did not value life, and in adulthood he learned the true values of life - love, family happiness, responsibility for a creature close to him. Only Silvio remained true to himself from the beginning to the end of the story. He is an avenger by nature, hiding under the guise of a romantic mysterious person.
The content of Silvio's life is revenge of a special kind. Murder is not part of his plans: Silvio dreams of “killing” human dignity and honor in the imaginary offender, enjoying the fear of death on the face of Count B *** and for this purpose takes advantage of the enemy’s momentary weakness, forcing him to fire a second (illegal) shot. However, his impression of the count's tarnished conscience is erroneous: although the count violated the rules of duel and honor, he is morally justified, because, worrying not for himself, but for the person dear to him (“I counted the seconds ... I thought about her ...”), he sought to speed up shot. The graph rises above the usual representations of the environment.
After Silvio inspired himself as if he had taken revenge in full, his life loses its meaning and he is left with nothing but the search for death. Attempts to glorify a romantic person, a "romantic avenger" turned out to be untenable. For the sake of a shot, for the sake of the insignificant goal of humiliating another person and imaginary self-affirmation, Silvio destroys his own life, wasting it in vain for the sake of petty passion.
If Belkin portrays Silvio as a romantic, then Pushkin resolutely denies the avenger this title: Silvio is not a romantic at all, but a completely prosaic avenger-loser who only pretends to be a romantic, reproducing romantic behavior. From this point of view, Silvio is a reader of romantic literature who "literally brings literature into his life until the bitter end". Indeed, Silvio's death is clearly correlated with Byron's romantic and heroic death in Greece, but only in order to discredit the imaginary heroic death of Silvio (this was Pushkin's view).
The story ends with the following words: "They say that Silvio, during the indignation of Alexander Ypsilanti, led a detachment of Eterists and was killed in the battle near Skulyany." However, the narrator admits that he had no news of Silvio's death. In addition, in the story “Kirdzhali”, Pushkin wrote that in the battle near Skulyan, “700 people of Arnauts, Albanians, Greeks, Bulgars and all sorts of rabble…” opposed the Turks. Silvio must have been stabbed to death, as not a single shot was fired in this battle. The death of Silvio is deliberately deprived of a heroic halo by Pushkin, and the romantic literary hero is comprehended by an ordinary avenger-loser with a low and evil soul.
Belkin, the narrator, sought to glorify Silvio, Pushkin, the author, insisted on the purely literary, bookish-romantic nature of the character. In other words, heroism and romance did not refer to Silvio's character, but to Belkin's narrative efforts.
A strong romantic beginning and an equally strong desire to overcome it left their mark on the whole story: Silvio's social status is replaced by demonic prestige and ostentatious generosity, and the carelessness and superiority of the naturally lucky count rise above his social origin. Only later, in the central episode, Silvio's social disadvantage and the social superiority of the count are revealed. But neither Silvio nor the count in Belkin's narrative take off romantic masks and do not refuse romantic clichés, just as Silvio's refusal to shoot does not mean a refusal to take revenge, but seems to be a typical romantic gesture, meaning an accomplished revenge (“I won’t,” answered Silvio, - I am satisfied: I saw your confusion, your timidity; I made you shoot at me, that's enough for me. You will remember me. I betray you to your conscience").
"Blizzard". In this story, as in other stories, plots and stylistic clichés of sentimental and romantic works are parodied (“Poor Lisa”, “Natalya, the boyar daughter” by Karamzin, Byron, Walter Scott, Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, “Lenora” by Burger, “Svetlana” Zhukovsky, "The Groom-Ghost" by Washington Irving). Although the heroes are waiting for the resolution of conflicts according to literary schemes and canons, conflicts end differently, since life makes amendments to them. “Van der Eng sees in The Snowstorm six variants of a sentimental plot rejected by life and chance: a secret marriage of lovers against the will of their parents due to the poverty of the groom and subsequent forgiveness, the heroine’s painful farewell to the house, the death of her lover and either the suicide of the heroine, or his eternal lamentation by her, etc., etc.” .
The Snowstorm is based on the adventurousness and anecdotal nature of the plot, the “play of love and chance” (she went to marry one, and got married to another, wanted to marry one, and married another, the fan’s declaration of love to a woman who de jure is his wife, vain resistance to parents and their "evil" will, naive opposition to social obstacles and an equally naive desire to destroy social barriers), as was the case in French and Russian comedies, as well as another game - patterns and accidents. And here comes a new tradition - the tradition of the parable. The plot mixes adventure, anecdote and parable.
In The Blizzard, all events are so closely and skillfully intertwined with each other that the story is considered a model of the genre, an ideal short story.
The plot is tied to confusion, a misunderstanding, and this misunderstanding is double: first, the heroine is married not to the lover she has chosen, but to an unfamiliar man, but then, being married, she does not recognize her betrothed in the new chosen one, who has already become a husband. In other words, Marya Gavrilovna, having read French novels, did not notice that Vladimir was not her betrothed and mistakenly recognized him as the chosen one of her heart, and in Burmin, an unfamiliar man, she, on the contrary, did not recognize her real chosen one. However, life corrects the mistake of Marya Gavrilovna and Burmin, who cannot believe in any way, even being married, legally wife and husband, that they are meant for each other. Random separation and accidental unification is explained by the play of the elements. The snowstorm, symbolizing the elements, whimsically and capriciously destroys the happiness of some lovers and just as whimsically and capriciously unites others. Elements in their arbitrariness gives rise to order. In this sense, the blizzard performs the function of fate. The main event is described from three sides, but the story of the trip to the church contains a mystery that remains so for the participants themselves. It is explained only before the final denouement. Two love stories converge to the central event. At the same time, a happy story follows from an unhappy story.
Pushkin skillfully builds a story, bestowing happiness on sweet and ordinary people who have matured during a period of trials and realized responsibility for their personal fate and for the fate of another person. At the same time, another thought sounds in The Snowstorm: real life relationships are “embroidered” not according to the canvas of bookish sentimental-romantic relations, but taking into account personal inclinations and a completely tangible “general order of things”, in accordance with the prevailing foundations, mores, property position and psychology. Here the motive of the elements - fate - a snowstorm - chance recedes before the same motive as a pattern: Marya Gavrilovna, the daughter of wealthy parents, is more appropriate to be the wife of a wealthy Colonel Burmin. Chance is an instantaneous tool of Providence, the "game of life", her smile or grimace, a sign of her unintentionality, a manifestation of fate. It also contains the moral justification of history: in the story, the case not only ringed and completed the novelistic plot, but also “spoke out” in favor of the arrangement of all being.
"Undertaker". Unlike other stories, The Undertaker is full of philosophical content and is characterized by fantasy that invades the life of artisans. At the same time, the “low” way of life is comprehended in a philosophical and fantastic way: as a result of the drinking of artisans, Adrian Prokhorov embarks on “philosophical” reflections and sees a “vision” filled with fantastic events. At the same time, the plot is similar to the structure of the parable of the prodigal son and is anecdotal. It also shows a ritual journey to the "afterlife" that Adrian Prokhorov makes in a dream. Adrian's migrations - first to a new home, and then (in a dream) to the "afterlife", to the dead and, finally, the return from sleep and, accordingly, from the kingdom of the dead to the world of the living - are comprehended as a process of acquiring new vital stimuli. In this regard, the undertaker moves from a gloomy and gloomy mood to a bright and joyful one, to an awareness of family happiness and the true joys of life.
Adrian's housewarming is not only real, but also symbolic. Pushkin plays with hidden associative meanings associated with the ideas of life and death (housewarming in a figurative sense - death, relocation to another world). The occupation of the undertaker determines his special attitude to life and death. He is in direct contact with them in his craft: he is alive, he prepares “houses” (coffins, dominoes) for the dead, his clients are the dead, he is constantly busy thinking about how not to miss income and not miss the death of a still living person. This problem finds expression in references to literary works (to Shakespeare, to Walter Scott), where undertakers are depicted as philosophers. Philosophical motifs with an ironic tinge arise in Adrian Prokhorov's conversation with Gottlieb Schultz and at the latter's party. There, the watchman Yurko offers Adrian an ambiguous toast - to drink to the health of his clients. Yurko, as it were, connects two worlds - the living and the dead. Yurko's proposal prompts Adrian to invite the dead to his world, for whom he made coffins and whom he saw off on their last journey. Fiction, realistically substantiated (“dream”), is saturated with philosophical and everyday content and demonstrates the violation of the world order in the ingenuous mind of Adrian Prokhorov, the distortion of everyday and Orthodox ways.
Ultimately, the world of the dead does not become his own for the hero. A light consciousness returns to the undertaker, and he calls on his daughters, finding peace and joining the values of family life.
In the world of Adrian Prokhorov, order is restored again. His new state of mind enters into some contradiction with the former. “Out of respect for the truth,” the story says, “we cannot follow their example (i.e., Shakespeare and Walter Scott, who portrayed gravediggers as cheerful and playful people - VC.) and we are compelled to confess that the disposition of our undertaker was perfectly in keeping with his gloomy trade. Adrian Prokhorov was gloomy and thoughtful. Now the mood of the delighted undertaker is different: he does not remain, as usual, in a gloomy expectation of someone's death, but becomes cheerful, justifying the opinion of Shakespeare and Walter Scott about the undertakers. Literature and life merge in the same way that the points of view of Belkin and Pushkin approach each other, although they do not coincide: the new Adrian corresponds to those book images that Shakespeare and Walter Scott painted, but this does not happen because the undertaker lives according to artificial and fictional sentimental-romantic norms, as Belkin would have liked, but as a result of a happy awakening and familiarization with the bright and lively joy of life, as Pushkin depicts.
"Station Master". The plot of the story is based on contradiction. Usually the fate of a poor girl from the lower strata of society, who fell in love with a noble gentleman, was unenviable and sad. Having enjoyed it, the lover threw it out into the street. In literature, such plots were developed in a sentimental and moralizing spirit. Vyrin, however, knows about such life stories. He also knows the pictures of the prodigal son, where the restless young man first sets off, blessed by his father and rewarded with money, then squanders his fortune with shameless women and the repentant beggar returns to his father, who accepts him with joy and forgives. Literary plots and popular prints with the story of the prodigal son suggested two outcomes: tragic, deviating from the canon (the death of the hero), and happy, canonical (newly found peace of mind for both the prodigal son and the old father).
Plot " stationmaster” is deployed in a different vein: instead of repentance and the return of the prodigal daughter to her father, the father goes to look for his daughter. Dunya and Minsky are happy and, although she feels guilty towards her father, she does not think about returning to him, and only after his death does she come to Vyrin's grave. The caretaker does not believe in Dunya's possible happiness outside his father's house, which allows him to be named "blind" or "a blind watchman" .
The reason for the punning oxymoron was the following words of the narrator, to which he did not attach due importance, but which, of course, are accentuated by Pushkin: "The poor caretaker did not understand ... how blindness came to him ...". Indeed, the caretaker Vyrin saw with his own eyes that Dunya did not need to be saved, that she lived in luxury and felt herself the mistress of the situation. Contrary to the true feelings of Vyrin, who wants his daughter to be happy, it turns out that the caretaker is not happy with happiness, but would rather be happy with misfortune, since it would justify his most gloomy and at the same time most natural expectations.
This consideration led V. Schmid to the rash conclusion that the caretaker's grief is not "the misfortune that threatens his beloved daughter, but her happiness, which he becomes a witness of." However, the misfortune of the caretaker is that he does not see Dunya's happiness, although he does not want anything but the happiness of his daughter, but only sees her future misfortune, which constantly stands before his eyes. Imagined unhappiness became real, and real happiness became fictional.
In this regard, the image of Vyrin doubles and is a fusion of the comic and the tragic. Indeed, isn't it ridiculous that the caretaker invented Dunya's future misfortune and, in accordance with his false conviction, doomed himself to drunkenness and dying? The "station master" vomited "literary critics have so many journalistic tears about the unfortunate share of the notorious little man", - wrote one of the researchers.
Today, this comic version of The Station Agent is decisively dominant. Researchers, starting with Van der Eng, are laughing in every way, "accusing" Samson Vyrin. The hero, in their opinion, "thinks and behaves not so much like a father, but like a lover, or, more precisely, like a rival of his daughter's lover" .
So, we are no longer talking about the love of a father for his daughter, but about the love of a lover for his mistress, where father and daughter turn out to be lovers. But in Pushkin's text there are no grounds for such an understanding. Meanwhile, V. Schmid believes that Vyrin, at heart, is a “blind jealous man” and an “envious person”, reminiscent of an older brother from the gospel parable, and not a venerable old father. “... Vyrin is neither a selfless, generous father from the parable of the prodigal son, nor a good shepherd (meaning the Gospel of John - V.K.) ... Vyrin is not the person who could give her happiness ... "He unsuccessfully resists Minsky in the struggle for the possession of the Dunya. V.N. went furthest in this direction. Turbin, who directly declared Vyrin the lover of his daughter.
For some reason, researchers think that Vyrin's love is feigned, that there is more selfishness, self-love, self-care than about her daughter. In fact, of course, this is not the case. The caretaker really loves his daughter dearly and is proud of her. Because of this love, he is afraid for her, no matter how some misfortune happens to her. The "blindness" of the caretaker lies in the fact that he cannot believe in Dunya's happiness, because what happened to her is fragile and disastrous.
If so, what does jealousy and envy have to do with it? Whom, one wonders, does Vyrin envy - Minsky or Dunya? There is no mention of jealousy in the story. Vyrin cannot envy Minsky, if only for the reason that he sees in him a rake who seduced his daughter and is going to throw her out into the street sooner or later. Dunya and her new position, Vyrin also cannot envy, because she already unhappy. Perhaps Vyrin is jealous of Minsky that Dunya went to him, and did not stay with her father, which she preferred to Minsky's father? Of course, the caretaker is annoyed and offended that his daughter treated him not according to custom, not in a Christian and not in a kindred way. But envy, jealousy, as well as real rivalry is not here - such feelings are called differently. In addition, Vyrin understands that he cannot even be an unwitting rival of Minsky - they are separated by a huge social distance. He is ready, however, to forget all the insults inflicted on him, to forgive his daughter and take her to his home. Thus, in conjunction with the comic content, there is also the tragic, and the image of Vyrin is illuminated not only by the comic, but also by the tragic light.
Dunya is not without selfishness and spiritual coldness, who, sacrificing her father for the sake of a new life, feels guilty before the caretaker. The transition from one social stratum to another and the collapse of patriarchal ties seem to Pushkin both natural and extremely contradictory: finding happiness in a new family does not cancel the tragedy that concerns the old foundations and the very life of a person. With the loss of Dunya, Vyrin became unnecessary and own life. A happy ending does not cancel the tragedy of Vyrin.
Not the last role in it is played by the motive of socially unequal love. The social shift does not cause any damage to the personal fate of the heroine - Dunya's life is going well. However, this social shift is paid for by the social and moral humiliation of her father when he tries to get his daughter back. The turning point of the novel turns out to be ambiguous, and the starting and ending points of the aesthetic space are fanned by a patriarchal idyll (exposition) and a melancholy elegy (finale). From this it is clear where the movement of Pushkin's thought is directed.
In this regard, it is necessary to determine what is random in the story, and what is natural. In the ratio of the private fate of Dunya and the general, human ("young fools"), the fate of the caretaker's daughter seems to be accidental and happy, and the general share is unhappy and disastrous. Vyrin (like Belkin) looks at the fate of Dunya from the point of view of a common share, a common experience. Without noticing the particular case and not taking it into account, he brings the particular case under the general rule, and the picture receives a distorted illumination. Pushkin sees both a happy special case and an unfortunate typical experience. However, none of them undermines or cancels the other. The luck of a private fate is solved in bright comic colors, the common unenviable fate - in melancholic and tragic colors. The tragedy - the death of the caretaker - is softened by the scene of Dunya's reconciliation with her father, when she visited his grave, silently repented and asked for forgiveness (“She lay down here and lay for a long time”).
In the ratio of random and regular, one law operates: as soon as the social principle interferes in the fate of people, in their universal human relations, then reality becomes fraught with tragedy, and vice versa: as they move away from social factors and approach universal human ones, people become more and more happy. Minsky destroys the patriarchal idyll of the caretaker’s house, and Vyrin, wanting to restore it, seeks to destroy the family happiness of Dunya and Minsky, also playing the role of a social rebel who invaded with his low social status to another social circle. But as soon as social inequality is eliminated, the heroes (as people) regain peace and happiness. However, tragedy lies in wait for the heroes and hangs over them: the idyll is fragile, unsteady and relative, ready to immediately turn into a tragedy. Dunya's happiness requires the death of her father, and her father's happiness means the death of Dunya's family happiness. The tragic beginning is invisibly poured into life itself, and even if it does not come out, it exists in the atmosphere, in consciousness. This beginning entered the soul of Samson Vyrin and led him to death.
Therefore, the German moralizing pictures depicting episodes of the gospel parable come true, but in a special way: Dunya returns, but not to her home and not to her living father, but to his grave, her repentance comes not during the life of the parent, but after his death. Pushkin alters the parable, avoids a happy ending, as in Marmontel's story "Loretta", and an unhappy love story ("Poor Lisa" by Karamzin), which confirms Vyrin's rightness. In the mind of the caretaker, two literary traditions- gospel parable and moralizing stories with a happy ending.
Pushkin's story, without breaking with traditions, renews literary schemes. In "The Station Agent" there is no rigid relationship between social inequality and the tragedy of the heroes, but the idyll with its happy final picture is also excluded. Chance and regularity are equal in their rights: not only life corrects literature, but literature, describing life, is able to convey the truth to reality - Vyrin remained true to his life experience and the tradition that insisted on a tragic resolution of the conflict.
"Young lady-peasant". This story sums up the entire cycle. Here Pushkin's artistic method, with its masks and resurfacing, the play of chance and regularity, literature and life, is revealed openly, nakedly, catchily.
The story is based on love secrets and disguise of two young people - Alexei Berestov and Liza Muromskaya, who first belong to warring and then reconciled families. The Berestovs and Muromskys seem to gravitate towards different national traditions: Berestov is a Russophile, Muromsky is an Anglophile, but belonging to them does not play a fundamental role. Both landlords are ordinary Russian bares, and their special preference for one or another culture, their own or someone else's, is an alluvial fad arising from hopeless provincial boredom and whim. In this way, an ironic rethinking of book ideas is introduced (the name of the heroine is associated with N.M. Karamzin's story "Poor Lisa" and with imitations of her; the war between Berestov and Muromsky parodies the war between the Montagues and Capuleti families in Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet"). The ironic transformation also concerns other details: Alexei Berestov has a dog that bears the nickname Sbogar (the name of the hero of the novel by C. Nodier "Jean Sbogar"); Nastya, Liza's maid, was "a person much more significant than any confidante in French tragedy”, etc. Significant details characterize the life of the provincial nobility, not alien to enlightenment and touched by the damage of affectation and coquetry.
Quite healthy, cheerful characters are hidden behind imitative masks. Sentimental-romantic make-up is thickly applied not only to the characters, but also to the plot itself. The mysteries of Alexei correspond to the tricks of Liza, who first dresses up in a peasant dress in order to get to know the young master better, and then in the French aristocrat of the times Louis XIV so as not to be recognized by Alexei. Under the mask of a peasant woman, Liza liked Alexei and she herself felt a hearty attraction to the young master. All external obstacles are easily overcome, comic dramatic collisions dissipate when real life conditions require the fulfillment of the will of the parents, contrary to the feelings of the children, it would seem. Pushkin laughs at the sentimental-romantic tricks of the characters and, washing off the make-up, reveals their real faces, shining with youth, health, filled with the light of joyful acceptance of life.
In The Young Lady-Peasant Woman, various situations of other stories are repeated and beaten in a new way. For example, motive social inequality as an obstacle to the union of lovers, found in "The Snowstorm" and in "The Station Agent". At the same time, in The Young Lady-Peasant Woman, the social barrier increases in comparison with the Snowstorm and even with the Stationmaster, and the father’s resistance is portrayed as stronger (Muromsky’s personal enmity with Berestov), but the artificiality, the imaginary social barrier also increases and then completely disappears. Resistance to the will of the parents is not needed: their enmity turns into opposite feelings, and the fathers of Lisa and Alexei feel spiritual affection for each other.
The characters play different roles, but are in an unequal position: Lisa knows everything about Alexei, while Lisa is shrouded in mystery for Alexei. The intrigue rests on the fact that Alexey has long been unraveled by Lisa, and he has yet to unravel Lisa.
Each character doubles and even triples: Liza on the “peasant woman”, the impregnable coquette of the old times and the dark-skinned “lady”, Alexei on the gentleman’s “valet”, on the “gloomy and mysterious Byronic heartthrob-wanderer”, “traveling” through the surrounding forests , and a kind, ardent fellow with a pure heart, a rabid prankster. If in “The Snowstorm” Marya Gavrilovna has two contenders for her hand, then in “The Young Lady-Peasant Woman” she has one, but Lisa herself appears in two forms and consciously plays two roles, parodying both sentimental and romantic stories, and historical moralizing stories. At the same time, the parody of Liza is subjected to a new parody of Pushkin. "The Young Lady Peasant Woman" is a parody of parodies. From this it is clear that the comic component in "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman" is repeatedly strengthened and condensed. In addition, unlike the heroine of The Snowstorm, with whom fate plays, Liza Muromskaya is not a plaything of fate: she herself creates circumstances, episodes, cases and does everything to get to know the young gentleman and lure him into her love networks.
In contrast to The Stationmaster, it is in the story The Young Lady Peasant Woman that the reunion of children and parents takes place, and the general world order triumphs merrily. In the last story, Belkin and Pushkin, like two authors, also unite: Belkin does not pursue literature and creates a simple and lifelike ending that does not require adherence to literary rules (“Readers will spare me the unnecessary obligation to describe the denouement”), and therefore Pushkin does not need to correct Belkin and remove layer after layer of book dust from his simple-hearted, but pretending to be sentimental, romantic and moralizing (already pretty shabby) literary narrative.
In addition to Belkin's Tales, Pushkin created several other major works in the 1830s, among them two completed (The Queen of Spades and Kirdzhali) and one unfinished (Egyptian Nights) novels.
"The Queen of Spades". This philosophical and psychological story has long been recognized as Pushkin's masterpiece. The plot of the story, as follows from the recorded P.I. Bartenev words P.V. Nashchokin, who was told by Pushkin himself, is based on a real case. Grandson of Princess N.P. Golitsyn Prince S.G. Golitsyn ("Firs") told Pushkin that, once having lost, he came to his grandmother to ask for money. She did not give him money, but named three cards assigned to her in Paris by Saint-Germain. "Try," she said. S.G. Golitsyn bet on the named N.P. Golitsyn's card and won back. Further development of the story is fictional.
The plot of the story is based on the game of chance and necessity, patterns. In this regard, each character is associated with a specific theme: Hermann (surname, not first name!) - with the theme of social dissatisfaction, Countess Anna Fedotovna - with the theme of fate, Lizaveta Ivanovna - with the theme of social humility, Tomsky - with the theme of undeserved happiness. So, on Tomsky, who plays an insignificant role in the plot, a significant semantic load falls: an empty, insignificant secular person who does not have a pronounced face, he embodies an accidental happiness that he did not deserve in any way. He is chosen by fate, and does not choose fate, unlike Hermann, who seeks to conquer fortune. Luck haunts Tomsky, as she haunts the countess and her entire family. At the end of the story, it is reported that Tomsky marries Princess Polina and is promoted to captain. Hence, he falls under social automatism, where random luck becomes a secret pattern regardless of any personal merit.
The choice of fate also applies to the old countess, Anna Fedotovna, whose image is directly related to the theme of fate. Anna Fedotovna personifies fate, which is emphasized by her association with life and death. She is at their intersection. Alive, she seems obsolete and dead, and the dead comes to life, at least in Hermann's imagination. While still young, she received in Paris the nickname "Moscow Venus", that is, her beauty had the features of coldness, death and petrification, like a famous sculpture. Her image is inserted into the frame of mythological associations soldered with life and death (Saint-Germain, whom she met in Paris and who told her the secret of the three cards, was called the Eternal Jew, Ahasuerus). Her portrait, which Hermann examines, is motionless. However, the countess, being between life and death, is able to “demonically” come to life under the influence of fear (under the Hermann pistol) and memories (under the name of the late Chaplitsky). If during her life she was involved in death (“her cold egoism” means that she has outlived her life and is alien to the present), then after death she comes to life in the mind of Hermann and appears to him as his vision, reporting that she visited the hero not according to to your will. What this will is - evil or good - is unknown. The story contains indications of demonic power (the secret of the cards was revealed to Countess Saint-Germain, who was involved in the demonic world), of demonic cunning (once the dead countess “looked mockingly at Hermann”, “squinting one eye”, another time the hero saw in the card “peak ladies" to the old countess, who "squinted her eyes and grinned"), on good will(“I forgive you my death, so that you marry my pupil Lizaveta Ivanovna ...”) and mystical revenge, since Hermann did not fulfill the conditions set by the countess. Fate was symbolically displayed in the suddenly revived map, and various faces of the countess surfaced in it - “Moscow Venus” (a young countess from a historical anecdote), a decrepit old woman (from a social and everyday story about a poor pupil), a winking corpse (from a “horror novel” or scary ballads).
Through Tomsky's story about the countess and secular adventurer Saint-Germain, Hermann, provoked by a historical anecdote, is also associated with the theme of fate. He tries his luck, hoping to master the secret pattern of a happy accident. In other words, he seeks to exclude chance for himself and turn card success into a natural one, and consequently, to subdue fate. However, entering the "zone" of the case, he dies, and his death becomes as random as it is natural.
Mind, prudence, strong will are concentrated in Hermann, capable of suppressing ambition, strong passions and fiery imagination. He is a player at heart. Playing cards symbolizes playing with fate. The "wrong" meaning of the card game is clearly revealed for Hermann in his game with Chekalinsky, when he became the owner of the secret of three cards. Calculation, rationality of Hermann, emphasized by his German origin, surname and profession of a military engineer, conflict with passions and fiery imagination. The will that restrains passions and imagination is finally put to shame, since Hermann, regardless of his own efforts, falls under the power of circumstances and becomes himself an instrument of a strange, incomprehensible and misunderstood secret force that turns him into a miserable toy. Initially, he seems to skillfully use his "virtues" - calculation, moderation and hard work - to achieve success. But at the same time, he is attracted by some kind of force, to which he involuntarily obeys, and, against his will, ends up at the countess's house, and in his head, premeditated and strict arithmetic is replaced by a mysterious game of numbers. So calculation is either supplanted by imagination, then replaced by strong passions, then it becomes no longer an instrument in Hermann's plan, but an instrument of a secret that uses the hero for purposes unknown to him. In the same way, the imagination begins to free itself from the control of the mind and will, and Hermann is already making plans in his mind, thanks to which he could wrest the secret of the three cards from the countess. At first, his calculation comes true: he appears under the windows of Lizaveta Ivanovna, then he achieves her smile, exchanges letters with her and, finally, receives consent to a love date. However, the meeting with the countess, despite Hermann's persuasion and threats, does not lead to success: none of the incantation formulas of the "agreement" proposed by the hero affects the countess. Anna Fedotovna is dying of fear. The calculation turned out to be in vain, and the enacted imagination turned into a void.
From that moment, one period of Hermann's life ends and another begins. On the one hand, he draws a line under his adventurous plan: he ends his love affair with Lizaveta Ivanovna, admitting that she was never the heroine of his novel, but only an instrument of his ambitious and selfish plans; decides to ask for forgiveness from the dead countess, but not for ethical reasons, but because of selfish gain - to protect himself from the harmful influence of the old woman in the future. On the other hand, the mystery of the three cards still owns his mind, and Hermann cannot get rid of the delusion, that is, put an end to the life he has lived. Having been defeated at a meeting with the old woman, he does not humble himself. But now, from an unfortunate adventurer and hero of a social story who abandons his beloved, he turns into a shredded character in a fantastic story, in whose mind reality is mixed with visions and even replaced by them. And these visions again return Hermann to the adventurous road. But the mind is already cheating on the hero, and the irrational principle is growing and increasing its impact on him. The line between the real and the rational turns out to be blurred, and Hermann is in an obvious gap between a bright consciousness and its loss. Therefore, all the visions of Hermann (the appearance of the dead old woman, the secret of the three cards revealed by her, the conditions put forward by the late Anna Fedotovna, including the demand to marry Lizaveta Ivanovna) are the fruits of a clouded mind, emanating, as it were, from the other world. Hermann's memory resurfaces Tomsky's story. The difference, however, is that the idea of three cards, finally mastering him, was expressed in more and more signs of madness (a slender girl is a three of hearts, a pot-bellied man is an ace, and an ace in a dream is a spider, etc.). Having learned the secret of three cards from the world of fantasy, from the world of the irrational, Hermann is sure that he has excluded a case from his life, that he cannot lose, that the pattern of success is subject to him. But again, a chance helps him to test his omnipotence - the arrival of the famous Chekalinsky from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Hermann again sees in this a certain finger of fate, that is, a manifestation of the same necessity, which seems to be favorable to him. The fundamental traits of character come to life in him again - prudence, composure, will, but now they play not on his side, but against him. Being completely sure of luck, that he had subjugated chance to himself, Hermann unexpectedly "turned around", received another card from the deck. Psychologically, this is quite understandable: one who believes too much in his infallibility and his success is often careless and inattentive. The most paradoxical thing is that the pattern is not shaken: the ace won. But the omnipotence of chance, this “inventor god”, has not been cancelled. Hermann thought that he excluded chance from his fate as a player, and he punished him. In the scene of Hermann's last game with Chekalinsky, the card game symbolized a duel with fate. Chekalinsky felt this, but Hermann did not, for he believed that fate was in his power, and he was its master. Chekalinsky trembled before fate, Hermann was calm. In a philosophical sense, he is understood by Pushkin as a subverter of the fundamental foundations of being: the world rests on a moving balance of regularity and chance. Neither one nor the other can be removed or destroyed. Any attempts to reshape the world order (not social, not public, but precisely existential) are fraught with disaster. This does not mean that fate is equally favorable to all people, that it rewards everyone according to their deserts and evenly, fairly distributes successes and failures. Tomsky belongs to the "chosen", lucky heroes. Hermann - to the "unelected", to the losers. However, rebellion against the laws of being, where necessity is as omnipotent as chance, leads to collapse. Excluding the case, Hermann, nevertheless, because of the case through which the regularity manifested itself, went mad. His idea to destroy the fundamental foundations of the world, created from above, is truly insane. The social meaning of the story also intersects with this idea.
The social order is not equal to the world order, but the operation of the laws of necessity and chance is also inherent in it. If changes in social and personal destiny affect the fundamental world order, as in the case of Hermann, then they end in failure. If, as in the fate of Lizaveta Ivanovna, they do not threaten the laws of life, then they can be crowned with success. Lizaveta Ivanovna is an unfortunate creature, a "domestic martyr", occupying an unenviable position in the social world. She is lonely, humiliated, although she deserves happiness. She wants to escape from her social fate and is waiting for any "deliverer", hoping with his help to change her fate. However, she did not pin her hopes exclusively on Hermann. He turned up to her, and she became his unwitting accomplice. At the same time, Lizaveta Ivanovna does not make prudent plans. She trusts life, and the condition for a change in social position for her still remains a feeling of love. This humility before life saves Lizaveta Ivanovna from the power of demonic power. She sincerely repents of her delusion regarding Hermann and suffers, acutely experiencing her involuntary guilt in the death of the countess. It is her that Pushkin rewards with happiness, without hiding the irony. Lizaveta Ivanovna repeats the fate of her benefactress: with her, "a poor relative is brought up." But this irony refers rather not to the fate of Lizaveta Ivanovna, but to the social world, the development of which takes place in a circle. The social world itself is not becoming happier, although individual participants in social history who have gone through involuntary sins, suffering and repentance have been rewarded with personal happiness and well-being.
As for Hermann, unlike Lizaveta Ivanovna, he is dissatisfied with the social order and rebels both against it and against the laws of being. Pushkin compares him to Napoleon and Mephistopheles, pointing to the intersection of philosophical and social revolts. The game of cards, symbolizing the game with fate, has been reduced and reduced in content. Napoleon's wars were a challenge to humanity, countries and peoples. Napoleonic claims were all-European and even universal in nature. Mephistopheles entered into a proud confrontation with God. For Hermann, the current Napoleon and Mephistopheles, this scale is too high and burdensome. New hero focuses his efforts on money, he is only capable of scaring an obsolete old woman to death. However, he plays with fate with the same passion, with the same ruthlessness, with the same contempt for humanity and God, as was characteristic of Napoleon and Mephistopheles. Like them, he does not accept God's world in its laws, he does not take into account people in general and each person individually. People for him are tools for satisfying ambitious, selfish and selfish desires. Thus, in an ordinary and ordinary person of the new bourgeois consciousness, Pushkin saw the same Napoleonic and Mephistopheles principles, but removed from them the halo of "heroics" and romantic fearlessness. The content of the passions shrank, shrank, but did not cease to threaten humanity. And this means that the social order is still fraught with catastrophes and cataclysms, and that Pushkin was distrustful of universal happiness even in the foreseeable future. But he does not deprive the world of all hope. This is convinced not only by the fate of Lizaveta Ivanovna, but also indirectly - on the contrary - the collapse of Hermann, whose ideas lead to the destruction of the personality.
The hero of the story "Kirdzhali"- a real historical person. Pushkin learned about him at the time when he lived in the south, in Chisinau. The name of Kirdzhali was then covered with legend, there were rumors about the battle near Skulyan, where Kirdzhali allegedly behaved heroically. Wounded, he managed to escape from the persecution of the Turks and appear in Chisinau. But he was extradited to the Russian Turks (the act of transfer was carried out by the official Pushkin's acquaintance M.I. Leks). At the time when Pushkin began writing the story (1834), his views on the uprising and on Kirdzhali changed: he called the troops that fought near Skulyan "rabble" and robbers, and Kirdzhali himself was also a robber, but not devoid of attractive features - courage , resourcefulness.
In a word, the image of Kirdzhali in the story is dual - it is both a folk hero and a robber. To this end, Pushkin merges fiction with documentary. He cannot sin against the "touching truth" and at the same time he takes into account the popular, legendary opinion about Kirdzhali. The fairy tale connects with reality. So, 10 years after the death of Kirdzhali (1824), Pushkin, contrary to the facts, depicts Kirdzhali alive (“Kirdzhali is now robbing near Yassy”) and writes about Kirdzhali as if he were alive, asking: “What is Kirdzhali?”. Thus, Pushkin, according to the folklore tradition, sees in Kirdzhali not only a robber, but also a folk hero with his undying vitality and mighty strength.
A year after writing "Kirdzhali" Pushkin began to write the story "Egyptian Nights". Pushkin's idea arose in connection with the record of the Roman historian Aurelius Victor (4th century AD) about the Queen of Egypt Cleopatra (69–30 BC), who sold her nights to her lovers at the cost of their lives. The impression was so strong that Pushkin immediately wrote a fragment of "Cleopatra", which began with the words:
Enlivened her magnificent feast ...
Pushkin repeatedly embarked on the implementation of the idea that captured him. In particular, the "Egyptian anecdote" was supposed to be part of a novel from Roman life, and then used in a story that opened with the words "We spent the evening at the dacha." Initially, Pushkin intended to process the plot in lyrical and lyrical form (poem, long poem, poem), but then he leaned towards prose. The first prosaic embodiment of the theme of Cleopatra was the sketch “Guests were coming to the dacha…”.
Pushkin's idea concerned only one feature in the history of the queen - the conditions of Cleopatra and the reality-unreality of this condition in modern circumstances. IN final version the image of the Improviser appears - a link between antiquity and modernity. His intrusion into the idea was connected, firstly, with Pushkin’s desire to portray the mores of high-society Petersburg, and secondly, it reflected reality: performances by visiting improvisers became fashionable in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and Pushkin himself was present at one session with his friend D.F. . Fikelmont, granddaughters of M.I. Kutuzov. There, on May 24, 1834, Max Langerschwartz spoke. Adam Mickiewicz also possessed the talent of an improviser, with whom Pushkin was friendly when he was a Polish poet in St. Petersburg (1826). Pushkin was so excited by Mickiewicz's art that he threw himself on his neck. This event left a mark in the memory of Pushkin: A.A. Akhmatova noticed that the appearance of the Improviser in Egyptian Nights bears an undeniable resemblance to that of Mickiewicz. D.F. could have had an indirect influence on the figure of the Improviser. Ficquelmont, who witnessed the session of the Italian Tomasso Strighi. One of the themes of the improvisation is "Death of Cleopatra".
The idea of the story "Egyptian Nights" was based on the contrast of bright, passionate and cruel antiquity with an insignificant and almost lifeless, reminiscent of Egyptian mummies, but outwardly decent society of people observing decency and taste. This duality also applies to the Italian improviser, the inspired author of oral works performed on commissioned themes, and the petty, obsequious, mercenary person, ready to humiliate himself for the sake of money.
The significance of Pushkin's idea and the perfection of its expression have long ago created the reputation of one of the masterpieces of Pushkin's genius, and some literary critics (M.L. Hoffman) wrote about the "Egyptian Nights" as the pinnacle of Pushkin's work.
Two novels created by Pushkin, Dubrovsky and The Captain's Daughter, also date back to the 1830s. Both of them are connected with Pushkin's idea of a deep crack that lay between the people and the nobility. Pushkin, as a man of statesmanship, saw in this split the true tragedy of national history. He was interested in the question: Under what conditions is it possible to reconcile the people and the nobility, to establish agreement between them, how strong can their union be, and what consequences for the fate of the country should be expected from it? The poet believed that only the union of the people and the nobility could lead to good changes and transformations along the path of freedom, education and culture. Therefore, the decisive role should be assigned to the nobility as an educated stratum, the "reason" of the nation, which must rely on the power of the people, on the "body" of the nation. However, the nobility is not homogeneous. Farthest from the people are the “young” nobility, who came close to power after Catherine’s coup of 1762, when many old aristocratic families fell and fell into decay, as well as the “new” nobility - the current servants of the tsar, greedy for ranks, awards and estates. Closest to the people is the ancient aristocratic nobility, the former boyars, now ruined and having lost influence at court, but retaining direct patriarchal ties with the serfs of their remaining estates. Consequently, only this stratum of nobles can enter into an alliance with the peasants, and only with this stratum of nobles will the peasants enter into an alliance. Their union may also be based on the fact that both are offended by the supreme power and the recently advanced nobility. Their interests may overlap.
"Dubrovsky" (1832–1833). The story of P.V. Nashchokin, about which there is a record of Pushkin's biographer P.I. Barteneva: “The novel Dubrovsky was inspired by Nashchokin. He told Pushkin about a Belarusian poor nobleman named Ostrovsky (as the novel was called at first), who had a lawsuit with a neighbor for land, was ousted from the estate and, left with some peasants, began to rob, first clerks, then others. Nashchokin saw this Ostrovsky in prison. The specificity of this story was confirmed by Pushkin's Pskov impressions (the case of the Nizhny Novgorod landowner Dubrovsky, Kryukov and Muratov, the morals of the owner of Petrovsky P.A. Hannibal). Real facts corresponded to Pushkin's intention to put an impoverished and land-deprived nobleman at the head of the rebellious peasants.
The single-line nature of the original plan was overcome in the course of work on the novel. The plan did not include Father Dubrovsky and the history of his friendship with Troekurov, there was no discord between lovers, the figure of Vereisky, which is very important for the idea of stratification of the nobility (aristocratic and poor "romantics" - thin and rich upstarts - "cynics"). In addition, in the plan, Dubrovsky falls victim to the betrayal of the postilion, and not to social circumstances. The plan outlines the story of an exceptional personality, daring and successful, offended by a rich landowner, court and avenging himself. In the text that has come down to us, Pushkin, on the contrary, emphasized the typicality and ordinariness of Dubrovsky, with whom an event characteristic of the era happened. Dubrovsky in the story, as V.G. Marantsman, “not an exceptional personality, accidentally plunged into a maelstrom of adventurous events. The fate of the hero is determined by social life, the era, which is given in a branched and multifaceted way. Dubrovsky and his peasants, as in the life of Ostrovsky, found no other way out than robbery, robbery of offenders and rich noble landowners.
The researchers found in the novel traces of the influence of Western and partly Russian romantic literature with a “robber” theme (“Robbers” by Schiller, “Rinaldo Rinaldini” by Vulpius, “Poor Wilhelm” by G. Stein, “Jean Sbogar” by C. Nodier) “Rob Roy” by Walter Scott, "Night Romance" by A. Radcliffe, "Fra-Devil" by R. Zotov, "Corsair" by Byron). However, when mentioning these works and their heroes in the text of the novel, Pushkin everywhere insists on the literary nature of these characters.
The novel is set in the 1820s. The novel presents two generations - fathers and children. The life history of the fathers is compared with the fate of the children. The story of the friendship of fathers is “the prelude to the tragedy of children”. Initially, Pushkin named the exact date that separated the fathers: “The glorious year 1762 separated them for a long time. Troekurov, a relative of Princess Dashkova, went uphill. These words mean a lot. Both Dubrovsky and Troekurov are people of the Catherine era, who started their service together and strived to make a good career. 1762 is the year of Catherine's coup, when Catherine II overthrew her husband, Peter III, from the throne and began to rule Russia. Dubrovsky remained faithful to Emperor Peter III, as the ancestor (Lev Alexandrovich Pushkin) of Pushkin himself, about whom the poet wrote in My Genealogy:
My grandfather when the rebellion rose
In the middle of the Peterhof courtyard,
Like Minich, he remained faithful
The fall of the third Peter.
They fell in honor of the Orlovs then,
And my grandfather is in the fortress, in quarantine.
And subdued our stern kind...
Troekurov, on the contrary, took the side of Catherine II, who brought closer not only the supporter of the coup, Princess Dashkova, but also her relatives. Since then, the career of Dubrovsky, who did not change his oath, began to decline, and the career of Troekurov, who changed his oath, began to rise. Therefore, the gain in social status and material terms was paid for by the betrayal and moral fall of a person, and the loss was paid for by fidelity to duty and moral purity.
Troyekurov belonged to that new service noble nobility, which, for the sake of ranks, titles, estates and awards, did not know ethical barriers. Dubrovsky - to that old aristocracy, which revered honor, dignity, duty above any personal benefits. Therefore, the reason for the disengagement lies in the circumstances, but for these circumstances to manifest themselves, people with low moral immunity are needed.
A lot of time has passed since Dubrovsky and Troekurov parted ways. They met again when both were out of work. Personally, Troekurov and Dubrovsky did not become enemies of each other. On the contrary, they are connected by friendship and mutual affection, but these strong human feelings are not able to first prevent a quarrel, and then reconcile people who are at different levels of the social ladder, just as they cannot hope for a common fate. loving friend their other children are Masha Troekurova and Vladimir Dubrovsky.
This tragic idea of the novel about the social and moral stratification of people from the nobility and the social enmity of the nobility and the people is embodied in the completion of all storylines. It generates inner drama, which is expressed in the contrasts of the composition: friendship is opposed by a court scene, Vladimir's meeting with his native nest is accompanied by the death of his father, stricken by misfortunes and a fatal illness, the silence of the funeral is broken by the menacing glow of a fire, the holiday in Pokrovsky ends with a robbery, love - flight, wedding - battle. Vladimir Dubrovsky inexorably loses everything: in the first volume, his patrimony is taken away from him, he is deprived of his parental home and position in society. In the second volume, Vereisky robs him of his love, and the state robs him of his predatory will. Social laws everywhere win over human feelings and affections, but people cannot but resist circumstances if they believe in humane ideals and want to save face. Thus, human feelings enter into a tragic duel with the laws of society, which are valid for everyone.
To rise above the laws of society, you need to get out of their power. Pushkin's heroes strive to arrange their own destiny in their own way, but they fail to do so. Vladimir Dubrovsky is testing three options for his life lot: a wasteful and ambitious guards officer, a modest and courageous Deforge, a formidable and honest robber. The purpose of such attempts is to change one's destiny. But it is not possible to change fate, because the place of a hero in society is fixed forever - to be the son of an old nobleman with the same qualities that his father had - poverty and honesty. However, these qualities are in a certain sense opposed to each other and to the position of the hero: in the society where Vladimir Dubrovsky lives, such a combination cannot be afforded, because it is severely punished without delay, as in the case of the elder Dubrovsky. Wealth and dishonor (Troekurov), wealth and cynicism (Vereisky) are inseparable pairs that characterize the social organism. Maintaining honesty in poverty is too much of a luxury. Poverty obliges to be complaisant, moderate pride and forget about honor. All Vladimir's attempts to defend his right to be poor and honest end in disaster, because the spiritual qualities of the hero are incompatible with his social and social position. So Dubrovsky, by the will of circumstances, and not by the will of Pushkin, turns out to be a romantic hero who, due to his human qualities, is constantly drawn into conflict with the established order of things, trying to rise above it. In Dubrovsky, a heroic beginning is revealed, but the contradiction lies in the fact that the old nobleman dreams not of exploits, but of simple and quiet family happiness, of a family idyll. He does not understand that this is precisely what he was not given, just as neither poor ensign Vladimir from the Snowstorm, nor poor Yevgeny from the Bronze Horseman was given.
Marya Kirillovna is internally related to Dubrovsky. She, "an ardent dreamer", saw in Vladimir a romantic hero and hoped for the power of feelings. She believed, like the heroine of The Snowstorm, that she could soften her father's heart. She naively believed that she would also touch the soul of Prince Vereisky, awakening in him a “feeling of generosity”, but he remained indifferent and indifferent to the words of the bride. He lives by cold calculation and rushes the wedding. Social, property and other external circumstances are not on the side of Masha, and she, like Vladimir Dubrovsky, is forced to give up her positions. Her conflict with the order of things is complicated by the internal drama associated with a typical upbringing that spoils the soul of a rich noble girl. The aristocratic prejudices peculiar to her inspired her that courage, honor, dignity, courage are inherent only in the upper class. It is easier to cross the line in relations between a rich aristocratic young lady and a poor teacher than to connect life with a robber torn out of society. The boundaries defined by life are stronger than the hottest feelings. The heroes understand this too: Masha firmly and resolutely rejects Dubrovsky's help.
The same tragic situation develops in folk scenes. The nobleman stands at the head of the rebellion of the peasants who are devoted to him and carry out his orders. But the goals of Dubrovsky and the peasants are different, because the peasants ultimately hate all the nobles and officials, although the peasants are not without humane feelings. They are ready to take revenge on the landlords and officials in any way, even if they have to live by robbery and robbery, that is, to commit a forced, but a crime. And Dubrovsky understands this. He and the peasants lost their place in a society that cast them out and doomed them to be outcasts.
Although the peasants are determined to sacrifice themselves and go to the end, neither their good feelings for Dubrovsky nor his good feelings for the peasants change the tragic outcome of events. The order of things was restored by government troops, Dubrovsky left the gang. The union of the nobility and the peasantry was possible only for a short time and reflected the failure of hopes for a joint opposition to the government. The tragic questions of life that arose in Pushkin's novel were not resolved. Probably, as a result of this, Pushkin refrained from publishing the novel, hoping to find positive answers to burning life problems that worried him.
"The Captain's Daughter" (1833-1836). In this novel, Pushkin returned to those collisions, to those conflicts that disturbed him in Dubrovsky, but resolved them differently.
Now in the center of the novel is a popular movement, a popular revolt led by a real historical figure - Emelyan Pugachev. The nobleman Pyotr Grinev is involved in this historical movement by force of circumstances. If in "Dubrovsky" the nobleman becomes the head of the peasant indignation, then in " Captain's daughter» chief people's war turns out to be a man from the people - Cossack Pugachev. There is no alliance between the nobles and the rebellious Cossacks, peasants, foreigners, Grinev and Pugachev are social enemies. They are in different camps, but fate brings them together from time to time, and they treat each other with respect and trust. First, Grinev, not allowing Pugachev to freeze in the Orenburg steppes, warmed his soul with a hare sheepskin coat, then Pugachev saved Grinev from execution and helped him in matters of the heart. So, fictional historical figures are placed by Pushkin in a real historical canvas, they became participants in a powerful popular movement and history makers.
Pushkin made extensive use of historical sources, archival documents and visited the places of the Pugachev rebellion, visiting the Volga region, Kazan, Orenburg, Uralsk. He made his narrative exceptionally reliable by writing documents similar to the real ones and including in them quotations from genuine papers, for example, from Pugachev's appeals, considering them amazing examples of folk eloquence.
A significant role was played in Pushkin's work on The Captain's Daughter and the testimonies of his acquaintances about the Pugachev uprising. Poet I.I. Dmitriev told Pushkin about the execution of Pugachev in Moscow, the fabulist I.A. Krylov - about the war and the besieged Orenburg (his father, a captain, fought on the side of government troops, and he and his mother were in Orenburg), merchant L.F. Krupenikov - about being in Pugachev's captivity. Pushkin heard and wrote down legends, songs, stories from the old-timers of those places through which the uprising swept.
Before the historical movement captured and swirled in a terrible storm of cruel events of the rebellion of the fictional heroes of the story, Pushkin vividly and lovingly describes the life of the Grinev family, the unlucky Beaupre, faithful and devoted Savelich, Captain Mironov, his wife Vasilisa Yegorovna, daughter Masha and the entire population of the dilapidated fortress. The simple, inconspicuous life of these families, with their old patriarchal way of life, is also Russian history, going on invisibly to prying eyes. It is done quietly, "at home". Therefore, it should be described in the same way. Walter Scott served as an example of such an image for Pushkin. Pushkin admired his ability to present history through life, customs, family traditions.
A little time passed after Pushkin left the novel "Dubrovsky" (1833) and finished the novel "The Captain's Daughter" (1836). However, in Pushkin's historical and artistic views on Russian history, much has changed. Between "Dubrovsky" and "The Captain's Daughter" Pushkin wrote "History of Pugachev" which helped him form the opinion of the people about Pugachev and better understand the severity of the problem of "nobility - people", the causes of social and other contradictions that divided the nation and hindered its unity.
In Dubrovsky, Pushkin still harbored the illusions that dissipated as the novel progressed towards the end, according to which union and peace are possible between the ancient aristocratic nobility and the people. However, Pushkin's heroes did not want to obey this artistic logic: on the one hand, regardless of the will of the author, they turned into romantic characters, which was not foreseen by Pushkin, on the other hand, their fates became more and more tragic. Pushkin did not find at the time of the creation of "Dubrovsky" a national and all-human positive idea that could unite peasants and nobles, did not find a way to overcome the tragedy.
In The Captain's Daughter, such an idea was found. The way was also outlined there for overcoming the tragedy in the future, in the course of historical development humanity. But before that, in “The History of Pugachev” (“Remarks on a Revolt”), Pushkin wrote words that testified to the inevitability of a split in the nation into two irreconcilable camps: “All the black people were for Pugachev. The clergy favored him, not only priests and monks, but also archimandrites and bishops. One nobility was openly on the side of the government. Pugachev and his accomplices wanted at first to persuade the nobles to their side, but their benefits were too opposite.
All Pushkin's illusions about possible world between nobles and peasants collapsed, the tragic situation was exposed with even more obviousness than before. And the more clearly and responsibly the task arose of finding a positive answer, resolving the tragic contradiction. To this end, Pushkin skillfully organizes the plot. The novel, the core of which is the love story of Masha Mironova and Pyotr Grinev, has turned into a broad historical narrative. This principle - from private destinies to the historical destinies of the people - permeates the plot of The Captain's Daughter, and it can be easily seen in every significant episode.
"The Captain's Daughter" has become a truly historical work, saturated with modern social content. Heroes and secondary persons are displayed in Pushkin's work as multilateral characters. Pushkin does not have only positive or only negative characters. Everyone acts as a living person with his inherent good and bad features, which are manifested primarily in actions. Fictional characters associated with historical figures and included in the historical movement. It was the course of history that determined the actions of the heroes, forging their difficult fate.
Thanks to the principle of historicism (the unstoppable movement of history, striving towards infinity, containing many trends and opening up new horizons), neither Pushkin nor his heroes succumb to despondency in the most gloomy circumstances, they do not lose faith in either personal or general happiness. Pushkin finds the ideal in reality and thinks of its realization in the course of the historical process. He dreams that in the future there will be no social stratification and social discord. This will become possible when humanism, humanity will be the basis of state policy.
Pushkin's heroes appear in the novel from two sides: as people, i.e. in their universal and national qualities, and as characters playing social roles, i.e. in their social and public functions.
Grinev is both an ardent young man who received a patriarchal upbringing at home, and an ordinary undergrowth, who gradually becomes an adult and courageous warrior, and a nobleman, officer, "servant of the king", faithful to the laws of honor; Pugachev is both an ordinary peasant, not alien to natural feelings, in the spirit of folk traditions protecting an orphan, and a cruel leader of a peasant rebellion, who hates nobles and officials; Catherine II - and an elderly lady with a dog walking in the park, ready to help an orphan if she was treated unfairly and offended, and an autocratic autocrat, ruthlessly suppressing the rebellion and creating a harsh court; Captain Mironov is a kind, inconspicuous and accommodating man, who is under the command of his wife, and an officer devoted to the empress, without hesitation resorting to torture and reprisals against the rebels.
In each character, Pushkin discovers the truly human and social. Each camp has its own social truth, and both these truths are irreconcilable. But each camp is characterized by humanity. If social truths separate people, then humanity unites them. Where the social and moral laws of any camp operate, the human shrinks and disappears.
Pushkin depicts several episodes, where first Grinev tries to rescue Masha Mironova, his bride, from Pugachev's captivity and from the hands of Shvabrin, then Masha Mironova seeks to justify Grinev in the eyes of the empress, the government and the court. In those scenes where the characters are in the sphere of the social and moral laws of their camp, they do not meet with understanding of their simple human feelings. But as soon as the social and moral laws of even a camp hostile to the heroes recede into the background, Pushkin's heroes can count on benevolence and sympathy.
If temporarily Pugachev, a man, with his pitiful soul, sympathizing with the offended orphan, did not prevail over Pugachev, the leader of the rebellion, then Grinev and Masha Mironova would certainly have died. But if in Catherine II, when meeting with Masha Mironova, human feeling had not won instead of social benefit, then Grinev would not have been saved, delivered from the court, and the union of the lovers would have been postponed or not taken place at all. Therefore, the happiness of heroes depends on how people are able to remain people, how human they are. This is especially true for those who have power, on whom the fate of subordinates depends.
The human, says Pushkin, is higher than the social. It is not for nothing that his heroes, due to their deep humanity, do not fit into the play of social forces. Pushkin finds an expressive formula to designate, on the one hand, social laws, and, on the other hand, humanity.
In his contemporary society, there is a gap, a contradiction between social laws and humanity: what corresponds to the social interests of one or another class suffers from insufficient humanity or kills it. When Catherine II asks Masha Mironova: “You are an orphan: you are probably complaining about injustice and resentment?”, The heroine replies: “No way, sir. I came to ask for mercy, not justice.” mercy, which Masha Mironova came for is humanity, and justice- social codes and rules adopted and operating in society.
According to Pushkin, both camps - both the noble and the peasant - are not humane enough, but for humanity to win, it is not necessary to move from one camp to another. It is necessary to rise above social conditions, interests and prejudices, rise above them and remember that the title of a person is immeasurably higher than all other ranks, titles and ranks. For Pushkin, it is quite enough that the heroes within their environment, within their estate, following their moral and cultural traditions, will retain their honor, dignity and will be true to universal human values. Grinev and captain Mironov remained devoted to the code of noble honor and oath, Savelich - to the foundations of peasant morality. Humanity can become the property of all people and all classes.
Pushkin, however, is not a utopian; he does not portray the matter as if the cases he described have become the norm. On the contrary, they did not become a reality, but their triumph, even in the distant future, is possible. Pushkin refers to those times, continuing the theme of mercy and justice, which is important in his work, when humanity becomes the law. human being. In the present tense, however, a sad note sounds, amending the bright history of Pushkin's heroes - as soon as big events leave the historical stage, the cute characters of the novel become invisible, lost in the flow of life. They touched historical life only for a short time. However, sadness does not wash away Pushkin's confidence in the course of history, in the victory of humanity.
In The Captain's Daughter, Pushkin found a convincing artistic solution confronted him with the contradictions of reality and of all being.
The measure of humanity has become, along with historicism, beauty and perfection of form, an integral and recognizable sign of Pushkin's universal(also called ontological, referring to the universal, existential quality of creativity, which determines the aesthetic originality of the mature works of Pushkin and himself as an artist) realism, which absorbed both the strict logic of classicism and the free play of the imagination introduced into literature by romanticism.
Pushkin was the end of an entire era literary development Russia and the initiator of a new era of the art of the word. His main artistic aspirations were synthesis of the main artistic trends - classicism, enlightenment, sentimentalism and romanticism and the establishment on this foundation of universal, or ontological, realism, which he called "true romanticism", the destruction of genre thinking and the transition to thinking in styles, which ensured the dominance of an extensive system of individual styles, and also the creation of a single national literary language, the creation of perfect genre forms from lyric poem to the novel, which became genre models for Russian writers of the 19th century, and the renewal of Russian critical thought in the spirit of the achievements of European philosophy and aesthetics.
Composition of a prose work
Speaking specifically about style, it is required to start with composition, because this characteristic is the most typological in art in general, and especially in the art of the word in prose. It is clear that the main thing in a compositional decision is not the types and techniques themselves, but that “a little bit” (Tolstoy), which is generally so important in art, because it suddenly leads into depth, into space. But this "slightly", as we know, is indefinable, what to talk about it; Another thing is that the natural-technical side of the prose style, and especially in the sphere of large form in prose, is clear primarily in composition. As you know, technical work on the “language” (speech style) can be both lengthy and voluminous, but in this work, even after the first inspiration, an intuitive moment plays a huge and most often decisive role. “Language” is the darkest, most individual in art, from it, or rather from the “rumble”, rhythm, from intonation, which are both its component and its presentiment, the very individuality of the artist begins. As for the composition, it, in its types, methods, is much more formal, more typological, that is, it is repeated, belongs to many. And if so, then it is subject to study, as something, the known knowledge of which exactly shortens the experiments for us. In poetry, it is also a metric, a stanza; their laws are often called the laws of verse composition. (Inside and outside the verse as a verse). In prose, rhythms are more complex or freer. The composition here, of course, begins with the principles of constructing a phrase, period, i.e., syntax; but it is clearly and naturally revealed at broader levels.
About the composition, in different systems of terms, wrote almost everyone who was specifically interested in the topic of the artist's skill, the very artistry of art. Plot, plot, motive, motivation, architectonics, finally, tense in recent decades the term "artistic time" - all this one way or another concerns the general problem of composition in prose - the composition of a prose work, as well as image, line, etc.
Preferring the words “plot”, “construction”, VB Shklovsky writes extremely much and scrupulously about the composition in prose in the 1920s, he also gives the necessary references. The basis of his own judgments is the problems of composition in " historical poetics" Al-dra N. Veselovsky and other works ... There were also authors who preferred to put the word "composition" in the title: M. Rybnikova. "On questions of composition". M., "Federation", 1924. A lot of useful composition in prose is expressed in passing in the poetic works of Andrei Bely, V.M. Zhirmunsky, Yu.N. Tynyanov and others.
What is composition? Composition is a construction (sotropic - I fold, arrange). In practice, the composition is also the development (more precisely, deployment), the principles of the very movement of the artistic "element". This is a complex relationship: on the one hand, the composition is the first spiritual realization of that obscure image that has hitherto loomed in the consciousness and subconscious, and in this sense the composition is immediately complete - architectonic, static, obviously; on the other hand, this realization of an artistic-verbal work takes place in time, more precisely, in space-time, although, according to the letter of its transubstantiation, the art of the word is temporal, not spatial; and, thus, this realization manifests itself gradually - it moves, spills, expands, ends, i.e., lives in time.
The substantive meaning of the prose composition is the category of artistic time, more precisely, we repeat, space-time, because, unfolding in time, verbal masses invariably give a weighty sense of the space of the text, although this feeling can be considered conditional - a feeling of the second order (for the "real" there is no space given at once). Moreover, every practitioner knows that the artist of the word, in the process of performing the text, rhythmically and figuratively feels this text RATHER as an unfolding space than as time. Nevertheless, the process takes place in time, and the rhythm of a phrase, period, etc. is formally temporal, not spatial.
The very feeling of objective time and its embodiment in artistic time is clearly, “laboratory” visible, for example, in the texts of chronicles, this is well shown in D.S. Likhachev’s book “The Poetics of Old Russian Literature” (L., “KhL”, 1971, etc. publications), where, by the way, one more substantiation of the very category of artistic time is given.
So, space, time. The task before the author is to embody the vague image of a certain “second life”, looming in his mind and soul, into verbal forms. The problem of composition arises; this is the first thing that arises: in relation to the work as a whole.
Just as a poet in Russian practically cannot get out of the "background" of syllabic tonics, so the author of a prose work practically cannot go beyond those three or four general standard solutions that the laws of the material of life and the word offer him as the material of creativity itself. For forty years he spoke in prose and did not know about it ... So it is here. Deductive, deliberate ignorance does not eliminate the fulfillment of the law itself.
The first and obvious type of composition is direct composition, direct time; it should immediately be noted that such terms are not generally accepted and, as you might guess, are a contamination and generalization of various other terms that express the situation, in our opinion, more fractionally and privately. So, direct time.
The great Russian prose of its golden age worked much in this style. Which once again proves that the device is not in itself and that the external simplicity or sophistication of the device is neither a censure nor a praise in art ... Russian "small" prose, especially the story as a "Russian genre", with its typical (although far from not always!) installation on a special ease, not only internal, but also external truthfulness, the NATURALITY of the forms of expression, clearly preferred this “simple” and “artless” composition of the direct flow of action, material. The beginning is at the beginning, the end is at the end. Exposition, plot, development, climax and denouement - all according to the school scheme, well, of course, plus or minus some component, components.
Before us is Turgenev's story "Lgov". Why Lgov? Yes, it is clear and characteristic. Exotic examples are not always good for illustrating deep, basic laws, even more often they are not good. The “banal” is the truest, deepest, and therefore it became familiar and lost its freshness for our perception. We just need to restore it, this freshness.
In "Lgov" the hunters Yermolai and Vladimir confront, right there - the famous Suchok, who has since entered separately into all anthologies and, by the way, in our opinion, as an image influenced Ivan Afrikanych Vasily Belov; Here is the narrator. Energetic Yermolai rules the action: each of his appearances (beginning with the very first phrase "Let's go to Lgov... We'll shoot plenty of ducks there") moves the plot like a plot. Vladimir is unpleasant, this is a kind of phenomenon of semi-civilization, on the image of which Turgenev does not regret reducing gestures; it and his hair are washed with kvass, and he smears, each time explaining why he missed, and he is a coward, finally, full - in the end. But all this is clear, and in our case this is not the point.
Of course, we are interested in those complexities of a simple composition that are not immediately noticeable and so often fail inexperienced authors, careless at the sight of all this conceivable simplicity.
There is a place in the story that was not included in the anthology. If you ask in any audience, no one will say where it comes from. What is this place?
Let's talk in more detail.
The narrator sits and waits for Yermolai. And next to it is a stone: “Under this stone, the body of a French subject, Count Blange, is buried; born 1737, died 1799, his whole life was 62 years ...
Under the sim stone lies a French emigrant; He had a noble breed and talent. Having mourned the beaten wife and family, He left his homeland, trampled by tyrants; Russian countries reaching the shores, Found in old age a hospitable shelter; He taught children, calmed his parents... The Almighty Judge calmed him down here.
The arrival of Yermolai, Vladimir, and a man with the strange nickname Suchok interrupted my reflections. What is this for?
It is clear that this not only has nothing to do with the problem of serfdom, the very image of Suchok, etc., but in general does not fit into the plot of the story “Lgov”, as we know it (hunting, Yermolai and Vladimir), and, thus, three out of four modern editors would "painlessly" remove "this place" as compositionally superfluous. Meanwhile, "Lgov" - one of the most textbook stories, was reprinted many times by the author himself, and "this place" always remained. Why would it be?
Apparently, Turgenev was still not stupider than modern editors, and he knew that in a work “besides” movement and plot, and “necessary” descriptions and reasoning, there must also be freedom, “air”. Rather, all this is not separate from one another, but one in one. Any culmination in the narration of direct time, as in other, more “complex”, cases, exists with this, which is both the greatest freedom and the greatest compaction of the material, which reveals the limit of it, this material, tests it to the end, to the exit from the third to the fourth dimension - into volume, into relief, into ambiguity, into the whole depth of life. But that is the culmination, but here it is not yet there, but the hidden law of the material is the same: at the same time the desire, as it were, the constraint in the gorges, of the material - and freedom; and this is especially characteristic precisely for such a “simply” direct narrative: it is important in it that principle of naturalness, which, as we say, is generally so typical of many styles of Russian prose and which in this case merges with the principle of freedom. It’s somewhat tactless to guess for Turgenev, but if this experiment is still permissible, then, one might think, he knew no less than our editor that “this place” was not connected with the plot, with the characters, but left it, according to his feeling, which dictated so that the text is free, so that it has something to breathe - so that there is air; so that the feeling that we do not have a predetermined meaning (“a telegraph pole is a well-edited pine tree”), but a free narrative, does not go away for a moment. This is just one example of the complexity and subtlety of a simple prose form - the composition of direct time. At the same time, it is clear that the case is complicated in another way: after all, every author, including Turgenev, rightly and forever faces the curse of removing everything superfluous from the text, and whoever does not know how to do this, he does not know how, and this is immediately obvious; the art of prose is the art of crossing out, according to Chekhov; in this situation, leaving a clearly “extra” episode in the text is courage, and only intuition, the tact of talent, prompts the very measure of the superfluous and necessary.
It is obvious that the reverse version of the composition could be called just that - the composition of the reverse time; this is the type of composition that Dostoevsky mastered so virtuously in our classical romance, who, in turn, took into account the compositional experience of Balzac, Hugo, Eugene Sue and the entire Western criminal novel. In turn, the Western novel of the 20th century, in one of its branches, directly relies not only on the spiritual, moral, psychological, but also on the compositional experience of Dostoevsky. Faulkner, Graham Greene, Dürrenmatt... Dostoevsky's favorite move is to inform the reader at the very beginning that he, the narrator, already knows the end; throughout the entire "Demons" we know nothing about Stavrogin, while the author not only knows all the time, but also makes us understand about it; in fact, the very interest of the narrative rests on this in many respects: “he” is about to open up - but he does not open up even in a duel, which in Russian literature has traditionally been the moment of the hero’s full revelation (Pushkin, Marlinsky, Lermontov, Turgenev, Chekhov) ; it was so clear that the heroes of Chekhov's "Duel", in order to somehow motivate the "automated" situation for the reader, recall during the duel: how are things with Lermontov, Turgenev? .. And Stavrogin is not clear here either; in the intervals between his riddles, in different scenes, the author, under this plot interest of the reader, manages to give his various complex judgments on the topics of the state of souls, minds, characters and morality of the century, which is especially eloquent, for example, in the final VIII chapter of the 1st part , in the scene with Shatov; in general, this is a composition of reverse Roman time.
Its specific features, as usual, in a conversation of this type are better seen in the material of a small prose form. Of the most striking is the example of Bunin.
Before us is "Light Breathing".
Various intense compositional techniques are combined here with the complete ease of the speech itself. How it turns out in principle is the secret of the master, but we are now interested in the very external technique of this combination. Actually, the first secret is this combination itself. The ease of speech "hides" the sharpness of the compositional device, and yet it is precisely sharp. Here is the beginning: “In the cemetery, over a fresh earthen embankment, there is a new cross made of oak, strong, heavy, smooth, such that it is pleasant to look at it ...
A rather large bronze medallion is embedded in the very cross ...
This is Olya Meshcherskaya.
As a girl, she did not stand out in that noisy crowd of brown dresses ... "
The sharpness of temporary techniques, as we see, is obvious from the first lines. The layers of time are rearranged, the end precedes the beginning, the message “This is Olya Meshcherskaya” immediately, through a paragraph (red line), as it were, throws us back to this very beginning. And all this - in a manner where the author does not hesitate to give seven of his famous pictorial epithets in the first three lines (only “pleasantly” is not “visible”!), where the author’s melodious, smooth, natural dialect hides hard and strong-willed work with artistic time. The intensity of these loads again sharply increases as we approach the end. There are, as it were, several waves of this ending - waves that go on growing and with each new attempt bring us closer to that freedom, volume, relief, depth of life, which is a spiritual goal. This figure of an old maid, a teacher, is brought to the fore. This is the first "surprise". A less experienced, less powerful author, having thought of this “surprise”, would have ended the story here: here again is a cemetery, a sad landscape, and here is this woman who thinks about death and life. About the ease of death, behind which there is a certain mystery of life. However, it also goes new wave- at the NOEOOM level of artistic time, spirit and composition: the author, again “unexpectedly”, brings us back to Olya Meshcherskaya herself. He does it just as naturally: cool lady"He simply mentally reproduces this famous speech by Olya:" I'm in one dad's book - he has a lot of old ones, funny books, I read what beauty a woman should have ... There, you understand, there is so much said that you can’t remember everything: well, of course, black eyes boiling with tar - by golly, it’s written: boiling with tar! - black as night, eyelashes, a gently playing blush, a thin camp, an arm longer than an ordinary one, - you know, longer than usual! a small leg, a moderately large chest, a properly rounded calf, a shell-colored knee, sloping but high shoulders - I almost learned a lot by heart, so it's all true - but the main thing, you know what? - Easy breath! But I have it, - you listen to how I sigh, - is it true, is there?
The final chord-wave is again a return to death, to today, but the return is no longer at the level of space, ontology, open space: paragraph (red line): “Now this light breath has again scattered in the world, in this cloudy sky, in this cold spring wind." Yes, here the author does not put flat points over 1 (“poetry of two dimensions”, Blok), but it leads to the depth of Life. Not into the void, as - however, unfairly - G. Shengeli speaks of Mayakovsky ("leading into the void", "Mayakovsky in full growth"), but in depth. A hint is given to something that is higher, deeper than our understanding, its presence in this world, this “something”, is proved, but it is proved without idle, namely linear or flat, rational decodings - and here the story is put to an end. A dot, equal to a tall and vague ellipsis ... Bunin, as usual, is not afraid to put a date. This is "Sh.1916". The date, of course, still causes thought, and earlier, than further earlier, back, all the more, it caused thought even more: were there “more important” problems in Russia in March 1916 than the death from an idiotic shot of an unfortunate lover of a young and windy gymnasium girl with "easy breathing"? Was it not on purpose that Bunin so scrupulously put his dates in typographical, printed texts? Still, we don't know for sure. However, the winners are not judged in art. In those years, according to the recollections of witnesses, Bunin's public reading of his stories gathered only a meager audience. However, decades have passed, and various "very serious" works of those times - where are they; and "Easy Breath", despite the death of the heroine and in spite of her, lives and is reread as a textbook page of high style in the sphere of small prose form. Even the “reception of landscape” itself in the last lines was then new and fresh in this form, although Chekhov was already behind him; further, the device was “tattered” in prose, but the unintentional, unconstrained, sad, natural freshness of Bunin’s story still blows over us, reminding us of the constant struggle of the worldly with the eternal, of the quiet victory of the eternal.
A type of composition that can be called retrospective composition is very popular in cinema and in modern prose. A retrospective composition, if you will. ("Retro" - back, "spection" - looking). We also saw elements of it in Bunin. But there are often works that are entirely and clearly constructed according to this principle. Actually, the sharpest, newest subtype of such a composition, which, in itself, has already become a whole philosophy of life and creativity, is the mythological composition of "Ulysses" by Joyce and all subsequent works of the same structure. This is how the “Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov was built; the latter renounced Joyce, but a well-known method of artistic disguise is also possible here. The action in these cases, as you know, goes on two planes: real-today and mythological-symbolic. This is how the idea of the integrity of mankind, the unity of its history, its mystery is realized. There are also more modest examples of retrospective composition - already as such. Such, for example, are many stories about the war, written in those post-war years already far from the war. We can recall Vasil Bykov, Bondarev and others. These stories compare the current peaceful life and those years when a person passed the test for the maximum test of his vitality and moral strength. On this comparison, a spark of morality, parable and artistry is carved. The very atmosphere of such works is usually sustained in the spirit of moral maximalism, rigorism. Checking modern man through the maximalist categories of the past becomes, as it were, an "intrusive" leitmotif of the narrative. Of course, it's not just about the war; the technique of such a composition is clearly seen, for example, in Ch. Aitmatov's story "Farewell, Gulsary". Chapters alternate retrospectively: present, past; retrospection also permeates the inner fabric of the chapters themselves. Through the past, through the WHOLE life of the hero and his horse, the gloomy present is artistically illuminated, in which "an old man rode an old horse." In the end, these motives, raised by myth, merge, as is customary; an open and at the same time dense, cast space reappears (“lyrical motifs” about a camel, etc.). The composition is clear.
There is even a “private” technique, which also often becomes a general principle. This is the so-called injection. Characteristic not only of prose, common in music (these shessepyo) and noticeable in poetry (“I thank you for everything, for everything” and so on), this device looks especially sharp and problematic precisely in narrative prose and sometimes at the level of “simply reception”, and not the general type of composition, predetermines the purely artistic, more precisely, stylistic, artistic and technical success or failure of the author. As we have already seen, the prose writer is always faced with the special problem of simultaneous limiting freedom and limiting compaction, in general, the LIMIT of the material to be overcome. Hence the phenomenon of forcing. In part, we indirectly saw it in Bunin's ending: it is clear that all "techniques", especially "intense", do not live separately and separately, that all this is a whole-Forcing is an increase in freedom and density, this is an increase in obstacles from the side of the material and the will to overcome it. Shklovsky and others, using here the terms "retardation" (delay) and others, tend to partly fetishize the author's specifically rational will in organizing the "delays" themselves; and in the word "delay" is clear, as you can see, the connotation of specialty, task, organized effort. It seems that, nevertheless, it is unlikely that this is so thought out: it’s just that the prose writer FEELS the internal, immanent resistance of the material, this “thing in itself”, and, if he is artistically conscientious, he tries both to show this real resistance, and just as INTERNALLY to overcome and overcome his. If this fails, a narrative defect often occurs, most commonly known by the motto "gaping"; there is no overcoming of the material - and there is no feeling of freedom, limit, fullness of strength. All this is well illustrated by one indirect example. There is a character in King Lear - old Gloucester. Blinded, abandoned, cursing his sons, he wishes to commit suicide. Meanwhile, his "positive" son, Edgar, in contrast to the infernal bastard dog Edmund, wishes his father well. He accompanies him incognito. The father asks where he is. The son knows about his intentions and replies that the old man is on the edge of a terrible abyss, below the ocean and rocks. The son warns: one more step - and down. The old man politely thanks the unknown guide, but takes this step. Meanwhile, he stood on a hummock - almost on level ground. Of course, he falls, but he is alive and for a long time cannot determine whether he is now on the other side of the door to hell. The son approaches the father and then saves him.
What was a salutary shock to old Gloucester is usually a defeat to an inexperienced or weak prose narrator. The declared abyss, rocks and waves should be so - the abyss, rocks and waves: a test to the limit. Otherwise - “swing in the sun, bang on the ground”, minuscule, gaping. The absence of both the material itself and the victory over it, that is, the "thickness" of life, height and freedom.
Hemingway's skillfully crafted novel "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is built entirely on the principle of injection - a typical "event novel" (in the terminology of some: a 20th century novel as opposed to a 19th century "fate novel" like the Forsyte Saga, although formally " Saga" - XX century). It is required to blow up the bridge, Robert Jordan arrived for this. But this simple action is being delayed, and the EVENTS are being forced. During this time, as much happens as in other novel times - in decades. The event, this explosion of the bridge, is always ready to happen, but there is a situation that can be called both in life and in art - a system of coincidences, although these coincidences apparently have some mysterious common rhythmic source and coincidences as such are strictly saying probably aren't. For coincidence is pure chance, and here we feel a certain law of rhythmic condensation. This, of course, also depends on the level and nature of the author's talent - to feel such a pattern for the text, to master it as exactly natural, and not violent, to intuitively determine its measure. Hemingway is a master at this. In three days, everything happens: the hero falls in love and manages to go through the whole novel, as if it had lasted ten years; in the mountains of Spain snowing, which there in this place did not happen from birth, but here it is - and this postpones the action; enemy fighters appear, which have not been there for so long, a fascist punitive detachment appears, which was also not seen here, the hero “accidentally” travels with acquaintances in all positions, which, of course, gives the author the opportunity to present us with a general panorama of the republican-fascist war in Spain; there is a lot of other stuff going on. Along the way, of course, the stories and biographies of the heroes are given, various fairy tales are told and there were, proper retrospectives are going on, etc. There is a condensation, recognizing mine by us. But here is the denouement: the heroes perish, the depth of life is palpable... Such is the novel-event - one of the forms of reaction of the great epic form to the dynamics of the century.
If desired, other compositional types can be identified, especially just the kind when a particular technique becomes a general solution, as in the case of injection; however, it is important for us not to embrace the immensity, but to catch, so to speak, the pathos of the theme.
There is no need to remind in detail once again that all these subdivisions are conditional, that they are real as impulses, and not as static laws, that they “combine” - but in fact they are one or another living, unconditional integrity that only our mind comprehends. as a combination; all this is clear, but, hopefully, the original idea is clear.
In addition to general types, it is useful to consider some more specific techniques as such; without this one cannot understand the "mechanics of composition" of modern prose and prose in general. And above all, we, of course, face the problems of the beginning and ending of the work.
“Of course” - for EVERYONE who writes knows how important, and sometimes decisive, these compositional points, so to speak, in the general context of the text; Shklovsky even built a whole theory on this ... We also note that we did not say “beginning, ending of the story”, as writers like to say, but “beginning, ending of the work”: although our presentation is free, however, in a responsible place it is required to observe at least the minimum precision of the term... Structuralists would say "text", that would also be accurate in its own way.
Shklovsky believes that the beginning and ending should be poetic, that is, pictorial, plastic, direct, in that system of formulas; and the middle of a text is possible, happens and sometimes even desirable as prosaic, i.e. more analytical, reasoning, descriptive in a non-strict sense, etc. This tendency is obvious, however, in art in general and in the art of prose latest styles especially in this regard, one should be on the alert: sometimes the author simply “violates”, and sometimes “consciously”, attitudinally violates the “accepted” tradition. Needless to say, this violation itself, like other similar violations, poetically intensifies and thickens the text. However, it happened, I repeat, before. Well, for example, Gorky and others, unconsciously echoing Shklovsky here, believe that prose should not begin with dialogue, because dialogue, as a beginning, is sluggish. Also generally true. The point is small: well, for example, such an uncharacteristic work of Russian prose as the epic of Leo Tolstoy "War and Peace" began with a dialogue. Yes, even in French (words by Anna Scherer) ... We always have to make reservations and remind us that art is not flat, but embossed and dynamic ... Repetitions; but it is better to let such repetitions than those vulgarizations of the century, from which everyone is tired and which concern not only art.
The meaning of the beginning is enormous. All this is extremely difficult to express in analytical terms; every practitioner, that is, a person who wrote something STYLISH, will take my word for it, it is in vain to prove to every “non-writer”. The torments of the beginning are not the torments of the word as such, taken separately; the word can be found, can be omitted; it is the agony of that secret rhythm that exists - a rhythm, a sign, a sign of the Whole. The author is waiting, looking for these signs from the Whole - wiser, trying; in thought he utters without words - not that, not that; suddenly - rang: that's it.
An inexperienced author quite often leaves these searches in the text: he feels sorry for his own WORDS; hence that property of the text of a non-master, over which Chekhov sneers at the mouth of one of his heroes, a writer: I say, in a young author, without reading, I throw out four, perhaps, the first pages, cross out half of the fifth, and only then I start reading. The joke of an experienced master. But when THAT rhythm is found, then there is a beginning.
However, what is it? Is there any typology?
Opinions, as we feel, are different, although TRENDS, as we have also seen, are evident. We have already considered the idea of the "poetic" prose beginning. We talked about hidden rhythm, about intonation. And much more can be said here. And they would say if they didn’t know: there are no purely general recipes. However, one acute stylistic problem of the beginning of a work should be disassembled in the current, and in the latest as a whole, prose. This is a problem of impact, effect, strength, dynamism, laconicism at the beginning (all this is a little different, but again it "penetrates" one into the other).
Many of our writers of the 20s, not without the influence of the style of the newspaper and not without the pressure of all the growing new mass media, sharply asserted that the beginning of the work should be clearly percussive and dynamic: “He sings in the morning in the closet”, “You must love the pedestrian ". The reader should be punched in the brain, taken prisoner - and so that he does not move further: he does not tear himself away from the book.
We understand all the salt and professionalism of this stylistic position, however, many Russian works begin defiantly non-dynamically. A textbook classic - the beginning of "Oblomov", with all these things that are "also Oblomov", for a number of pages, and with this Zakhar, who, in fact, is also Oblomov. "War and Peace" begins again with a long remark in French, which enters into the context of a by no means dynamic dialogue about Buonaparte; in general, Tolstoy, as we remember, despises the reader and does not pursue him. That is, and this must finally be said, he despises, as we would now put it, the average or mass reader, but counts on an intelligent, his own. But even here it is clear, however, that all this is not just negligence or whims of geniuses and not a consequence of the fact that all Russian classics are basically brilliant dilettantism (there is this opinion), but stylistic attitudes. Let us recall that Tolstoy, who was fed up with accusations of negligence, clumsiness and, in general, of this very disrespect for the reader, somehow gave Strakhov his text to correct. And then straightened everything back again, - in the direction of "clumsiness". Goncharov, of course, also cannot fail to see that on several pages at the very beginning of the narrative, he just does not have a narrative, but only a description, that is, something that is the most difficult for the average reader of prose. However, the same internal attitude to naturalness, naturalness, to the immediate observance of that compositional rhythm that dominates the atmosphere wins. Artificial dynamism at the beginning would have come into conflict with everything that we call the organic nature of art. The author sacrifices a certain possible reader for the sake of the truth of creativity.
Even more intense are the endings. The whole is completed, at the same time connected with all the fibers with the thickness, the depth of life, which has no beginning, no end. All this should be felt in the end, because at the beginning, if something is not there, then it promises everything. And the ending? Here the author has the situation about which they say that a hopeless situation is a situation in which there is only one way out. The ending should be the ending - to complete the whole and at the same time point to the thickness, depth of life: “hold it tightly - you will be pierced, release it weakly - it will fly away” (old French masters about the hilt of a sword). Different authors solve this very tense stylistic problem in purely different ways. In general, of course, this can be reduced to two trends, but it is clear that there are a million solutions “in the middle”.
These trends themselves are obvious, but the nature of their manifestation in the art of different times, of course, is different. Having conditionally designated the types of endings as closed, open, we, on reflection, quickly come to the conclusion that the classical strict form tended to the first, and the later to the second. An old novella or a novel with an epilogue are pure examples of closed endings. The Queen of Spades, novels by Turgenev. Hermann is sitting in crazy house“in the 17th room ... and mumbles unusually soon” her “three, seven, ace”, Lisa got married, etc. The Queen of Spades is a masterpiece of opera, one of the two best operas in the world, according to the autogenous hero Thomas Mann in The Magic Mountain, and we can agree with this, because the second one is Carmen. They completely overshadowed it, as, by the way, did Carmen - also a typical short story with its closed ending, written, moreover, taking into account Pushkin's experience ...). In Turgenev's epilogues, it is also usually reported who married whom, who is now where, etc.; dots are put over 1, and at the very end, sometimes some ambiguous, chamber authorial or dialogic maxim like the passage about the raised finger of Uvar Ivanovich: a step towards future open endings ... With a closed ending, the end of the work coincides with the end of the plot: the action is completed, the work is separated from life and at the same time, as if sadly, hints that, behold, all the fates of the heroes are clear, but something about life is still not clear to us. This feeling is one of the moments of that general sadness that accompanies the end of reading. good work. Here is one of the secrets of the desire of naive readers to “see” the characters again in a new work, or even in real life: here the “trick” is that the reader, it seems to him, already knows everything about his favorite characters and at the same time he it seems that if he meets them again - and they will reveal to him something unprecedented, new, warm and big. Such is the mastery of a good clear ending, which, of course, appears not in itself, but as a clear "logic" of the entire course of the work in general.
In the latest art of cinema and prose, the ending is often open, i.e. the author "deliberately" does not put dots over 1, DIRECTLY indicates these very thickness and depth of life, the impossibility of making ends meet in it. Needless to say, here, in this particular stylistic factor, is, of course, the influence of all the experience of modern times, the desire to leave irrevocably, disown the rationalism of past centuries ... Of course, this is more often in short prose - a story, a short story, where the significance of the mastery of the ending especially increases; a good novel ends as if by itself: there is a big plot, which is now exhausted, there is a “move”, heroes; there is no need to "get smart". Small prose (that is, prose of small forms, we are talking here for brevity), and this must be known in advance, always faces tougher, more intense formal difficulties: there is no space and time and that free "logic of self-development" that is provided big prose form. Meanwhile, the “effect of presence”, and “empathy”, and “recognition” (as recognition), and all “organism” in general as signs of artistic success, “decision”, should be present. No wonder many prose writers like to say that the skill of prose is tested in the story, and not in the novel. There is, of course, an element of snobbery in these statements, however, we remember that there is no smoke without fire ... The writer is looking for "intensification" of means of expression, one of them is the modern mastery of an open ending. Its goal is to complete the work and at the same time clearly indicate its connection with the inescapable and secret, closed in life, and how to refer to this connection: they say, what can we do? We are just strangers in this universe.
Oddly enough, Quiet Flows the Don OPENLY ends - a powerful four-volume epic in which, it would seem, in accordance with all the laws of the epic style, there is no room for reticence. However, if you think about it, the ending is logical. Actually, in fact, there are no particular ambiguities here: we have a good idea of the immediate fate of Gregory, and although we wish that there would be a miracle and everything would work out for him, we understand that nothing like this will happen. On the other side - Koshevoy and others. However, the very figure of a man with a child in his arms in the face of his native Don, house and sky has this great incompleteness. Everything is clear, but the fate of humanity itself is inscrutable on the verge of its last, high trials, and both the “cold” sky and the clear expanse of the sovereign spring river speak of this. All this is sad, and we don’t know something important. Such is the open ending of The Quiet Flows the Don. This is modern prose.
In addition to general types, besides beginnings and endings, “between the beginning and ending” there are myriads of compositional moments in prose, which each time are decided specifically by the eternal artistic sense of “conformity and proportion” - a sense of space and time, a sense of the whole, a sense of internal composition outgoing. It is clear that these things cannot be listed. We will "go through" only some of the particular compositional devices known in prose.
The simplest of them - characteristic, however, of poetry - is the composition of the ring. The work begins and ends with the same motif. The meaning of the reception is clear: the ring is the ring, it closes the whole, it sends from pole to pole - it establishes artistic lines of force in an obvious and clear way. This is how many textbook works of Russian poetry and prose are written, such as “Don’t sing, beauty, in front of me ...”, “After the ball”, “Gooseberry”, etc. We know the composition in a spiral (a term loved by Shklovsky and in general in 1920s, with their fondness for clear-cut methods). Its meaning is that the action, as it were, reproduces itself from picture to picture, from event to event, but reproduces, as it were, on a new, deeper basis: the characters are becoming clearer, the plot is moving on. So, perhaps, “Don Quixote” was built - a masterpiece of prose of all times and peoples: here are the mills, the “helmet of Mambrina”, the duke’s court - and the “movement” is growing. "I'm sorry" because in every scene of "Don Quixote" all the "new quality", PLEASE, is not so clearly and expressed: the dialectical terminology fashionable in those years ("spiral") here, perhaps, "drags" the material more than he is her: the characters of Don Quixote and Sancho are generally clear to us quite soon, and all subsequent episodes are only “injection” (see above), but not “movement” as such and not disclosure. In this sense, the direct antipode is, of course, again Dostoevsky's novel, especially The Possessed, despite Dostoevsky's enormous and repeatedly declared love for Don Quixote. Cervantes, as it were, is demonstrative, renaissance frank, he has nothing to hide. Stavrogin, this son of the newest and troubled times, is unclear, as we remember, until the very end, and Dostoevsky not only consciously conducts the reception, but also, as it were, hesitates in general whether he has the right to a complete and unequivocal autopsy of this nature.
So Don Quixote, perhaps, is a composition not so much “in a spiral” (although, we repeat, the element of ascent here, we repeat, is obvious: otherwise there would not have been a final and, as it were, unexpected powerful shift in the character of Don Quixote, and now “simple” Alonso Kehana!), how many, as the classics of literary criticism again said, in a chain: the scenes are interconnected (in this case, by the journey of heroes), but in general on the same horizontal line: they do not develop characters and actions in depth and “ up."
Of the private techniques, one of the most acute and relevant are, no doubt, internally interconnected according to the principle of the degree of intensity, namely the sharpness of handling the material, stylistic “moves” that once received the names: “exposing the technique”, “removal”, “minus -reception". They were usually shown on the material of the latest prose; however, Stern, mentioned by me below, is, as you know, Shklovsky’s favorite “character” on all occasions and in the 20s ... However, for a number of reasons, it is better to explain this not on the material of the latest, but on the material of the classics, mainly Pushkin, and even poetry.
These reasons are. The idea is that in principle there is not and cannot be anything new in artistic and spiritual activity, not only at the level of the “objective spirit” itself, but also at the level of high form. In addition, in principle, the laws of prose, poetry as art "in the depths" are one, and the point is only in the types of distribution of artistic energy, as a secret and overt rhythm (cf. Bunin above about this). Therefore, as we have already seen, in those cases when it is stylistically more convenient one or another actual law (tendency) in prose is revealed on old or on “adjacent” (poetry) samples, we use it. This case is just that. A high spirit is basically the same at all times. Which, of course, even if through "transmission links", is ultimately effective in poetics as well.
“The exposure of the reception” is demonstrated not only by Mayakovsky, Alexei Remizov and Artem Vesely and others in the 10-20s of the “deliberate” 20th century at its beginning, but, of course, by Stern, not so much in Tristram Shandy, beloved by Shklovsky , how much in "Sentimental Journey" - Stern, the ancestor of this newest corrective prose; and Byron, especially in Don Juan, and, undoubtedly, Pushkin, especially, of course, in Onegin. True, both Stern and others then - this is more often still not a very sharp method of exposure, namely "removal" - a more organic, voluminous and soft method, ultimately coming from the integrity of reflective (that's right!) spirituality; but we will not be terminological dogmatists and will only remember that "exposure" is a sharp degree of "removal".
A banal example from Pushkin, analyzed more than once by the same Shklovsky, who is everywhere successful, will be quite appropriate here:
And now the frosts are cracking
And silver among the fields ...
(The reader is already waiting for the rhyme "roses";
Here, take it quickly!)
Shklovsky is most concerned about the fact that Pushkin deceived the reader by removing this stamp: here the rhyme is not the truistic “frosts are roses”, but “frosts are ... we are roses”, that is, the rhyme is deep and fresh; but what is important to us is not so much this as the general reception itself. The artist, as it were, exposes the mechanics of his image and thus achieves both the removal of banality and a special degree of “confidence”, sincerity of the conversation outside; we understand that this is precisely a trick, and yet we rejoice, because behind this trick there is a whole and free worldview: it is this that is tangible. The exposure of reception in the 10-20s of the 20th century reached its condensed, exaggerated forms. Mayakovsky is not afraid to demonstrate his own metaphorism, rhythm and sound writing, on the contrary, he, so to speak, is also defiantly demonstrative:
We climb the ground under the eyelashes of dried palms
Poke out the walleye of the desert ...
Days bull peg.
Slow years arba ...
dark lead-night
And the rain is thick as a tourniquet ...
Aleksey Remizov writes in figurative-folklore-skaz "essences" (Dostoevsky's expression), not embarrassed by the fact that here all the time "you can see how it's done" and, on the contrary, emphasizing this stylistically: "And because of the desert swamps on all four sides, sensing voice, animals go to him without heel, without twisting. There is a principle here. Dostoevsky in his "Diary of a Writer" warned against working with "essences" as against a stylistic blunder: artificiality, pressure. Here, the “miss” itself becomes a stylistic law.
As we said, the method of "withdrawal" is more relaxed and gentle. Pushkin again:
Poems have been preserved in case;
I have them; here they are:
"Where, where did you go,
My golden days of spring?
etc. - again a text that we remember more from an aria from an opera than from Pushkin himself! And again, the opera brings us down: what to do, there are their own laws. Lensky's aria in the opera is taken in all seriousness, and the libretto is done in such a way that Lensky is killed immediately after this; the lyrical "tenor of the Russian school" presents it invariably sadly and, if I may say so again, plaintively. At Pushkin, Lensky writes his lines the day before, and Pushkin, although he, and no one else, already knows that Lensky will die tomorrow (“the ray of the daylighter will flash in the morning”), mercilessly removes sentimentality - removes all this style, device, course of false romanticism with which Lensky's poetry breathes; the famous harmony, relief, volume, ambiguity of the decision, spirit and style of Pushkin come into force:
Lotman Yuri Mikhailovich
8. Composition of verbal art
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From the book Theory of Literature author Khalizev Valentin Evgenievich6 Composition § 1. The meaning of the term The composition of a literary work, constituting the crown of its form, is the mutual correlation and arrangement of units of the depicted and artistic and speech means, "a system of connecting signs, elements of a work."
From the book Road to Middle Earth author Shippy TomSTYLES OF PROSE NARRATORY It is easy to see that ancient legends in The Lord of the Rings are used in a very different way than, say, in James Joyce's Ulysses. And it's not just that Joyce's relationship between the Homeric myth and the modern novel is built on
From the book To the Theory of Theater the author Barboy Yuri10. Composition In the science of science, it is not entirely in vain to talk about the fact that the category of structure has grown out of the category of form. And Aristotle, perhaps not by chance, called the forming and constituting elements of tragedy in one word - “part”: structure and composition, both - structures,
From the book Volume 2. "Problems of Dostoevsky's creativity", 1929. Articles about L. Tolstoy, 1929. Recordings of a course of lectures on the history of Russian literature, 1922–1927 author Bakhtin Mikhail Mikhailovich From the book Dictionary of a young graphomaniac, or Turkey City Lexicon by Sterling BrucePart Two Composition of a paragraph and a work by Baphos An unexpected, alarming change in style. “Boys, now they will cut everyone, and the situation in the region entrusted to us has already reached a critical level
From the book The Art of Prose author Gusev Vladimir IvanovichThe Immediate Content of a Prose Work We will never theorize about themes, problems, ideas; the tasks of the course, we repeat, are different. In connection with the practical content of the course, we note one concept that is directly related to the content of any
From the book "Anna Karenina" by L. N. Tolstoy author Babaev Eduard GrigorievichPlot and Composition 1 One of the first, earliest definitions of the plot of Anna Karenina was preserved in a letter to S. A. Tolstaya: "The plot of the novel is an unfaithful wife and all the drama that came from it." In the initial sketches, the circle of events covered a closed and relatively
From the book In the light of Zhukovsky. Essays on the history of Russian literature author Nemzer Andrey SemenovichI will never write a prose verse Baron Anton Antonovich Delvig (1798–1831) There are well-known facts: Baron Anton Antonovich Delvig studied at the Lyceum, was close friends with Pushkin (someone will add: with Baratynsky), published the almanacs Northern Flowers and Snowdrop ", headed
From the book Russian literary diary XIX century. History and theory of the genre author Egorov Oleg Georgievicha) continuous composition Considered from the point of view of constructing a daily entry, the composition of the diary has only two types. The first of them is most consistent with the idea of a diary as a daily or regular set of events. Events are grouped into their
From the book The ABC of literary creativity, or From the test of the pen to the master of the Word author Getmansky Igor Olegovichb) discrete composition Not all diary scholars tried to subordinate the composition of their entries to the natural course of events. Comprehension of the facts, as well as the problems of the spiritual world, played an equally important role in their understanding in relation to the diary. Such authors experienced a double
Origin
Despite the apparent obviousness, there is no clear distinction between the concepts of prose and poetry. There are works that do not have rhythm, but are divided into lines and related to poetry, and vice versa, written in rhyme and with rhythm, but related to prose (see Rhythmic prose).
Story
Literary genres traditionally classified as prose include:
see also
- intellectual prose
- Poetic prose
Notes
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Synonyms:See what "Prose" is in other dictionaries:
Prose writer ... Russian word stress
URL: http://proza.ru ... Wikipedia
See Poetry and prose. Literary encyclopedia. In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929 1939 ... Literary Encyclopedia
- (lat.). 1) a simple way of expression, simple speech, not measured, as opposed to poetry, verses. 2) boring, ordinary, everyday, everyday, in contrast to the ideal, higher. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
- (life, worldly, life); everyday life, fiction, everyday life, weekdays, everyday little things Dictionary of Russian synonyms. prose, see everyday life Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M .: Russian I ... Synonym dictionary
PROSE, prose, pl. no, female (lat. prosa). 1. Non-poetic literature; ant. poetry. Write prose. “Above them are inscriptions both in prose and in verse.” Pushkin. modern prose. Pushkin's prose. || All practical, non-fiction literature (obsolete). ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Art * Author * Library * Newspaper * Painting * Book * Literature * Fashion * Music * Poetry * Prose * Public * Dance * Theater * Fantasy Prose Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
prose- uh. prose f. , lat. prosa. 1. Not rhythmically organized speech. ALS 1. Drunk men and excrement of various animals are in kind; but I would not wish to read a living description of them, either in verse or in prose. 1787. A. A. Petrov to Karamzin. // ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
- (Latin prosa), oral or written speech without division into commensurate segments of poetry. Unlike poetry, it relies on the correlation of syntactic units (paragraphs, periods, sentences, columns). Initially developed business, ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
Having left the management of genres on the site to the authors themselves, I thought that creative people have at least the slightest idea of the area in which they create.
There is a real mess in people's heads. What kind of genres did not come up with in order to somehow stand out from the crowd. Among the genres were “we went hiking”, and “nighties”, and “about humanism”, and “maniacs” ...
This article is based on materials from Wikipedia, literary sites and encyclopedias.
Let's start with the definition of prose given in the literary encyclopedia (copied from Wikipedia):
Prose (lat. prosa) - oral or written speech without division into commensurate segments - verses; in contrast to poetry, its rhythm is based on the approximate correlation of syntactic constructions (periods, sentences, columns). Sometimes the term is used as a contrast of fiction in general (poetry) to scientific or journalistic literature, that is, not related to art.
And here is another definition (Dal's dictionary):
Prose- ordinary speech, simple, not measured, without size, opposite poetry. There is also measured prose, in which, however, there is no meter by syllables, and the type of tonic stress, almost like in Russian songs, but much more diverse. prose writer, prose writer, prose writer, writing prose.
In different sources, the genres of prose (their number) are different. I will dwell only on those regarding which there are no discrepancies.
NOVEL- a large narrative work with a complex and developed plot. A work of large form, may have several storylines (Remember Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace").
STORY- a kind of epic poetry, close to the novel, depicts some episode from life; differs from the novel in less completeness and breadth of pictures of everyday life, mores. This definition of the genre is characteristic only for the domestic literary tradition. The ancient meaning of the term - "the news of some event" - indicates that this genre has absorbed oral stories, events that the narrator personally saw or heard about. An important source of such "tales" are chronicles ("The Tale of Bygone Years", etc.). In ancient Russian literature, any narrative about any actual events was called a "story". In Western literary criticism, for prose works of this kind, the terms "novel" or "short novel" are used.
STORY- small epic genre form fiction - small in terms of the volume of the depicted phenomena of life, and hence in terms of the volume of its text.
NOVELLA(Italian novella - news) - a literary small narrative genre, comparable in volume to a story (which sometimes gives rise to their identification), but differing from it in genesis, history and structure. This is a narrative prose genre, which is characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, a lack of psychologism, and an unexpected denouement.
ESSAY(from French essai “attempt, test, essay”, from Latin exagium “weighing”) - a prose work of small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and obviously does not claim to be a defining or exhaustive interpretation of the subject . In terms of volume and function, it borders, on the one hand, on a scientific article and a literary essay (with which essays are often confused), on the other hand, on a philosophical treatise.
BIOGRAPHY- an essay that tells the story of the life and work of a person.
EPIC- monumental in form epic work, with a general theme. A complex, long history of something, including a number of major events. (The same "War and Peace", which is both a novel and an epic) The roots of the epic are in mythology and folklore.
FAIRY TALE(literary) - an epic genre: a work oriented to fiction, closely related to a folk tale, but, unlike it, belonging to a specific author, which did not exist before publication in oral form and did not have options.
FABLE- a poetic or prose literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a brief moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. The actors are usually animals, plants, things. In the Bible we find, for example, a fable about how the trees chose a king for themselves (Judg. 9.8 and gave), or a story about thorns and cedars (2 Kings 14:9). These stories come very close to parables.
PARABLE- parable - a short moralizing story in an allegorical form. Dictionary V. Dahl interprets the word "parable" as "a lesson in the example."
The parable usually exists and can only be correctly understood in a certain context. For example, the gospel parable of the sower is a sermon of Christ, which he delivers to a crowd of people. Then it becomes clear that the "Sower" is Jesus Christ, the "seed" is the word of God, the "earth", "soil" is the human heart.
MYTH(from Greek mytos - legend) - in literature - a legend that conveys people's ideas about the world, a person's place in it, about the origin of all things, about Gods and heroes. These are legends about the ancestors, gods, spirits and heroes. The mythological complex, which takes syncretic visual-verbal forms in rituals, acts as a specific way of systematizing knowledge about the surrounding world. Among the features of the myth: an arbitrary (illogical) connection of plots and the identity of the signifier and the signified, the personification of natural phenomena, zoomorphism, the increase in zoomorphic elements in the archaic layers of culture.
