We live surrounded by words - the names of objects, processes, qualities, phenomena, people around us. But there are words that occupy a special position in the language system, designed to denote specific items and phenomena and distinguishing them from a number of similar, same-type objects and phenomena - proper names. We encounter them almost every day, we refer to them as real names. existing people, cities and rivers, as well as the names of objects and subjects created by human fantasy (names of heroes literary works, gods and demons). Very often a person asks questions about where this or that name, surname, first name came from, why the city, river, country are called that way, etc.
It is often very difficult or even impossible to explain this, because these names are so ancient that they are taken for granted, sometimes the “naming connotation” of proper names is erased, and they become common nouns, and then determine the author, and even the language , in which this word first appeared, is almost impossible. Other proper names are so young that the current generation knows their authors, or at least their history and country of origin.
The variety of proper names, their wide distribution in our lives and the complexity of this aspect of the language led to the emergence of a special branch of linguistics - onomastics (from the Greek? NpmbufykYu "the art of giving names").
Onomastics is a very valuable section of modern linguistics, a complex scientific linguistic discipline, equipped with its own terminological apparatus, its range of problems, research history and its own research methods. Onomastics is a science (section of linguistics) about proper names of all types, (names of people, animals, mythical creatures, tribes and peoples, countries, rivers, mountains, human settlements), about the history of their emergence and transformation as a result of their use in the language, about borrowing proper names into other languages, about the patterns of their development and functioning. Proper names include names of people (Alexander, Maria), animal nicknames (Sharik, Murka), names of mythical creatures (Hades, Venus), tribes and peoples (Aztecs, Goths), countries (Great Britain, Chile), rivers (Don, Amazon), mountains (Ural Mountains, Alps), human settlements (Moscow, Lenina Avenue), etc.
The complexity and diversity of the object of onomastics (proper name) largely determines the interdisciplinary nature of this discipline. Some scientists (O.N. Trubachev, V. Tashitsky, for example) consider it expedient to remove onomastics from the framework of linguistics and to separate it into a separate discipline that uses mainly linguistic methods, but is closely related to the complex humanities, as well as earth and universe sciences. Despite the close connection with other humanitarian disciplines, proper names are still the object of the section of linguistics, linguistics, that is, the science of language. This is explained by the fact that any name, any proper name (regardless of which object of animate or inanimate nature it refers to) is a word, and therefore it enters the language system, is formed according to the laws of the language, lives and is used according to certain laws. in speech, undergoes various changes.
In turn, the emergence of this science has led to the fact that the need for its study has increased. Despite the fact that literary onomastics is currently a science that is still in the process of formation, there are already many works devoted to its study. Scientists such as V.M. Kalinkin, author of the work "Onomastic periphrase as a problem of the poetics of proper names", written on the material of A. S. Pushkin's work; Yu.A. Karpenko, who wrote several works on literary onomastics based on the works of A. Akhmatova. Proper names in Chekhov's work were studied by L.I. Kolokolov, and the literary onomasticon in the works of I. Bunin was studied by V.V. Krasnyansky, Yu.T. Listrov-Pravda. A lot of works of the last decades are devoted to various aspects of onomastics, in Russia Bondaletov V.D., Alefirenko N.F., Gorbanevsky D.S., Dmitrieva L.I., Solomonik A., Superanskaya A.V., Suprun V. .AND. , as well as Russian philosophers P. Florensky, A. Losev, Russian bibliographer and bibliophile SR. Mintsilov, who wrote the book "The Power of Names". In our time, a great contribution to the development of name onomastics was made by linguists A.V. Superanskaya, V.A. Nikonov, P. Leonidov and many others.
It should be noted that onomastics is an interdisciplinary cognitive field, this science has close ties with history, cultural studies, local history, philology, archeology and linguistic disciplines - semantics and semiotics.
At first glance, one can say that when writing a work, the author has the freedom to choose a name for his literary character. However, this freedom is imaginary, because the correct perception of this or that hero by the readers depends on the correctly chosen name. As a result, the author chooses a “meaningful” first and last name, deliberately “encrypting” information about this character in it.
In the modern Russian language, lexicographers have more than 150 thousand words - common nouns (appellatives) that have the function of generalizing information. In addition to them, there is a huge number of proper names (onyms) - special units of speech that perform the function of highlighting, individualization and representing a variety of names.
Since onomastics (from others - Greek? npmbufykYu, onomasticem - the art of giving names, from? npmb, omnoma - name, name and lEgsch, lemgo - choose, speak, report) is the science of proper names of all types, then the study of the features of the translation of the onomasticon in the literature would be logical to begin with a consideration of this concept. Linguistic at its core, onomastics includes historical, geographical, ethnographic, cultural, sociological, literary components that help to identify the specifics of named objects and the traditions associated with their names, which takes onomastics beyond the scope of linguistics itself and makes it an autonomous discipline that uses mainly linguistic methods, closely related to the complex of the humanities, as well as the sciences of the Earth and the Universe. This term is also called a set of proper names, which is also denoted by the term onymy.
Onomastics almost unconditionally refers to the so-called background vocabulary. As you know, for successful intercultural and interlingual communication, it is not enough to master the language patterns, but it is necessary to master the background knowledge of a foreign culture, to have an idea of the national and cultural characteristics of the native speaker people. In this work, attention is focused specifically on the linguocultural and translation features and properties of the onomasticon.
Onomastic research helps to identify migration routes and places of former settlement various peoples, linguistic and cultural contacts, the more ancient state of languages and the ratio of their dialects. The study of proper names is of great importance due to the specific patterns of their transmission and preservation. Due to its social function- serve as a simple individualizing indication of a certain subject - a proper name is able to retain its main significance with the complete obscuring of its etymological meaning, that is, with the complete impossibility of connecting it with any other words of the same language. However, proper names most often become the object of close attention of linguists, since any name is a word that is part of the language system, formed according to the laws of the language, living and used in speech.
Hence the enormous stability of proper names, which are preserved not only during revolutionary shifts in history specific language, but even when full shift language from one system to another. This establishes the possibility, through an etymological explanation of certain names, to establish the nature of the language in which the corresponding name was first created.
It should be noted that not only Russian-speaking scientists, but also scientists abroad are engaged in an intensive study of onomastics. Specialists who study the process of personality formation argue that the name is one of critical factors affecting the character and even health of a person. For example, the English physician Welston found that patients whose names begin with the letters of the last third of the alphabet are three times more likely to suffer from cardiovascular diseases. Studies conducted by scientists in Chicago (USA) have shown that people with funny or unusual names more predisposed to various kinds of mental complexes. One of the participants in these studies, doctor Robert Nicolay, explains it this way: when a child is given a name that can cause ridicule, this puts him in a defensive position from the very first steps among his peers. He has to fight for a normal attitude towards himself. In particular, a child may experience increased resentment if he received a name that can be called both a boy and a girl, for example, Marion, Michelle, Nicole. Even American adults named William "feel humiliated" when referred to as Billy or Willy, according to the study. The name not only affects the character of a person, but often determines his fate. So, Americans with the names Melvin, Nigel or Julia, as a rule, are engaged in the humanities, but the names Rory, Rocky, Chuck are the most common among boxers and football players. Of the female names, according to the survey, the most attractive to american men are the names Christine, Cheryl, Melanie, Jennifer and Susan. But such names as Etal, Alma, Florence, Mildred and Edna evoke unpleasant associations among the stronger sex of America. It is noticed that girls with attractive names do not advance well. They can only count on success in show business. A collaborative study by researchers from the Universities of San Diego and Georgia found that teachers in schools stubbornly give Elmers and Huberts low marks, while Michaels and Davids do not. From this we can conclude that parents should carefully and carefully choose the names of their children. After all, a name is the first gift, except for life itself, that parents present to a child. But at their whim, this gift can ruin a person's whole life. Psychologist John Train has compiled a whole book of the most awkward names that some Americans suffer from. The May family from New Orleans chose, for example, such “wonderful” names for their three daughters: My, By, Gu. The Jacksons of Chicago named their five children Meningitis, Laryngitis, Appendicitis, Peritonitis, and Tonsillitis. From my point of view, in this way you can hate not only your name, but also the parents who gave it. There are enough such invented, often ridiculous names in Russia. After the revolution, such names were very popular: Electrification, Industrialization, Electron, Proton. Until now, the popular name Vladlen, formed from Vladimir Lenin, Vilen - from Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, etc., many simply do not know the origin of these names.
Onomastics - what kind of science is it?
If you have ever studied surnames, first names or wanted to find information about your own surname, you have probably come across incomprehensible terms - onomastics. So, onomastics - what kind of science is it?
Translated from Greek, onomastics means the art of giving names. Speaking dry scientific language, then onomastics is a specialized section of linguistics that studies proper names, the history of the emergence of names, their transformation during long-term use in the source language or when borrowed from another language. In a narrower sense, onomastics is the study of proper names of various types, onomastic vocabulary. Now you already have some idea what onomastics is - what kind of science is it? Let's look at what directions onomastics has. Onomastics includes the following sections: anthroponymy, astronomy, toponymy, zoonymy, cosmonymy, chrematonymy, pragmonymy, carabonymy, theonymy. Let's dwell on each in more detail.
Anthroponymy is a specialized section that studies the proper names and surnames of people (anthroponyms), the origin of surnames and names, their change and transformation in the process of long-term use, their geographical distribution, social function, development and overall structure anthroponymic systems. An anthroponym is understood as any proper name (Andrey, Natalya, etc.), patronymic (Nikolaevich, Ivanovna, etc.), surname (Vorotyntsev, Savelyeva, etc.), pseudonym (sov. writer Arkady Golikov - Arkady Gaidai, etc.), nickname (Slanting, Evil, etc.), nicknames (Lantern, Spring, etc.).
Astronomy is the study of the names of all celestial objects or individual names. celestial bodies(Moon, Sun, stars, comets, etc.).
Cosmonymics deals with the study of the names of objects exclusively outer space, for example: scientific and folk names galaxies, constellations, etc.
Toponymy studies the proper names of any geographical objects and formations (both scientific and folk). For example: the Volga River, Russia, Mount Everest, etc.
The section of onomastics, called zoonymy, deals with the study of proper names and nicknames of animals (Squirrel, Sharik, Tuzik, etc.).
Chrematonymy. The object of study of chrematonymy are the names of objects related to the material culture of mankind (the sword "Durandal", the diamond "Orlov", etc.).
Karabonymics is engaged in the study of the proper names of various boats, ships, and other ships (Titanic, Aurora, etc.).
Theonymy is a section of onomastics that studies the proper names of various deities and gods of any culture (Poseidon, Zeus, Thor, etc.).
Pragmony is responsible for the study of the names of different goods. For example, chokonyms are chocolate products (“Chamomile”, “Red Poppy”, etc.).
Probably, now the answer to the question is “onomastics - what kind of science is this?” almost completely open. It remains only to dwell on the functions of onomastics. Why is she needed at all?
The main essence of onomastic research is to identify and understand the migration routes of all peoples, the study of cultural contacts and the confusion of languages associated with them. Onomastics is also engaged in the study of ancient dialects and the initial state of the languages of different nationalities. Highest value in onomastics has anthroponymy. Onomastic studies have various aspects. Here are the main ones: descriptive onomastics (general philological and linguistic analysis), theoretical ( general laws and principles of functioning of all onomastic systems), applied onomastics (assignment and function of names), onomastics works of art (cultural aspect), historical onomastics (the history of names), ethnic (the emergence, features and function of all ethnic groups).
Proper names react sharply to any changes that have taken place and are taking place in society, cultures and nature. Therefore, with the help of onomastic research, it is possible to trace many important historical events that have happened to mankind. All the huge variety of our world of things, real, invented and only hypothetical, is the primary basis of common names that summarize similar facts and proper names that distinguish individual objects from a number of common names named with the help of common names. In the same way that things that have names are placed on earthly and extraterrestrial space, the words that name them are placed in the minds of people who use them, so to speak, have a spatial distribution (onomastic space) in human consciousness, different for residents different regions our planet. Similar spatial distribution is typical for residents of the same locality, people from the same region. The onomastic space can be described as a nominal continuum that exists in the minds of people and in each different culture, the time period of history it differs. In the consciousness of each individual person, the onomastic space is present in a fragmented composition. It is possible to fully identify it only with a specialized study.
If you believe the religions of many peoples, then the heavenly bodies, animals, places on earth (known at that time), and the people themselves had the first names. Only this limited number of objects and objects filled the onomastic space of the consciousness of ancient people. As time passed, expanding the boundaries of knowledge, a person began thereby to expand the boundaries of onomastic space. Everything that mankind has known, discovered, invented and created, now has its own names and fills a truly huge onomastic space of all mankind. Also, according to religions, using onomastics, one can come to the conclusion that all the most ancient cultures (standing at the origins of mankind) had approximately the same onomastic space.
Onomastics is a word that has Greek origin. Translated from given language it means "name". It is not difficult to guess that onomastics as a science studies the proper names of people. However, not only them. She is also interested in the names of peoples, animals, geographical objects. In addition, a part of onomastics, which studies the names of mountains, rivers, settlements and others. It's called toponymy.
Onomastics in different senses
Proper names today are studied by representatives of various sciences (geographers, historians, ethnographers, linguists, literary critics, psychologists). However, they are primarily studied by linguists. Onomastics is a branch of linguistics. It studies the history of the emergence and transformation of names as a result of their use for a long time in the source language or by borrowing them from other languages. However, onomastics is a concept that can be considered not only as a science. In a narrower sense, these are just different types of proper names. Otherwise, they are called onomastic vocabulary.
Features of studying proper names
A significant part human life covers such a thing as proper names. Their examples are numerous. They are given to everything that people create, as well as geographical objects, including those located outside our planet. The origin of names can be considered in a complex way - from the point of view of logic and etymology.
By studying proper names, you can see specific features their transmission and preservation. As a result, their research is scientific interest. The origin of certain names may be forgotten, and they themselves may not have any connection with other words of the given language. However, a proper name even in this case preserves social significance, that is, it is an understandable indication of a particular subject.
Often proper names are very stable. They are often not affected by the revolutionary changes taking place in the language, and even the disappearance of the language and its replacement by another does not lead to the cessation of their use. For example, today there are still names in Russian, such as Don or Volga, which have no meaning in it. However, having carried out an etymological analysis, one can see that they are of Scythian origin. Such studies provide an opportunity to restore the nature of the language that prevailed at the time of the creation of a particular name, to find out many aspects associated with it.
Onomastics and history
Zoonymy, as you probably guessed, deals with nicknames and proper names of animals (Beckingham, Arnold, Besya, Britney, Murka, Sharik).
Chrematonymy
Chrematonymy is also interested in proper names. Examples of what belongs to the field of its study are numerous. Chrematonymy is interested in those names that belong to objects material culture(cannon "Gamayun", sword Durandal, diamond "Orlov"). We know that proper names are often used to denote sports societies, stadiums, individual parties ("Immortal Party", "Evergreen Party"), holidays (Geologist's Day, May Day), military units, as well as individual battles (Battle of Kulikovo, Borodino battle). Businesses identify their services or products with trademarks, which are also proper names. In addition, chrematonymy is interested in the titles of books, works of art, individual poems.
This section of onomastics is not only of academic interest. In Western countries, for example, lawsuits often arise that involve the use of a trademark name that is similar to the name of another owned by a company that produces a competing product. The decision as to whether such names can be considered similar can only be made using scientific analysis.
Karabonymics
Karabonymics is engaged in the study of the proper names of boats, ships and ships ("Varyag", "Aurora", "Memory of Mercury", "Borodino"). Note that this term was proposed by the Russian scientist Aleksushin instead of the terms "caronymy" and "natonymy" used earlier.
ergonomics
Ergonomics deals with the study of the names of various business associations of people. For example, firmonyms are the names of firms, and emporonyms are words denoting the names of stores. Ergonomics is interested in the names of cafes, bars, trade unions, billiard clubs, hairdressers, etc.
Pragmony
Pragmony is a direction in which the names of types of goods are studied. Parfunonyms, for example, are the names of fragrances, perfume products (Lauren, Chanel), chokonyms denote the names of chocolate products ("Metelitsa", "Kara-Kum").
Theonymy
Theonymy deals with the study of the names of gods, spirits, demons, characters of legends and myths. It shows how common names turned into proper names - the names of fire, wind, thunder, thunderstorms and other natural phenomena.
Questions of onomastics are very interesting, aren't they? It should be noted that the sections of this science are directly related to practice. Therefore, onomastics cannot be considered only as an occupation of "eccentric" scientists. A proper name (we gave examples of some) is studied by science, which is closely connected with our life.
Home > LectureLecture 1
Topic: ONOMASTICS - THE SCIENCE OF PROPER NAMES. TOPONYMS AS AN OBJECT OF ONOMASTICS STUDY.
Toponyms as an object of study of onomastics.
Toponymic object terminology.
Methods and techniques of toponymic research.
Basic terms and concepts:
hagiotoponym, agoronym, agroonym, appellative, astionim, geolonim, hydronym, godonym, dromonim, comonim, limnonym, oikonym, oceanonym, onym, onomastics, oronim, pelagonim, potamonim, toponym, toponymy, urbanonym, horonim. Recommended literature:- Bondaletov V.D. Russian onomastics. - M., 1983. Zhuchkevich V.A. General toponymy. – Minsk, 1980. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary\\ V.N. Yartsev. - M., 2002. Podolskaya N.V. Dictionary of Russian onamastic terminology. - M., 1978. Podolskaya N.V. Modern Russian onomastic terminology. - M., 1978. Popov A.I. Geographical names: An introduction to toponymy. - M.-L., 1965. Pospelov E.M. Names of cities: yesterday and today (1917-1992): Toponymic dictionary. - M., 1993. Superanskaya A.V. General theory of proper name. - M., 1973. Tolstoy N.I. – Dictionary of geographical terms: Semasiological studies. - M., 1969.
Define the scientific discipline "onomastics".
Describe the specifics of this linguistic discipline.
Define the term "toponym".
What is the name of the discipline that studies toponyms. What are the tasks of the linguistic study of geographical names?
Describe aspects of the study of toponyms?
1. TOPONYMS AS AN OBJECT OF ONOMASTIC STUDIES
Among the various nominal categories in linguistics, as in many areas of logic, great attention proper names. Neither general, nor abstract, nor collective, nor common names not associated with a specific industry linguistic science, which would study only one of the classes. Proper names are related to a separate section of linguistics. This section is called onomastics, the name in its internal form contains the general designation of the name. The term "onomastics" has two meanings. Firstly, it designates the complex science of proper names, and secondly, the proper names themselves (i.e. onymy). Proper names are part of the language, demonstrating the most paradoxical situations, the analysis of which should contribute to the emergence of new, more in-depth general linguistic concepts. Building general theory proper names is the identification of general patterns inherent in a given lexical category, it is the search for regular properties of names (onyms), regardless of the language with which they are associated or used. Onomastics arose as an applied science necessary for historians, geographers, ethnographers, literary critics and did not go beyond the framework of an auxiliary scientific discipline. When linguists joined the study of this issue, onomastics emerged as an independent discipline that analyzes linguistic material using linguistic methods. Onomastics studies the basic patterns of the history, development and functioning of proper names. Onomastic research uses data from archeology, the history of material and spiritual culture, biology, philosophy, logic, psychology, etc. There are a number of sciences that are especially interested in onomastic material, whose representatives consider onomastics their own. auxiliary discipline. However, proper names are words, and as such they belong primarily to linguistics. The relationship between onomastics and linguistics is characterized as the relationship of part and whole. Onomastics is a part of linguistics. Going beyond the limits of linguistics is carried out due to the extralinguistic components of onomastics, which are obligatory for it. This also explains the possibility of studying onomastic material by linguistic methods: establishing the linguistic affiliation of names, identifying phonetic and morphological patterns. In the extralinguistic analysis of onomastic material, they study the history of the emergence of objects, changing their names, transferring the names of famous objects to others, chronology geographical discoveries and movement of tribes and peoples. All these studies, which are fundamental for historians and geographers, are auxiliary for onomastics, as they help to clarify the reasons for the emergence and change of names, trends in names and traditions associated with the assignment of names. The method of naming, the image underlying the name, is individual for each nation. Names live colloquial speech are closely connected with the realities, traditions peculiar to a certain people. The more primitive the culture of the people, the more original ethnographic features it retains and the more vivid the connection of its onomastics with the specifics of everyday life and rituals. Language is a social phenomenon. The choice of a particular language by an individual is determined by the cultural and historical unity of which he is a member, and language variations are also determined by economic, cultural, social reasons how they determine the variations in the mores and customs of different peoples. Since onomastic vocabulary is part of the vocabulary in general and, consequently, part of the language, the provisions of sociology also apply to it. Even more than appellatives, onyms respond to social changes. The name always reflects the culture and social life society. In this regard, onomastic research helps to reveal social processes, and onomastics takes important place in sociological writings. The study of the particular features of the onomastic system of each nation reveals Interesting Facts associated with its history, ethnography, geography, etc., and gives great material for further research. Directions of onomastic work are outlined in a number of studies. Any study of proper names aims to know the unknown, to discover the unknown. Therefore, each new onomastic work is based on previous experience and itself, in turn, serves as a foundation for subsequent work. Theoretical onomastics studies the general patterns of development and functioning of onymic systems. It contributes to the identification of specific onomastic characteristics that distinguish proper names, both from the general vocabulary and from other classes. special vocabulary. Descriptive onomastics deals with the analysis of the onomastic state of a certain territory, language, dialect in a certain historical period. The description deals with only one type of words (proper names), and sometimes with just one of its classes (toponyms, anthroponyms, etc.). Synchronicity in pure form for onomastics cannot be. The name is always the result of serious transformations and long historical development. Applied onomastics is a special area of onomastic research. It is closely related to the practice of naming, as well as their functioning in living speech. Among the applied tasks facing onomasts are the establishment of a uniform pronunciation and stress of proper names, the development of normative models for the formation of patronymics, names of residents by place of residence, adjectives from geographical names, etc. In onomastics, the following aspects are distinguished: lexicological, lexicographic, logical, semasiological, terminological, typological, psychological, sociological, historical, geographical, cultural. Lexicological aspect aims at inventorying the material and describing the toponyms of the Evenk language as part of its vocabulary, comparing toponyms with their appellatives. Lexicographic aspect is aimed at identifying lexical groups that are most suitable for secondary nominations. Since toponyms are mostly words of secondary nomination, they can only retain to some extent the residual semantics of those words from which they were once formed. Psychological aspect reveals the worldview of the name-giver, his way of thinking and the sequence of reasoning. Analyzing the affiliation of informants, one can note their age and social affiliation, highlighting children in particular, since they believe that innovations often come from them. Geographic aspect is manifested in the fact that many toponyms reflect lexemes, one way or another connected with natural conditions. Cultural aspect has in mind the study of the national-cultural background on which toponyms arise and their systems develop. Any aspect presupposes, first of all, the presence of material collected according to a certain principle and task and having passed a certain approbation and inventory. So, onomastics, as a special linguistic discipline, turns out to be associated with the complex of the humanities. All of them, helping to reveal the specifics of the named objects, and at the same time the status of names, turn out to be auxiliary for linguistics, the methods of which are carried out onomastic research. The study of geographical names, the identification of their originality, the history of occurrence and the analysis of the original meaning of the words from which they are formed, is carried out by toponymy - one of the sections of toponymy. Human life is closely connected with various places, which are indicated by special words- geographical names, or toponyms (from the Greek words topos - "place" and onoma - "name, name"). Place names are an integral part of the background knowledge of the speakers of a given language and culture: they, like in a mirror, reflect the history of a given people, the history of settlement and development of a given territory. Therefore, it is this part of the vocabulary that has long attracted the attention of not only philologists, but also historians, ethnographers and geographers. Toponymy explores geographical names (toponyms), their functioning, meaning, origin, structure, distribution area, development and change over time. Many scientists believe that toponymy is a synthesis of linguistics, geography and history. The representative of each science looks at toponyms with his own eyes, draws attention to their various features and draws conclusions completely different nature. Thus, toponymy is a branch of linguistics that studies the theory of the creation, transformation and functioning of geographical names. The historical component in toponymy is obligatory. But this is not the history of states and peoples, but the history of the language. None historical event not directly reflected in the language. Traces of it can be found indirectly in individual words. Only linguists can analyze all types of geographical names in their relationship with each other, with other proper names and with the entire language system in which they are created and used. It is known that the writers of classical antiquity showed interest in geographical names, mainly in their semantics, but only in the 20th century. toponymy has become a subject scientific research. Geographical names are primarily an element of vocabulary. They are actively or passively part of the language and therefore are studied by linguists. At the same time, in most cases, a geographical name is a special element, different from other words. Often we use toponyms only as proper names, as if they had no other lexical meaning. You can't put an equal sign between in ordinary words, which we use to convey thoughts and toponyms that meet the service task - the designation of a geographical object.
TOPONYMIC OBJECT TERMINOLOGY
METHODS OF TOPONIMICAL STUDIES.
1. Linguistic attribution of the collected toponymic material
Before proceeding to the description of the collected toponymic material, the linguistic attribution of the nominees and the collection of information about language features each of the languages that participated in the formation of toponyms of this sample at the time of the creation of names and at the present time. Information about the type of language, about its phonological, morphological, lexical systems remains necessary condition summing up the scientific basis for the successful interpretation of toponymic material.
2. Textual analysis
Toponymic texts include lists of lands, scribe books, charters, land surveying acts, geographical maps, directories of administrative-territorial division and any lists of toponyms of a more general or narrowly local profile, for example, directories of the streets of a given city.
3. Inventory of toponymic material
Before proceeding with the linguistic analysis of certain units of a particular national toponymicon, it is necessary to identify its particular semantic fields and hierarchical relations of microfields subordinate to it. For the starting point in the standard description of toponymicon, usually officially accepted forms of toponyms are taken. However, since the codified forms of toponyms are organically linked both with the system of geographical names that exist in lower styles of speech, and with dialectal forms, the latter cannot also be ignored when analyzing supradialectal toponymy.
4. Classification of toponyms
Classifications in toponymy are carried out according to various principles, according to the types of named objects, according to the linguistic affiliation of names, according to the nature of lexical bases, according to formal indicators, on the basis of typological, chronological, genetic commonality of names, etc. For any toponymicon, it is very difficult to single out the basic principle of division.
5. Etymological analysis
Etymologization in toponymy is a technique that is often used. Having no sufficient grounds for it, sufficient material and unaware of the limitations that exist here, each researcher, having collected at least minimal material, hurries to find out from which appellative this or that toponym is formed, without delving into the etymology of the corresponding appellative. However, there are usually many intermediate stages between the name and the appellative, passing through which the names change, their models and forms change, the connection with the original appellative is lost, and instead the connection is acquired with words to which the name actually has nothing to do. Etymological analysis in toponymy differs from etymological analysis in appellative vocabulary in that for a toponym it is sufficient to identify an appellative or a primary proper name underlying the etymologized nominee. Reliable toponymic etymologies can be obtained only by comparison with the etymologized name of toponymic material. For example, a mass analysis of the word formation of toponyms and anthroponyms, as if belonging to the same models, allows them to be correctly divided into morphemes, to highlight their stems and formants.
6. Word-building analysis
Toponymic word-formation constitutes a subsystem in the word-formation system of the prevailing language, while borrowed toponyms, as a rule, are adapted by it. If in general linguistics word formation can be considered both as a part of grammar and as an independent section, then in toponymy this is a special independent direction, an independent section of the study. The facts of modern and historical word formation can be distinguished, in connection with which the problem of distinguishing between morphemic and word-formation analysis in toponymy is much more acute than in appellative vocabulary.
7. Structural analysis
With its help, toponymic patterns and lexemes and affixes that fill them are revealed. In the process of toponymization of lexemes, they are re-decomposed, as a result of which the connection of toponyms with the original word is lost. Useful at a certain stage, such an analysis cannot exist on its own, without being supported by cultural and historical facts. This technique turns out to be more fruitful in the case when the researcher has developed his own toponymic concept, to confirm which he uses the material of the necessary structures.
8. Formant analysis
Formant analysis consists in identifying the toponymic formant of the name, which is not always equal to the suffix of the appellative. Such an analysis is closely related to structural analysis, but unlike the latter, its application is more limited. The formant method of toponymic analysis allows the researcher to identify mass-repeating elements in toponyms: toponymic bases, toponymic suffixes, and toponymic prefixes. A special case of the formant method is the suffix method. The study of productivity and territorial distribution of Russian suffixes was carried out by V.A. Nikonov, he emphasizes that up to 94% of Russian or toponyms mastered by the Russian language are suffixed. This provision is partly relevant for toponyms that are based on the Evenki lexeme, for example: the name of the village Norsk (suffix -sk-), hydronyms Abaikank (topoformant - ka), Irakanchik (-kan- -a diminutive suffix of the Evenki language, -chik- - suffix borrowed from Russian.
9. Analysis of the fundamentals
The analysis of the stems, especially in those cases where the use of synonymic stems takes place, gives a lot of interesting things from the point of view of the repeated, secondary use of lexical units of certain types and raises new questions, why, for what reason, these lexical stems are involved in such and such a system. and are used repeatedly. Although the bases of toponyms are distinguished in the course of structural analysis, their study is directly related to the semasiological aspect of the study of toponymic vocabulary.
10. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis cannot be the end in itself of toponymic research. He only gives good illustrations for the description of toponymic states, carried out by linguistic methods, and serves as a confirmation or refutation of toponymic concepts and hypotheses.
11. Experimental studies
In some cases, to clarify some features of the functioning of the name, the researcher resorts to experiment. This may be an analysis of the use of words selected by the linguist in the speech of certain community groups, depending on what the experimenter is interested in. Any ordinary native speaker of this language has his own opinion about words and names. From the opinions of individuals, a linguistic public opinion. This is usually done through various surveys and is based on psychological factors. An experiment on free associations that the proposed toponyms evoke can confirm the presence of a large passive pool of nominees, since the associations they evoke are usually random and inexpressive. Questioning is a method of toponymic research, which involves the answers of the subjects, especially those whose opinion is considered authoritative, to a series of questions of interest to the researcher. Thus, the methods and techniques of toponymic analysis are called upon to consider and study toponyms from all the indicated sides, and, if possible, to reveal their etymology.
In modern Russian, there are hundreds of thousands of common words denoting objects and their properties, natural phenomena and other realities of our life. In addition to them, there is another, special world of words that perform the function of highlighting, individualization and representing a variety of names and titles.
Today, proper names are studied by representatives of a wide variety of sciences (linguists, geographers, historians, ethnographers, psychologists, literary critics). However, first of all, proper names are closely studied by linguists.
Onomastics(from the Greek "onomastikus" - the art of giving names) - a branch of linguistics that studies proper names, the history of their occurrence and transformation as a result of prolonged use in the source language or in connection with borrowing from other languages of communication.
In a narrower sense, onomastics are proper names of various types (onomastic vocabulary).
Directions of onomastics
Toponymy- studies the proper names of geographical objects (Russia, the Red Sea, Kyiv, Nevsky Prospekt, the Iset River, Lake Baikal, Kulikovo Field).
Anthroponymy- explores the proper names of people (Nikolaevich Yeltsin, Kalita). Anthroponymy distinguishes between folk and canonical personal names, as well as various forms one name: literary and dialect, official and unofficial. Each ethnic group in each era has its own anthroponymicon - a register of personal names. The set of anthroponyms is called anthroponymy.
Cosmonymics- analyzes the names of outer space zones - constellations, galaxies, both accepted in science and folk (Milky Way, Pleiades, Andromeda Galaxy)
astronomy- studies the names of space objects, or individual celestial bodies (Sun, Moon, Mercury, Halley's comet, dwarf planet Ceres, the star Sirius).
Zoonymy– deals with proper names and nicknames of animals (Sharik, Murka, Britney, Besya, Arnold, Buckingham).
Chrematonymy- studies the proper names of objects of material culture (the Orlov diamond, the Durandal sword, the Gamayun cannon).
Theonymy- studies the proper names of gods and deities of any pantheon (Stribog, Zeus).
Karabonymics- studies the proper names of ships, vessels and boats (Aurora, Varyag, Borodino, Memory of Mercury). The term was proposed by Aleksushin instead of the previously proposed terms "natonymy" and "caronymy".
ergonomics– studies the names of business associations of people. For example, emporonyms are the names of shops, firmonyms are the names of firms. This also includes the names of bars, cafes, hairdressers, billiard clubs, trade unions, etc.
Pragmony- Studying the names of various types of goods. For example, perfume names are the names of perfumery products, aromas ("Chanel", "J" adore", "Lauren"), chokonyms are the names of chocolate products ("Kara-Kum", "Metelitsa")
Functions of onomastics
Onomastic research helps to identify the migration routes and places of former settlement of various peoples, linguistic and cultural contacts, the more ancient state of languages and the ratio of their dialects. The study of proper names is of great importance due to the specific patterns of their transmission and preservation. Due to its social function - to serve as a simple individualizing indication of a certain object - a proper name is able to retain its main significance while completely obscuring its etymological meaning, that is, with the complete impossibility of connecting it with any other words of the same language (cf., for example, such names of rivers in Russian, like Scythian "Don", Finno-Ugric "Moscow", "Volga", etc.).
Hence the enormous stability of proper names, which are preserved not only during revolutionary shifts in the history of a particular language, but even with the complete change of the language of one system by another. This establishes the possibility, through an etymological explanation of certain names, to establish the nature of the language in which the corresponding name was first created.
Historical onomastics
In general, onomastics provides the most valuable material for history, establishing the places of settlements and migration routes of often disappeared peoples, characterizing local myths, giving ideas about the type of settlements, about social and family relationships. An analysis of the geographical names of the southern part of the East European Plain leads to a positive solution to the question of the Scythian contribution to the Russian language. An analysis of the names of Russian cities along the Great Waterway (such as "Vyshny Volochek") makes it possible to establish the features of river transport of the corresponding era, etc.
Toponymy (especially hydronymy) is often the only source of information about disappeared languages and peoples.
