Russian national culture in the 19th century it reached in art, literature, in many areas of knowledge the heights defined by the word "classic". Russian literature of the 19th century is deservedly called the "golden age." Even an ignoramus of literature cannot object. She became a trendsetter in literary fashion, world literature. "Golden Age" gave us many famous masters. The 19th century is the time of the development of the Russian literary language, which took shape for the most part thanks to A.S. Pushkin. It began with the flourishing of sentimentalism and the gradual emergence of romanticism, especially in poetry. During this period there are many poets, but the main figure of that time was Alexander Pushkin. As they would now call him a "star".
His ascent to the Olympus of Literature began in 1820 with the poem Ruslan and Lyudmila. And "Eugene Onegin" - a novel in verse was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. The era of Russian romanticism was opened by his romantic poems " Bronze Horseman"," Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies". For most poets and writers, A. S. Pushkin was a teacher. Traditions laid down by him in the creation literary works many of them continued. Among them was M. Lermontov. Russian poetry of that time was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. In the works, the authors tried to comprehend and develop the idea of their special purpose. They urged the authorities to listen to their words. The poet of that time was considered a prophet, a conductor of divine truth. This can be seen in Pushkin's poem "The Prophet", in the ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", in Lermontov's "On the Death of a Poet" and many others. In the 19th century, English historical novels had a huge influence on all world literature. Under their influence, A.S. Pushkin writes a story Captain's daughter».
Throughout the 19th century, the main artistic types were the type " little man" and type " extra person».
From the 19th century, literature inherited a satirical character and publicism. This can be traced in Gogol's "Dead Souls", "The Nose", in the comedy "The Government Inspector", in M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city", "Gentlemen Golovlev".
The formation of Russian realistic literature has been going on since the middle of the 19th century. She reacted sharply to the socio-political situation in Russia. Between Slavophiles and Westernizers there is a dispute about the ways historical development countries.
The development of the genre begins realistic novel. A special psychologism can be traced in the literature, philosophical, socio-political problems prevail. The development of poetry somewhat subsides, but, despite the general silence, the voice of Nekrasov is not silent, which in the poem “Who is living well in Rus'?” illuminates the hard and hopeless life of the people. -
The end of the century gave us A.P. Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, N. S. Leskov, M. Gorky. Pre-revolutionary moods run like a red thread in literature. The realistic tradition began to fade, replaced by decadent literature, with mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of Russia. Then everything grew into symbolism. And in the history of Russian literature opened new page.
On the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, we study our history. More than one generation of people - Humans - has grown up on this "classic".
Russian prose in the last decades of the XIX century. experienced a difficult and difficult, but not stagnant period of its development. It was in prose that, first of all, the originality of time was reflected with its characteristic social contrasts and conflicts, with contradictions and ideological disputes.
The best figures of Russian culture of the 70s, as before, were looking for support among the people. But during the period of accelerated post-reform development, attention to the personality of a person increases, a sense of personal responsibility for everything that happens in the world, for the severity folk life, for the tragic separation of the Russian intelligentsia from the peasantry. Hence the appearance of "repentant" lyrics in Nekrasov, the tragic worldview of Dostoevsky's heroes, a turning point in the worldview of L. Tolstoy.
In the 80s. it is L. Tolstoy who finds himself in the center literary life. (Recall: Dostoevsky died in 1881, Turgenev - in 1883.) It was during this period that decisive changes took place in the views and in the work of the great writer. The final and irrevocable transition to the positions of the oppressed peasantry predetermined his resolute criticism of all official, bureaucratic structures in the state. L. Tolstoy was firmly convinced that the reorganization of life is possible not through revolutionary upheavals, but through moral purification. Evil cannot be resisted with violence, the writer said, because this will only increase the amount of evil in the world.
L. Tolstoy transferred the solution of many life problems to the moral and ethical sphere, posed the most important problems of a person's responsibility for himself and for others. This helped him with tremendous artistic power to penetrate into the psychological depths of the personality. Therefore, the call for self-improvement is not at all a reactionary theory, as many believed until recently. Start with yourself- this is the main testament of L. Tolstoy to any of us, if we are concerned about the fate of the people and the country.
In the 80s. a new generation of writers appears: V. G. Korolenko, V. M. Garshin, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, A. P. Chekhov. material from the site
Writers in late XIX in. more and more consistently they turn to the philosophical aspects of being (and not just life), to the artistic study of the spiritual essence of man. Therefore, romantic tendencies are noticeably intensifying in literature. This is manifested in the most diverse writers, in the most various genres, in prose and poetry. It's about not only about the "young". Can you remember latest works Turgenev, his so-called "mysterious stories": "The Song of Triumphant Love", " Clara Milic”, as well as “Poems in prose”.
What is it - a simple return to the past? You know that the first third of the 19th century is traditionally considered the heyday of Romanticism. Then comes the era of realism. Spiral development? or amplification romantic tendencies means the end of an era classical realism? Or is it just one of the forms of its existence? Questions of this kind have not yet found a generally accepted solution in literary science.
The beginning of the 19th century was a unique time for Russian literature. AT literary salons, on the pages of magazines there was a struggle between supporters of various literary trends: classicism and sentimentalism, the educational trend and the emerging romanticism.
In the first years of the 19th century, the dominant position in Russian literature was occupied by sentimentalism, inextricably linked with the names of Karamzin and his followers. And in 1803, a book was published entitled “Discourses on the old and new style Russian language”, the author of which A.S. Shishkov subjected the “new style” of sentimentalists to very strong criticism. The followers of Karamzin's reform of the literary language give the classicist Shishkov a sharp rebuke. A long controversy begins, in which all the literary forces of that time were involved to one degree or another.
Why is the controversy on a special literary question acquired such social significance? First of all, because behind the discussions about the style there were more global problems: how to portray a person of the new time, who should be positive and who - villain what is freedom and what is patriotism. After all, these are not just words - this is an understanding of life, and therefore its reflection in literature.
Classicists with their very clear principles and rules brought into the literary process such essential qualities hero as honor, dignity, patriotism, without blurring space and time, thereby bringing the hero closer to reality. They showed it in a "truthful language", conveying a sublime civil content. These features will remain in the literature of the 19th century, despite the fact that classicism itself will leave the stage of literary life. When you read "Woe from Wit" by A. S. Griboyedov, see for yourself.
close to the classicists enlighteners, for which political and philosophical themes, of course, were leading, most often turned to the ode genre. But under their pen, the ode from the classic genre turned into a lyrical one. Because the most important task of the poet-educator is to show his civil position to express the feelings that overwhelm him. In the 19th century, the poetry of the Romantic Decembrists will be inextricably linked with educational ideas.
There seemed to be a certain affinity between enlighteners and sentimentalists. However, this was not the case. Enlighteners also reproach the sentimentalists with "feigned sensitivity", "false compassion", "sighs of love", "passionate exclamations", as the classicists did.
sentimentalists, despite the excessive (with modern point vision) melancholy and sensitivity, show a sincere interest in the personality of a person, his character. They begin to be interested in an ordinary, simple person, his inner world. Appears new hero — real person interesting to others. And with him on the page works of art comes ordinary, everyday life. It was Karamzin who first made an attempt to reveal this topic. His novel A Knight of Our Time opens a gallery of such heroes.
romantic lyrics- it's basically the lyrics of moods. Romantics deny the vulgar everyday life, they are interested in the spiritual and emotional nature of the personality, its aspiration to the mysterious infinity of a vague ideal. Romantic innovation in artistic knowledge reality consisted in a polemic with the fundamental ideas of enlightenment aesthetics, the assertion that art is an imitation of nature. Romantics defended the thesis of the transformative role of art. The romantic poet thinks of himself as a creator creating his own new world because the old way of life does not suit him. Reality, full of insoluble contradictions, was subjected to romanticism. harshest criticism. The world of spiritual unrest is seen by the poets as enigmatic and mysterious, expressing the dream of the ideal of beauty, of moral and ethical harmony.
In Russia, romanticism acquires a pronounced national identity. Remember the romantic poems and poems of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov, early works N. V. Gogol.
Romanticism in Russia is not only a new literary trend. Romantic writers not only create works, they are "creators" own biography that will eventually become theirs" moral history". In the future, in Russian culture, the idea of \u200b\u200b inseparable connection art and self-education, the lifestyle of the artist and his work. Gogol will reflect on this on the pages of his romantic story "Portrait".
See how intricately intertwined styles and views, artistic means, philosophical ideas and life...
As a result of the interaction of all these areas in Russia, a realism as a new stage in the knowledge of man and his life in literature. A. S. Pushkin is considered to be the ancestor of this trend. It can be said that the beginning of the 19th century was the era of the emergence and formation in Russia of two leading literary methods: romanticism and realism.
The literature of this period had another peculiarity. This is the unconditional predominance of poetry over prose.
Once Pushkin, while still a young poet, admired the verses of one young man and showed them to his friend and teacher K. N. Batyushkov. He read and returned the manuscript to Pushkin, indifferently remarking: "But who does not write smooth poetry now!"
This story speaks volumes. The ability to compose poetry was then a necessary part noble culture. And against this background, Pushkin's appearance was not accidental, it was prepared by a general high level culture, including poetry.
Pushkin had predecessors who prepared his poetry, and contemporary poets - friends and rivals. All of them represented the golden age of Russian poetry, as they call the 10-30s of the 19th century. Pushkin- starting point. Around him, we distinguish three generations of Russian poets - the older, the middle (to which Alexander Sergeevich himself belonged) and the younger. The division is conditional, and of course simplifies the real picture.
Let's start with the older generation. Ivan Andreevich Krylov(1769-1844) by birth and upbringing belonged to the 18th century. However, he began to write the fables that glorified him only in the 19th century, and although his talent manifested itself only in this genre, Krylov became a herald new poetry, accessible to the reader by language, which opened the world to him folk wisdom. I. A. Krylov stood at the origins of Russian realism.
It should be noted the main problem poetry at all times, and at the beginning of the 19th century too, is a problem of language. The content of poetry is unchanged, but the form... Revolutions and reforms in poetry are always linguistic. Such a "revolution" took place in the work of Pushkin's poetic teachers - V. A. Zhukovsky and K. N. Batyushkov.
With works Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852) you have already met. You probably remember his "The Tale of Tsar Berendey ...", the ballad "Svetlana", but perhaps you do not know that many works of foreign poetry you read were translated by this lyricist. Zhukovsky is a great translator. He "got used" to the text he translated so much that as a result it turned out original work. This happened with many of the ballads he translated. However, own poetic creativity poet was of great importance in Russian literature. He abandoned the ponderous, outdated, pompous language of 18th century poetry, immersed the reader in the world of emotional experiences, created new look a poet who subtly feels the beauty of nature, melancholic, prone to tender sadness and reflections on the transience of human life.
Zhukovsky is the founder of Russian romanticism, one of the founders of the so-called "light poetry". "Light" not in the sense of frivolous, but in contrast to the former, solemn poetry, created as if for the palace halls. Zhukovsky's favorite genres are elegy and song addressed to a close circle of friends, created in silence and solitude. Their content is deeply personal dreams and memories. Instead of grandiloqueous thunder - melodiousness, musical sound verse, which expresses the feelings of the poet more than written words. No wonder Pushkin in his famous poem"I remember wonderful moment..." used the image created by Zhukovsky - "the genius of pure beauty".
Another poet of the older generation of the golden age of poetry - Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov(1787-1855). His favorite genre is the friendly message, which celebrates the simple joys of life.
Pushkin highly valued the lyrics of the legendary Denis Vasilyevich Davydov(1784-1839) - hero Patriotic War 1812, organizer of partisan detachments. In the poems of this author, the romance of military life, hussar life is sung. Not considering himself a true poet, Davydov neglected poetic conventions, and from this his poems only benefited in liveliness and immediacy.
As for the middle generation, in it Pushkin valued above others Evgeny Abramovich Baratynsky(Boratynsky) (1800-1844). He called his work "the poetry of thought." This is philosophical poetry. The hero of Baratynsky's poems is disappointed in life, sees in it a chain of senseless suffering, and even love does not become salvation.
Lyceum friend of Pushkin Delvig gained popularity with songs "in the Russian spirit" (his romance "The Nightingale" to the music of A. Alyabyev is widely known). languages became known for his image of a student - a merry fellow and a freethinker, a kind of Russian vagant. Vyazemsky possessed a merciless irony that permeated his mundane on the topic and at the same time deep in thought poems.
At the same time, another tradition of Russian poetry continued to exist and develop - the civil one. She was associated with names Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795—1826), Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev (1797—1837), Wilhelm Karlovich Kuchelbecker(years of life - 1797-1846) and many other poets. They saw in poetry a means of fighting for political freedom, and in the poet - not a "pet of the muses", a "son of laziness", avoiding public life, but a stern citizen calling for a battle for the bright ideals of justice.
The words of these poets did not differ from their deeds: all of them were participants in the uprising on Senate Square in 1825, they were convicted (and Ryleev was executed) in the “December 14 case”. “Bitter is the fate of the poets of all tribes; Fate is executing Russia the hardest of all ... ”- this is how V.K. Kuchelbecker began his poem. It was the last one he wrote with his own hand: the years of prison deprived him of his sight.
Meanwhile, a new generation of poets was taking shape. The first poems were written by a young Lermontov. A society arose in Moscow wisdom—philosophers who interpreted German philosophy in Russian manner. These were the future founders of Slavophilism Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev (1806—1861), Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov(1804-1860) and others. The most gifted poet of this circle was the early deceased Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov(1805—1827).
One more thing interesting phenomenon this period. Many of the poets we named, in one way or another, turned to folk poetic traditions, to folklore. But since they were nobles, their works "in the Russian spirit" were nevertheless perceived as a stylization, as something secondary in comparison with the main line of their poetry. And in the 30s of the 19th century, a poet appeared who, both by origin and by the spirit of his work, was a representative of the people. This Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov(1809-1842). He spoke in the voice of a Russian peasant, and there was no artificiality in it, no play, it was his own voice, suddenly standing out from the nameless choir of Russian folk poetry.
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century was so multifaceted.
The period of the end of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century can safely be called a "turning point". Social upheavals were brewing, changing public consciousness there was a reassessment of values. Literature has also changed. Many new directions appeared, new topics and problems entered the field of literary consideration.
Russian prose of this era is very diverse. Then many talented authors wrote, and each brought something new to literature. First of all, it should be said about the change of genres. If in the sixties of the nineteenth century the form of the long novel dominated literature, now it has been replaced by short story(although novels were also written). The small form implies a much greater concentration of information than the large form, hence the authors' attention to artistic detail. Description of life with the help of such details that create comic effect- the basis of the work of Leikin and early Chekhov - Antosha Chekhonte. The detail carries a huge informational load in all of Chekhov's work, so Misyu's "weak hands" in the "House with a Mezzanine" tell us about her mental weakness, and the smell of fried onions in "Ionych" further emphasizes the vulgarity of the existence of the Turkin family.
Bunin artistic detail has primarily aesthetic value. His prose is the prose of a poet, this must not be forgotten. He lists details that may not contain specific information, but are absolutely necessary to create a mood, to convey the author's intonation.
In the novels of Merezhkovsky, the detail always has symbolic meaning. He is a theorist of symbolism and almost the head of the school - he writes nothing in vain, and every detail is a symbol. When Peter in "Peter and Alexei" accidentally steps on the icon with his foot and splits it in half, then this, in the context of the novel, becomes philosophical meaning. In general, symbolist prose is very meaningful. It is characterized by an interest in philosophical questions, in the problems of Christianity. Hence their interest in antiquity (“Julian Otsupnik” by Merezhkovsky, “The Altar of Victory” by Bryusov), in the Middle Ages (“ Fire Angel Bryusov), to mysticism and in general everything mysterious.
The stories of L. Andreev cannot be attributed to a certain direction. He himself called himself a "neorealist", and sought to show "the unreal in the real." Hence the completely symbolist theme of his stories, which are purely realistic in form. His favorite topic is the relationship between man and fate, and the whole pathos of his work is pessimistic. Along with "neo-realism" there was also "neo-romanticism". Early stories M. Gorky, such as "Chelkash", "Old Woman Izergil" are saturated with a romantic attitude.
We see that Russian prose of the late nineteenth - early twentieth century developed in several directions, groped different ways In a word, she lived a full-blooded and creative life.
The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by all means. literary process 17-18 centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin .
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. Specified literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem"Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems.
Interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples understanding the role of the poet and influence on political life countries are poems by A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: at the time Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol was designated the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type"an extra person", a model of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story " Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's Dead Souls, the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects).
In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. are full satirical images and works by A. S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The trend of depicting vices and shortcomings Russian society - feature all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, Russian realistic literature has been developing, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. literary critic V.G. Belinsky means new realistic direction in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political prevails philosophical problems. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. Its useful to note poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. His poem “Who is living well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, hallmarks which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
Russian literature of the 20th century: general characteristics
Description of the literary process of the 20th century, presentation of the main literary movements and directions. Realism. Modernism(symbolism, acmeism, futurism). literary vanguard.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. become time of the bright flowering of Russian culture, its " silver age"(The "golden age" was called Pushkin's time). In science, literature, art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, competed different directions, groupings and styles. At the same time, the culture of the "Silver Age" was characterized by deep contradictions, characteristic of the entire Russian life of that time.
The rapid breakthrough of Russia in development, the clash of different ways and cultures changed self-consciousness creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, analysis social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Revived interest in religion; the religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the critical era not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of the coming social explosions, that the whole habitual way of life, the whole old culture, could perish. Some were waiting for these changes with joy, others with longing and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
On turn of XIX and XX centuries. literature developed in other historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes key features period under review, it will be the word "crisis". Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world, led to a paradoxical conclusion: "matter has disappeared." The new vision of the world, thus, will also determine the new face of the realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating to the human spirit was a crisis of faith (" God dead!" exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of non-religious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence that turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a sense of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values will be formed.
Literature update, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the onset of the "silver age" of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name N. Berdyaeva, who used it in one of the speeches in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later art critic and the editor of "Apollo" S. Makovsky consolidated this phrase by naming his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age." Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write "... silver month brightly / Above the silver age froze".
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be described as follows: 1892 - the exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of a social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov mass emigration of figures of Russian culture from Russia, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
