The best advice at the university was given to me even before entering: on a course in drawing and composition, they offered me to read the book “Art and Visual Perception” by Rudolf Arnheim. I was the only one out of about a hundred people who found the book and started reading. But then it didn’t work out with the display of pictures on the e-reader, so the reading was postponed from July to April.
Arnheim talks a lot of smart stuff about composition, human perception of objects, children's drawing and much more and does a couple of art dissections. Designers must read for pumping.
From each chapter I wrote out the important and interesting.
Equilibrium
WEIGHT OF ELEMENTS
The weight depends on the location of the figurative element. An element located in the center of the composition or close to it, or located on a vertical axis passing through the center of the composition, compositionally weighs less than an element located outside the main lines indicated on the structural plan (Fig. 3).
The object of the upper part of the composition is heavier than that placed below, and the object located with right side, has more weight than the item located on the left.
When analyzing pictorial composition the principle of leverage, borrowed from physics, may also be useful. According to this principle, the weight of the depicted element increases in proportion to its distance from the center of balance.
The weight also depends on the size of the object. Other things being equal, a larger object will look heavier. As for color, red is heavier than blue, and bright colors are heavier than dark ones. In order to mutually balance each other, the area of black space must be greater than the area white space. This is partly the result of an irradiation effect that makes a bright surface appear relatively larger.
As one factor in compositional weight, Ettel D. Puffer found "intrinsic interest". The viewer's attention can be drawn to the space of a picture either by its content, or by the complexity of its form, or by other features.
The sense of weight is aided by the isolation of an object from its surroundings. The moon and sun in a cloudless sky will appear much heavier than similar objects surrounded by other objects.
The correct form looks heavier than the wrong one.
RIGHT AND LEFT SIDES
About the positive vector
G. Wölfflin noted that the direction of the diagonal going from the lower left corner to the upper right corner is perceived as ascending and gaining height, while the direction of the other diagonal appears to be descending.
According to Mercedes Gaffron, the viewer perceives the drawing as if he focused his attention on the left side of the drawing. Subjectively, he identifies with the left side, and everything that appears in this part of the picture is of greater importance.
Obviously, when the viewer gets used to looking to the left side, then a second, asymmetric center appears in this side of the picture. Just like the center of the frame, this subjective center will have its own meaning and, as you might expect, will influence the composition accordingly. As a result, a contrapuntal relationship is created between the two competing centers.
BALANCE AND THE HUMAN MIND
Just as the expressiveness of life is based on directed activity, and not empty, meaningless calmness, so the expressiveness of a work of art is generated not by balance, harmony, unity, but by the nature of the organization of directed forces that are in balance, unite, acquire sequence and order.
outline
The actual appearance of an object is formed by its characteristic, essential spatial features.
Smart words about counterform
Any incentive model is perceived in such a way that the resulting structure will be as simple as given conditions allow.
ABOUT SIMPLICITY
When a work of art is praised for its “inherent simplicity”, then by this they mean the organization of all the richness of meanings and forms in overall structure which clearly and precisely defines the place and function of each detail in a single whole.
In an absolute sense, an object is simple when it consists of a small number of characteristic structural features. In a relative sense, an object will be simple when complex material is organized in it with the help of the smallest possible number of characteristic structural features.
Characteristics are structural properties which, when it comes to appearance object - can be described based on the dimensions of distances and angles.
Smaller number characteristic features on limited area often contributes to more of the characteristics of the whole, or, in other words, what makes a part simpler may make the whole less simple.
I believe that the desire for the simplest structure inherent in the activity of the brain makes the result of perception as simple as possible. But the simplicity of the resulting experience also depends on: a) the simplicity of the stimulus from which the perceptual model arises; b) the simplicity of the meaning that the object of perception conveys; c) the interdependence of the meaning and the result of perception; d) the psychological "attitude" of the perceiving subject.
A very simple meaning, clothed in an appropriate simple form, will result in the greatest simplicity. (In a work of fiction, this phenomenon is usually boring.)
A part is a section of the whole, which, under given conditions, shows some degree of separation of a particular section from the environment.
These rules [grouping rules formulated by Wertheimer] can be considered an application of one of the main principles - the "principle of similarity". This law states that the more parts of any visually perceived model are similar in some perceptual quality to each other, the more they will be perceived as located together.
Form
Orientation in this case exists only relative to the structure of the object. The perception of the position of an object is actually influenced by not one, but three such structures: 1) the structural basis of the visually perceived objective world, 2) the visual area of the brain onto which the image is projected, and 3) structural features of the observer's body, which has kinesthetic perception through muscular sensations and the balance organ in the inner ear.
So, the dynamic effect is not the result of either the imaginary movement of the viewer relative to the picture, nor the depicted object relative to the perceiving subject. On the contrary, the dynamic effect is achieved as a result of tension created by visually perceived contradictions in the pictorial model itself.
The early stages of the development of art contributed to the emergence of a simple form. However, the opposite cannot be said: that the simple form was always the product of early art.
If we remove an Egyptian figure made of stone or a 14th century church altar from their usual surroundings and place them in a museum as independent work, then the limitations of their old form and content will immediately be revealed, since the new context requires for them new form and new content.
In fact, the development of the artistic imagination could be more accurately described as finding new forms for an old content, or (if one does not involve the dichotomy of form and content) as a new concept of an old subject.
The artist's choice of this or that decision depends on the following factors: a) who the artist is, b) what he wants to say, c) what are the way and means of his thinking.
Development
About children's drawing
« General concept about the triangle "is the main, primary result of perception, and not a secondary, secondary concept. The distinction between individual triangles comes later, not earlier. The general concept of a dog is realized and felt much earlier than the idea of any particular dog. If this is true, then early artistic representations based on naive observation must deal with universals, that is, with simple universals. structural features. This is what is actually happening.
If I wish to depict the "roundness" of such an object as a human head, I cannot use the forms actually represented in it, but must find or invent a form that would sufficiently embody the visual universality of the idea of a circle inherent in the world of real things. . If for a child a circle symbolizes a human head, then this circle is not given to him in the object itself. She is his brilliant discovery, an impressive achievement, which the child came to only as a result of difficult experimentation.
The ability to capture the “feeling” of a tomato in pictorial form distinguishes the reaction of the painter from the formless contemplation that is characteristic of the non-artist when he reacts to the same objects.
The processes of drawing with a pencil, writing a picture, modeling various bodies and figures are types of human motor behavior, and it can be assumed that they developed from the two most ancient and most general types behavior: descriptive and physiognomic movement.
Physiognomic movement is component bodily activity, which spontaneously reflects the nature of a given personality, as well as the nature of a particular sensation in this moment. Fortitude or weakness, arrogance or shyness of a person - all these traits are expressed in his movements. At the same time, the behavior of his body reveals whether he is interested or bored, happy or sad at the moment.
Descriptive movements are intentional gestures designed to express certain visual sensations. We can use our arms and hands, often with our whole body to help them, to show how big or small an object is, whether it has given subject round or angular shape, slow or fast this or that movement, close or far something is located from us.
Gestures often describe the shape of objects according to their contour, according to their outlines, and it is precisely for this reason that the image of the contour is, apparently, psychologically the most simple and natural method of creating an image with the help of hands. Filling a surface with paint, modeling a sculpted object, or carving wood entails movements that may lead to a desired shape, but which are not in themselves an imitation of that shape.
Due to the principle of simplicity in visual perception, a round shape is preferred. The circle, with its direction-independent central symmetry, is the simplest visually perceptible model. We know that perception spontaneously tends to roundness when a stimulus gives it the opportunity to do so. Our attention is drawn to the perfection of the round shape.
In accordance with this law [the law of differentiation], the perceptual feature of the perceived object, while it is not yet differentiated, is reproduced as far as possible in the simplest way. The circle is the simplest possible shape available to the visual media. As long as the form does not become differentiated, the circle will not symbolize the generalized concept of a circle, but will mean any form in general and none in particular.
The child will not begin to reproduce oblique dependencies before he has fully mastered the stage of vertical-horizontal relations, unless premature complexity is imposed on him by a teacher or other authorities. On the other hand, one can easily observe how children grope for higher stages of differentiation because they are not satisfied with the limitations of the previous stage.
It must not be forgotten that one cannot ascend to a higher stage of drawing unless an earlier stage has preceded it.
The art student who imitates the performing style of his adored teacher is in danger of losing his intuitive sense of right and wrong, because instead of mastering the pictorial form, he tries to imitate it. His work, instead of being convincing and congenial for him, is disconcerting.
Composer Arnold Schoenberg, the author of the most intricate music, told his students that their works should be as natural to them as their hands and feet. The simpler these works will seem to them, the better they will actually be. “If anything you write looks too complicated for yourself, you can be sure that there is no smell of truth there.”
Space
In general, the laws of perspective imply that, than more sizes objects, the closer they seem to the subject perceiving them.
The parts located below tend to be closer to the viewer.
It has been established that surfaces painted in colors located in the short-wavelength range of the light spectrum, mainly blue or cyan, look further away from the subject perceiving them than surfaces painted in long-wavelength colors, primarily red.
For most people, convex columns are most often perceived as figures because, according to one of the patterns formulated by Rubin, convexity tends to win over concavity.
The basic rule is that the version of the figure-ground pattern that creates a simpler holistic model will prevail. For example, than simpler form, which the gaps between the figures depicted in the figure have, the more likely they will be perceived as certain models, and not as a limitless background.
As the space of the picture became an independent object and freed from the walls, it became necessary to distinguish between the physical space of the room and the independent world of the picture. This world begins to be perceived as infinite - not only in depth, but also in the literal sense of the word. Therefore, the boundaries of the picture indicate only the end of the composition, but not the end of the depicted space. The frame of the picture was seen as a window through which the viewer looks into the outside world, squeezed by the boundaries of the frame, but not limited by it. In the spirit of our modern discussions, this meant that the frame in the picture should play the role of a figure, and the space of the picture should play the role of an unrestricted base.
The frame, either narrowing to a thin strip (the limit of such narrowing is a contour), or stepping back, adapts to its new function: to give the picture the character of a limited surface, the character of a “figure” located in front of the wall.
There are various ways to resolve this dilemma [the window - a small limited space on the base plane - had to be a "figure" and at the same time it acted as an opening in the wall]. One of these paths is carried out using a traditional cornice. A cornice is not only a decoration, but also a certain way of framing a window. It emphasizes the character of the figure inherent in the opening, and forms a protrusion at the bottom, which limits the surface of the wall as a base. Another solution is to expand the window area. As a result, the walls are reduced both vertically and horizontally to the size of narrow ribbons or strips.
In architecture, a concave shape is more acceptable. This is partly because architectural structure is not only an imitation of organic bodies, but partly because architecture always has to deal with hollow interiors. Any interior, regardless of its appearance there is always a gap.
We see in flat pictures an image of depth because we adapt our experience of dealing with three-dimensional bodies in physical space to them.
Conditions of Distortion
The outline of visually perceived model A will look distorted if it can be obtained by applying to model B, which is more simplified than A, a change in the shape of C, which is also somewhat simpler than A; this change takes place along axes that do not coincide with the axes of model B and do not abolish these axes.
The frontal location of the rhombus gives way to the oblique position of the square. The oblique position of the figure is less simple than the frontal, so that we gain simplicity and at the same time lose it. Therefore, when we are dealing with volumetric perception, we should keep in mind that not distorted form in a tilted position contributes to a simpler overall situation than a distorted form in a frontal position.
When simple symmetry is achieved in two dimensions, then we will see flat figure. If the achievement of symmetry entails a third dimension, then we will see a three-dimensional body.
The perception of a model as two-dimensional or as three-dimensional depends on the option with which a simpler model is formed.
The strength of the visual experience achieved through perspective focusing depends mainly on three factors: the angle of convergence, the degree of visibility of the distorted object, and the viewer's distance from the picture.
Convergence will be more impressive when, for example, railroad tracks are shown in their entirety throughout the visual field, and not just in separate small sections.
Convergence also depends on the angle at which the object is shot. When the line of sight of the camera intersects the surface of the photographed object at a right angle, no distortion is observed. But if the angle deviates from 90 degrees, foreshortening and convergence increase.
Light
If we are dealing with a frequent repetition of an event or with the repeated perception of a thing and have learned to respond to them quite calmly, then, in all likelihood, our mind and our feelings will not actively respond to them.
The artist's concept of light is formed under the influence of the general position of a person and his reaction. This is done in two ways. Firstly, light for the artist is of practical interest as a means of focusing attention. Secondly, the artist's conception of light is based on the readings of his own eyes—readings that are themselves quite different from the scientist's view of physical reality.
The brightness of objects on earth is perceived mainly as a property of themselves, and not as a result of reflection. Regardless of the special conditions... the illumination of a house, a tree or a book lying on the table is not perceived by us as some kind of gift from a distant source.
The observer cannot make a strict distinction between the brightness of an object and its illumination. In fact, he does not see any illumination at all, although he may be aware of the existence of a light source or even see it.
Whether a handkerchief looks white or not does not depend on the absolute amount of light that it sends to the eye, but on its place in the scale of the ratio of brightness that is observed at a given time. If all ratios of brightness in a given visual field are changed in the same proportion, then it will seem that each ratio has remained "constant". But if the distribution of the brightness ratio has changed, then each ratio will change accordingly and there will be no constancy here.
The glow is somewhere in the middle of a continuous scale that starts with bright light sources (the sun, fire, electric lamps) and extends to the subdued illumination of everyday objects.
One of the conditions, but not the only one, for the perception of a glow is that the object must have a ratio of brightness that would be much higher than the scale set for the rest of the visual field. Its absolute brightness can be quite low, such as we see, for example, in the luminous golden hues on the famous Rembrandt paintings, which have not faded for three centuries. On a darkened street, a piece of newspaper sparkles like a light.
In a uniformly lit object, it is impossible to see where it gets its brightness from. Its luminosity, as I said before, seems to be a property intrinsic to the object itself. The same can be said for an evenly lit room. A theater stage viewed from a darkened room does not necessarily give the impression that it is being lit at the moment. When the light is evenly distributed, the scene can appear as a very bright world, a huge luminary.
In order to create the impression of a uniformly increasing distance, the scale of darkness projected onto the retina of the eye must increase at a certain rate in accordance with the laws of perspective in pyramidal space.
Parallel surfaces are "linked" together by the eyes, regardless of their location on the terrain, and this network of relationships is a powerful tool for creating spatial order and unity. If a fly crawling over an object experiences nothing but an incomprehensible and irregular sequence of ups and downs, then attentive human eye perceives the whole, comparing all spatially related areas.
Modern fashion in the art of interior decoration dictates that the walls in which the windows are located are painted a little brighter than the walls on which the light falls directly. This partially compensates for the effect of illumination and contrast.
In order for the eye to be able to distinguish the illumination of objects from their brightness, two conditions must apparently be satisfied. First, all luminance ratios due to illumination must be summed up in a visually simple, unified system; similarly, the model of dark and light tones on the surface of an object should be fairly simple. Secondly, the structural models of the two systems should not coincide.
Artists such as Caravaggio used sometimes strong side light to simplify and coordinate the spatial organization of their paintings. Roger de Piles, a 17th-century French writer, said that if objects are arranged in such a way that all the light is gathered together on one side and the shadows on the other, then such a collection of light and shadows will prevent the eye from wandering. “Similar distribution of sources Titian called a bunch of grapes, because the grapes, when divided, have their own light and shadow equally and thus split the view in many directions, resulting in confusion; but if the fruits are collected in a whole bunch in such a way that one mass of light and one mass of shadow is obtained, then the eye grasps them as a single object.
Shadows can be applied or cast. Superimposed shadows lie directly on objects, but they themselves are formed by their shape, spatial orientation and distance from the light source. Cast shadows are shadows that are cast from one object to another, or from one part of an object to another part of it.
There are two points that our eye must understand. The first is that the shadow does not belong to the object on which it is visible, and the second is that the shadow belongs to the object on which it does not fall.
A few words should be said about the convergence of shadows. Because the sun is so far away that its beams become nearly parallel over a fairly narrow range of space, the light creates an isometric projection of the shadow, that is, lines that are parallel in the object are also parallel in the shadow.
But the shadow is subject to perspective distortion, just like any other visually perceived object. Therefore, it will appear to converge away from the point of contact with the object when it is behind the object, and divergent if it lies in front of it.
The subject appears illuminated not only because of its absolute brightness, but also because it greatly exceeds the level of illumination of the rest of the canvas. Thus, the mysterious light of rather dark objects is revealed when they are placed in an even darker environment. Moreover, luminosity occurs when brightness is not perceived as the result of illumination. To do this, the shadows must be eliminated or, in extreme cases, reduced to a minimum, and the most bright light must appear within the boundaries of the subject itself.
There are two main ways of depicting lighting in a painting. The simplest and oldest method reflects the experience of perceptual separation in the very process of creating a picture. The object is endowed with a uniform local color and brightness, on which light and shadow are superimposed separately. Another method makes it possible to inform the eye of the already combined stimulus that it receives from the physical space. If each place of the picture is characterized by the corresponding ratio of brightness and color, then the viewer will subdivide and perceive the illumination of the picture in the same way as he does in physical space.
Color
Rorschach found that calm moods promoted responses to color, while depressed people were more likely to respond to shapes. Dominance of color indicates openness to external stimuli. People who prefer color are sensitive, easily influenced, unstable, disorganized, prone to emotional outbursts. Preference and response to the form is characteristic of introverted people, characterized by strict self-control, pedantic, unemotional attitude to everything around them.
Like color, emotion evokes in us only a certain attitude. On the contrary, the form seems to require a more active reaction. We carefully examine the object, establish its structural basis, correlate the parts with the whole. In the same way, consciousness acts under the influence of our impulses, it uses patterns, coordinates various types of experience and resolves issues related to the process of activity. When color is perceived, the action comes from the object and thus affects the person. To perceive form, organized thinking turns to the object.
The inertia of the perceiving subject and the immediacy of experience are more characteristic of reactions to color. Form perception is characterized by active control.
Charles Feret discovered that the strength of muscle contractions and the speed of blood circulation increase from the degree of coloring of light, and in a certain sequence - least of all from the presence of of blue color, slightly more from green, then from yellow, orange and red. This physiological feature of the human body is entirely confirmed by psychological observations of the effect caused by this color, but there is nothing to confirm whether we are dealing here with a secondary consequence of perception or whether there is a more direct influence of light energy on motor behavior and blood circulation.
In one of his early studies, Sidney L. Pressey had his subjects perform simple motor actions, such as rhythmic finger tapping, in varying degrees of brightness and illumination. He found that under dim lighting, the activity of the subjects froze, and in bright light, it greatly increased. The difference in color shades did not affect the change in the actions performed.
Kandinsky says: "Of course, any color can be cold and warm, but nowhere is this contrast more noticeable than in red." Despite all its energy and intensity, the color red glows in itself and does not radiate energy to the outside, thus achieving full masculine strength. He is an inexorable burning passion, a great power in himself. Yellow never carries deep meaning and is a waste of time. It is also true that Kandinsky spoke of him as a color capable of depicting violence or the delirium of an insane person. But here he probably meant a very bright yellow, which seemed unbearable to him, like the shrill sound of a bugle. Dark blue sinks "in deep contemplation of all things that have no end", while light blue "reaches a silent calm".
The appearance and expressiveness of color change depending on the content and theme of the artwork.
Movement
expressiveness
The impact of the forces transmitted by the visual model is an intrinsic property of the object of perception, just like shape and color.
If expressiveness is the main content of perception in Everyday life, then this is even more characteristic of the artist's vision of the world. For him, expressive properties are means of communication. They attract his attention, and with their help he understands and interprets his experience, they determine the form of the models that he creates. Therefore, the training of art students should consist mainly in sharpening their sense of these expressive qualities and teaching them to look at expression as the leading criterion for every touch of a pencil, brush or chisel.
One of the moments of wisdom that refers to true culture, is a constant awareness symbolic meaning, expressed in each specific event, the feeling of the universal in the specific. This awareness gives dignity to any daily activity, and prepares the ground on which art is based and grows.
The appreciation of art is determined by the fact that it helps a person to understand the world and himself, and also shows him what he has understood and what he considers true. Everything in this world is unique, individual, no two things are the same. However, everything is comprehended by the human mind and comprehended only because - each thing consists of moments that are inherent not only in a particular object, but are common to many other or even all things.
Expressiveness is the crown of all perceptual categories, each of which contributes to the emergence of expressiveness through visually perceived tension.
Any visual model is dynamic. This most elementary property actually turns out to be the most significant attribute artwork, because if a sculpture or a painting did not express the dynamics of tension, they would not be able to accurately reflect our life.
An advertising message must be conveyed to the consumer clearly and understandably, whether it be a booklet, magazine or website. It would seem that everything is simple: through design information is brought to the eyes of the consumer. In fact, everything is more complicated.
Visual perception is the result of a complex interaction of a visual stimulus with a complex of knowledge, goals and expectations already existing in the brain. And understanding how a person perceives visual objects helps to make advertising design efficient.
This article is about the theory visual perception and memory and most of The information is taken from the book "Visual Language for Designers" by Connie Malamed.
visual processes
Perception is the process of receiving, understanding and understanding sensory data. First we look, then we need to process what we see in order to understand why this will be needed. Our brain needs to match what the eye has seen with the patterns we already have in our memory in order to figure out what to do and how to react.
The human brain processes data in parallel with visual perception, different parts of the brain are simultaneously activated through networks of neurons, and therefore the reaction of the brain is very fast.
visual perception is a two-way street. On the one hand, we see the smallest details of the environment and immediately interpret them into a whole. On the other hand, we turn to our memory, i.e. into that part of the brain where all the patterns of our knowledge of the world are collected, and depending on the momentary goals, we interpret the data we see.
The perception of information by a person is a combination of ascending and descending processes of the brain.
Bottom-up visual processing
It is stimulated by external stimuli, i.e. what we see.
The human fundus can only focus on a small area, so we see through a series of intermittent eye movements. We fix our gaze for a moment on one object, then on another, on a third, and so on, and it is through these jumps that we perceive the environment. It happens very quickly without any conscious effort, so it doesn't bother us at all.
First of all, the human eye notices movement, then shape, color, contour and contrast.
First, our brain discretely reads information, then groups the elements, and then structures the received information into basic forms. This process is fast and helps us to recognize the objects on the site or on the banner ad. The information is read and transmitted to other parts of the brain and affects where our attention then moves.
Top-Down Visual Processing
This process is driven by existing knowledge and expectations, as well as specific goals at the moment. The brain interprets what it sees according to familiar shapes and patterns and decides what to look next.
A person tends to ignore everything that does not make sense or is not needed at the moment.
Look at the picture above: the text in red letters stands out from the whole mass of letters, because our brain looks for patterns known to it, recognizes words from written letters. Now count the number of letters "R". This time, when the image is scanned, the letters P seem to stand out from the writing, and the red text is now lost, becoming the background image. Those. the task at hand affects our visual perception, because we see more of what we are looking for.
So, the essence of the downward process of perception is that with the mind we see more than with the eyes. What we know, what we expect, and what we want to do influences what we see.
Memory
A person stores information in various sections of memory. Sensory (short-term) memory records fleeting impressions of the last milliseconds. It allows you to remember something "recorded" no later than 1 minute. There is a hypothesis that short-term memory relies more on an acoustic (verbal) code for storing information and, to a lesser extent, on a visual one.
RAM
Working memory is a working space in which we analyze, synthesize and manage information. This memory helps us make sense of the world by comparing what we see with what we already know—a combination of top-down and bottom-up processes information processing.
When new information arrives, our brain identifies it with what is already stored in memory. If matches are found, the brain identifies objects and images, thus supplementing existing knowledge. If there are no matches, the brain draws appropriate conclusions about the new information.
All this happens in random access memory very fast, new information either complements something already known, or is subjected to subsequent processing, and remaining in RAM. That is why we have to repeat the phone number several times in order to remember it.
RAM in different people works with different efficiency, this is influenced by all sorts of factors, for example, -
age - the capabilities of RAM increase to mature age and decrease in old age;
distracting elements - the less a person is distracted, the faster the processing speed of RAM;
experience - the more knowledge is in memory, the more often the brain will find matches for new information, and therefore, the faster the processes in RAM.
There is such a thing as cognitive load. This is the place in the working memory of the brain required for processing specific information. And the more complex the information, the more this space is required by memory, slowing down the processing process. This explains the requirement for simplicity in advertising messages - the simpler it is, the faster and easier it is to be identified by the brain.
long term memory
If the processing of information by working memory is passed, i.e., matches are found, such information is transferred to long-term memory. And when new information arrives, the brain encodes it again - looking for matches in long-term memory.
It turns out that the more associations familiar and understandable to a person are contained in an advertising message, the more likely that he will remember this message. That is why analogies and metaphors work so well, because the more new information is connected to previously acquired knowledge, the more likely the brain is to retain this information. Remember? "Repetition is the mother of learning." It is the constant repetition of information in various ways that contributes to the fact that information will be transferred to long-term memory.
Example: A 7-digit phone number can be stored in short-term memory and forgotten after a few seconds. On the other hand, a person can remember it through repetition over a long period of time.
In addition to the classification of memory by time, there is also a classification by the organization of memorization:
Episodic memory is the memory of events in which we were participants or witnesses. Moreover, such memorization (for example, the 17th birthday or the last end of the world) occurs without visible effort.
Semantic memory is the memory of facts such as the multiplication table or the meaning of words. A person will not be able to remember where and when he became aware that Tokyo is the capital of Japan, or from whom he learned the meaning of the word "dumpling", but nevertheless this knowledge is part of his memory. Both episodic and semantic memory contain knowledge that can be easily recited.
Procedural memory is the memory of how to do something and leads to certain skills for performing current tasks.
Process depth
The depth of processing of perceptual processes affects the likelihood that a person will remember information. Graphic information conveyed by physical aspects is not stored as deeply as the semantic justification of the same graphics. Those. the shape and color of a graphic in a design is not as effective as the verbal justification for that graphic. Giving meaning to graphics is the rule of advertising design.
Schemas (context)
Schemas are sets of associations according to which information is stored. This is the context that a person has at this stage of life, the prism through which he perceives everything. That is, a person who reads while lying on the couch perceives everything differently than a person traveling in the subway. Or the word "death" is perceived differently by a child and an old man. Everyone has their own perception patterns. According to these schemes, we classify and store information, deciding what this information means to us.
New information always modifies an existing schema, and again two processes of information processing: first, our schemas affect how we process information, and then that information modifies our schemas.
The search for information begins with a signal. It could be something we hear, or a feeling we experience, or some visual stimulus. This signal activates the circuit with the appropriate associations, then this circuit sends the signal to other associated circuits. If the correct schema is affected, the information is considered correct.
Psychological models (thought models)
For the understanding of information, psychological models are responsible, which are formed in a person over the years of knowing the world. For example, we have a model of how a website works: it's a navigation menu and links, and this model helps us use different sites in different places. But this happens only because all sites are arranged according to the menu-link principle. Psychological models are easily transferred from one object to another, as long as these objects use the same execution template.
Each person has his own schemes and patterns of thinking, but they are similar in people who are united by some common feature - reading the same magazine or attending the same fight club. Those. correctly selected objects, shapes, colors, etc. will activate schemas and psychological models target audience. If you understand the peculiarities of thinking, the cognitive characteristics of the audience, then the corresponding associations in the advertising message will make it especially effective. Actually, this is where the classification of the target audience according to characteristic features begins.
Level of development - classify the audience according to the degree of advancement and make the design according to this.
Distractibility - less distracting elements - more focus. Don't create designs that are confusing.
Visual literacy - understand how clear and familiar certain characters will be to your audience.
Motivation - Your audience's preferences will help determine how to motivate them. Greater motivation leads to greater attention, and as a result, to a deeper understanding of the advertising message.
Culture, traditions are certain colors. Different colors are interpreted differently in different cultures.
So,
before taking on design, you need to answer the question: "What do we want to communicate?" What is the purpose design? Only knowing the goals and objectives advertising message, can be strategically designed design for the most appropriate psychological perception.
If needed
Achieve recognition, notify - use in design principle of dominance, scale and contrast.
Identify the company - make it clear. Create clean and clear graphics that are easy to interpret by taking into account the patterns and thought patterns of the audience.
Effective advertising message- this is work done in accordance with the characteristics of the schemes and models of thinking of the consumer. And of course, when working on a project, you do not need to deal with the whole science of perception. design, it is only important to understand it in order to use it in the process.
The ability to read text seems like a simple process: we direct our eyes to the letters, see them, and know what they say. But in fact, it is an extremely complex process, based on the work of a series of brain structures that specialize in visual perception, as well as recognizing the various subcomponents of vision.
To perceive means to interpret information about the environment received through the senses.. This interpretation depends on our cognitive processes and available knowledge. Visual or visual perception can be defined as the ability to interpret information that reaches the eyes through light in the visible region of the spectrum. The result of the interpretation our brain makes based on this information is what is known as visual perception or vision. Thus, visual perception is a process that begins in our eyes:
- photoreception: Light rays pass through the pupils of the eyes and excite cell receptors in the retina.
- Transfer and basic processing: The signals that these cells create are transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain. First, the signal passes through the optic chiasms (where information from the right visual field is sent to the left hemisphere, and from the left visual field to right hemisphere), then the information goes to the lateral geniculate body and the thalamus.
- Information processing and perception: next, the visual information received through the eyes is sent to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain. In these brain structures, information is processed and sent to the rest of the brain so that we can use it.
Characteristics that form visual perception
To get an idea of how complex this function is, let's try to imagine what our brain does when we see a simple soccer ball. How many factors does he have to determine? For example:
- lighting and contrast: we see that there is a concentration of lines, more or less illuminated and having its own diameter, which distinguishes it from other objects in the environment and background.
- Size: This is a circle about 70 cm in diameter.
- Form: has the shape of a circle.
- Location: is in three meters from me, to the right. I can easily get to it.
- Color: white with black pentagons. In addition, if the lighting suddenly changes, we would know that its colors are black and white.
- measurements: exists in three dimensions, since it is a sphere.
- Movement: V currently without movement, but you can give it movement.
- Unit A: There is one and it is different from the environment.
- Usage: used for playing football, designed for kicking.
- Personal relationship with the object: similar to the one we use in training.
- Name: soccer ball. This last process is also known as .
If that sounds like a lot of steps to you, consider that our brains do this process all the time and at incredible speed. In addition, our brain does not passively perceive information, but uses the available knowledge to "complete" information about what it perceives (which is why we know that the ball is a sphere, even when we see it flat in the photo). IN occipital lobe brain and adjacent parts temporal and parietal lobes) there are several areas specializing in each of the previously described processes. Correct perception requires harmonious work all these departments.
When we look at our desktop, our brain instantly identifies all the objects located on it, which allows us to quickly interact with them. Knowing this, it is easy to understand the great importance of this process in our daily life and how important it is for normal functioning in any life situation.
Examples of visual perception
- Driving a car is one of the most complex everyday tasks that involves many cognitive functions. Visual perception is one of the foundations of driving. If one of the processes of visual perception is disturbed, the driver endangers his life and the lives of other people. It is important to quickly determine the position of the car relative to the road and other Vehicle, the speed at which they move, etc.
- When the child is in the classroom, his visual acuity and perception must be optimal so as not to lose sight of the details of the material being explained. Violations of this ability can lead to a decrease in the child's academic performance.
- IN fine arts, for example in painting, visual perception is everything. When we want to paint a picture and dream of making it realistic and attractive, we have to check our visual perception and work out every detail, shade of color, perspective... Of course, in order to appreciate works of art, we also need good visual perception, it is not enough just to see.
- Visual perception is essential for any monitoring or surveillance activity. A security guard who, due to impaired perception, cannot correctly assess what is happening on surveillance cameras will not be able to properly perform his job.
- Of course, in everyday life we constantly use visual perception. If we see an approaching bus on the road, its image becomes larger in our minds. However, our brain is able to interpret changes that are not real. We keep seeing a regular size bus no matter how close or far it is from us. We also need visual perception to move around in space so as not to mix up medicines, prepare meals, clean the house, etc.
Pathologies and disorders associated with problems in visual perception
Visual impairments can be accompanied by various problems and difficulties at different levels.
Complete or partial loss of vision as a result of damage to the organs of perception leads to inability to perceive (blindness). This may be caused damage to the eye itself(e.g. eye injury), damage to information transmission paths from the eyes to the brain (eg, glaucoma) or brain damage responsible for the analysis of this information (for example, as a result of a stroke or traumatic brain injury).
However, perception is not a unitary process. There are specific damages that can disrupt each of the above processes. Disorders of this type are characterized by damage to the areas of the brain responsible for certain processes. These disorders are known as visual agnosia. visual agnosia defined as inability to recognize known objects despite maintaining visual acuity. Classically, agnosia is divided into two types: perceptual agnosia (the patient can see parts of the object, but is not able to understand the object as a whole) and associative agnosia (the patient can recognize the object as a whole, but cannot understand what object is being discussed). It is difficult to imagine how the perception of people with these disorders functions. Despite the fact that they can see, their sensations are close to those experienced by those suffering from blindness. In addition, there are even more specific disorders such as, for example, akinetopsia (inability to see movement), color blindness (inability to distinguish colors), prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces), alexia (acquired inability to read), etc.
In addition to these disorders, in which the ability to perceive visual information (or part of it) is lost, there are also disorders in which the information received is distorted or does not exist at all. This may be the case hallucinations in schizophrenia or other syndromes. In addition, scientists have described a type of visual illusion in people who have lost their sight: Charles Bonnet Syndrome. In this case, in a person who has lost sight, after a long period during which his brain does not receive visual activity, self-activation of the brain is observed, provoking visual illusions in which the patient sees geometric figures or people. However, unlike hallucinations in schizophrenia, people with this syndrome know that the things they see are not real.
How to measure and evaluate visual perception?
Visual perception helps us perform many daily activities. Our ability to move and interact with an environment full of obstacles directly depends on the quality of visual perception. Thus, perception assessment can be useful in various areas of life: in education (to know if a child can see a blackboard or read books), in the field of medicine (to know that a patient may mix up medications or need constant supervision), in professional circles (almost any job requires reading, observation or control skills).
With the help, we can effectively and reliably assess various cognitive abilities, including visual perception. The test that CogniFit offers to assess visual perception is based on classic test NEPSY (Corkman, Kirk and Kemp, 1998). Through this task, it is possible to decode the elements presented in the exercise and the amount of cognitive resources that the user has in order to understand and perform the task in the most effective way. In addition to visual perception, the test also measures name memory, response time, and processing speed.
- : Images of objects appear on the screen for a short period of time and then disappear. This is followed by four letters, and only one of them corresponds to the first letter of the object's name. The task is to choose the right letter. You need to complete the test as soon as possible.
How to restore or improve visual perception?
Visual perception, like other cognitive abilities, can be trained and improved. CogniFit makes it possible to do it professionally.
Recovery of visual perception is based on. CogniFit offers a series of exercises and clinical games aimed at rehabilitating visual perception and other cognitive functions. The brain and its neural connections are strengthened by using the functions that depend on them. Thus, if we regularly train visual perception, the connections of the brain structures involved in perception are strengthened. Therefore, when our eyes send information to the brain, neural connections will work faster and more efficiently, improving our visual perception.
CogniFit is comprised of an experienced team of professionals who specialize in the study of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. This made it possible to create personalized cognitive stimulation programs that adapts to the needs of each user. The program begins with an accurate assessment of visual perception and other basic cognitive functions. Based on the results of the evaluation, the CogniFit Cognitive Stimulation Program automatically suggests a personal cognitive training regimen to improve visual perception and other cognitive functions that, according to the results of the evaluation, need to be improved.
To improve visual perception, it is extremely important to exercise regularly and correctly. CogniFit offers assessment and rehabilitation tools to improve cognitive performance. For proper stimulation, you need to give 15 minutes a day, two or three times a week..
The CogniFit Cognitive Stimulation Program is Available Online. The program contains a variety of interactive exercises in the form of fun brain games that you can play with your computer. At the end of each session CogniFit will show you a detailed improvement chart cognitive state.
Have you ever wondered how we see objects? How do we snatch them from the entire visual diversity of the environment with the help of sensory stimuli? And how do we interpret what we see?
Visual processing is the ability to comprehend images, allowing humans (and even animals) to process and interpret the meaning of the information we receive through our vision.
Visual perception plays an important role in everyday life, helping in learning and communicating with other people. At first glance, perception seems to be easy. In fact, behind the supposed ease lies a complex process. Understanding how we interpret what we see helps us design visual information.
Balanced infographics involve the smart use of visual presentation (e.g. charts, graphs, icons, images), appropriate choice of colors and fonts, appropriate layout and sitemap, etc. And we should not forget about the data, its sources and topics, which is equally important. But today we will not talk about them. We will focus on the visual side of information design.
Psychologist Richard Gregory (1970) was convinced that visual perception depends on top-down processing.
Top-down processing, or conceptually driven processing, occurs when we form an idea of the big picture from small parts. We make assumptions about what we see based on expectations, beliefs, prior knowledge, and previous experience. In other words, we are making a deliberate guess.
Gregory's theory is supported by numerous evidence and experiments. One of the most famous examples- hollow mask effect:
When the mask is turned to the hollow side, you see a normal face
Gregory used Charlie Chaplin's spinning mask to explain how we perceive the mask's hollow surface as bulges based on our understanding of the world. According to our previous knowledge of the structure of the face, the nose should protrude. As a result, we subconsciously reconstruct a hollow face and see a normal one.
How do we perceive visual information according to Gregory's theory?
1. Almost 90% of the information coming through the eyes does not reach the brain. Thus, the brain uses previous experience or existing knowledge to construct reality.
2. The visual information that we perceive is connected to previously stored information about the world that we have received empirically.
3. Based on various examples of the theory of top-down information processing, it follows that pattern recognition is based on contextual information.
Information Design Tip #1 from Gregory's Visual Assumption Theory: Supplement the data with an appropriate theme and design; use a meaningful title to set key expectations; support the visuals with expressive text.
2. Sanoka and Sulman's experiment on color ratios
According to numerous psychological studies, combinations of uniform colors are more harmonious and pleasant. While contrasting colors are usually associated with chaos and aggression.
In 2011, Thomas Sanocki and Noah Sulman conducted an experiment to study how color matching affects short-term memory - our ability to remember what we just saw.
Four different experiments were carried out using harmonious and disharmonious color palettes. In each trial, the participants in the experiment were shown two palettes: first one, then the second, which had to be compared with the first. The palettes were shown with a certain time interval and several times in random combinations. The subjects had to determine whether the palettes were the same or different. Also, the participants of the experiment had to evaluate the harmony of the palette - a pleasant / unpleasant combination of colors.
Below are 4 examples of palettes that were shown to the participants in the experiment:
How do colors affect our visual perception according to the theory of Sanoka and Sulman?
- People remember better those palettes in which colors are combined with each other.
- People remember palettes containing only three or fewer colors more than those with four or more colors.
- The contrast of adjacent colors affects how well a person remembers a color scheme. In other words, this means that the color difference between context and background can enhance our ability to focus on context.
- We can remember a fairly large number of color combinations at the same time.
Thus, the results of the experiment indicate that people are better able to absorb and remember more information, perceiving images with a contrasting but harmonious color scheme, preferably with a combination of three or less colors.
Information design tip #2 based on Sanoka and Sulman's experiment: use as few different colors as possible in complex content; increase the contrast between visual information and background; choose themes with a harmonious combination of shades; use disharmonious color combinations wisely.
Binocular rivalry occurs when we see two different images in the same place. One of them dominates, and the second is suppressed. Dominance alternates at regular intervals. So, instead of seeing a combination of two images at the same time, we perceive them in turn, as two competing images for dominance.
In 1998, Frank Tong, Ken Nakayama, J. Thomas Vaughan, and Nancy Kanwisher concluded in an experiment that if you look at two different images at the same time, there is a binocular rivalry effect.
Four trained people participated in the experiment. As stimuli, they were shown images of a face and a house through glasses with red and green filters. In the process of perception, there was an irregular alternation of signals from the two eyes. The stimulus-specific responses of the subjects were monitored using functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
How do we perceive visual information according to Tong's experiment?
- According to MRI data, all subjects showed active binocular rivalry when they were shown dissimilar pictures.
- In our visual system, the binocular rivalry effect occurs during the processing of visual information. In other words, for a short period of time, when the eyes look at two dissimilar images located close to each other, we are not able to determine what we are actually seeing.
David Carmel, Michael Arcaro, Sabine Kastner and Uri Hasson conducted a separate experiment and found that binocular rivalry can be manipulated using stimulus parameters such as color, brightness, contrast , shape, size, spatial frequency or speed.
Manipulating the contrast in the example below causes the left eye to perceive the dominant image, while the right eye perceives the suppressed one:
How does contrast affect our visual perception according to the experiment?
- Manipulating the contrast causes a strong stimulus to be dominant for a greater amount of time.
- We will see the merging of the dominant image and part of the suppressed image until the effect of binocular rivalry occurs.
Information Design Tip #3 Based on the Binocular Rivalry Effect: N do not overload the content; use themed icons; highlight key points.
4. The influence of typography and aesthetics on the reading process
Did you know that typography can affect a person's mood and ability to make decisions?
Typography is the design and use of fonts as a means of visual communication. Nowadays, typography has moved from the field of typography to the digital sphere. Summarizing all possible definitions of the term, we can say that the purpose of typography is to improve the visual perception of the text.
In their experiment, Kevin Larson (Microsoft) and Rosalind Picard (MIT) found out how typography affects the mood of the reader and his ability to solve problems.
They conducted two studies, each with 20 participants. Participants were divided into two equal groups and given 20 minutes to read an issue of The New Yorker magazine on a tablet. One group got text with poor typography, the other with good typography (examples are given below):
During the experiment, participants were interrupted and asked how much time they thought had passed since the start of the experiment. According to psychological research (Weybrew, 1984): people who find their occupation enjoyable and stay in positive mood feel they spent much less time reading.
After reading the texts, the participants in the experiment were asked to solve a problem with a candle. They had to attach the candle to the wall in such a way that the wax would not drip, using push pins.
How do we perceive good typography and its impact?
- Both groups of participants incorrectly estimated time spent reading. This means that reading was an exciting activity for them.
- Participants who were given text with good typography significantly underestimated reading time compared to participants who were given text with bad typography. This means that the first text seemed more interesting to them.
- None of the participants who read the text with bad typography could solve the candle problem. While less than half of the second group coped with the task. Thus, good typography affected the ability to solve problems.
Information design tip #4, based on Larsen and Picard's typographic influence experiment: use readable fonts; separate text from images; do not overlay pictures or icons on text; Leave enough space between paragraphs.
5. Perception of the essence of the scene according to Castellano and Hendersen
Have you ever wondered what the phrase “one picture says more than a thousand words” really means? Or why do we perceive images better than text?
This does not mean that the image tells us all the necessary information. It's just that a person has the ability to grasp the main elements of a scene at a glance. When we fix our gaze on an object or objects, we form general idea and recognize the meaning of the scene.
What is the perception of the essence of the scene? According to Nissan Research & Development researcher Ronald A. Rensink:
“Scene gist perception, or scene perception, is the visual perception of the environment as an observer at any given time. It includes not only the perception of individual objects, but also such parameters as their relative position, as well as the idea that other types of objects are encountered.
Imagine that you see some objects that are two signboards with symbols, and a diagram that symbolizes a fork and indicates two different ways. Most likely, the following scene appeared before you - you are in the middle of the jungle / forest / highway and there are two paths ahead that lead to two different destinations. Based on this scene, we know that we need to make a decision and choose one path.
In 2008, Monica S. Castelhano of the University of Massachusetts Amherst and John M. Henderson of the University of Edinburgh studied the effect of color on the ability to perceive the essence of a scene in an experiment.
The experiment included three different trials. The students were shown several hundred photographs (of natural or man-made objects) under different conditions for each test. Each image was shown in a specific sequence and point in time. Participants were asked to answer "yes" or "no" when they saw the details that matched the scene.
Normal and blurry photos were presented with color and monochrome, respectively.
To determine the role of colors in the perception of the essence of the scene, anomalous colors were used for the following photographic examples:
How do we perceive visual information based on the findings of Castellano and Hendersen?
- The subjects grasped the essence of the scene and the target object in seconds. This means that people can quickly understand the meaning of a normal scene.
- The subjects matched the color pictures faster than the black-and-white ones. Thus, color helps us understand the picture better.
- In general, colors determine the structure of objects. How better color corresponds to how we usually perceive the world, the easier it is for us to understand the meaning of the image.
Information design tip #5 based on Castellano and Hendersen's scene perception studies: use appropriate icons or pictures to represent data; place content in correct sequence; use familiar colors for important objects.
conclusions
Understanding how people perceive visual information helps improve infographics. Summarizing the conclusions of the considered experiments, we bring to your attention the key tips for the design of visual information:
1. Layout and design
- The theme and design must match the information.
- Don't overload your page's infographic.
- Use themed icons.
- Arrange content in the proper order.
- Use headings to set key expectations.
2. Video sequence
- Visual effects should accompany the text.
- Show important numbers on graphs and charts.
- Use the right pictures and icons to represent your data.
- Reduce the number of colors for complex content.
- Increase the contrast between important visual information and the background.
- Use harmonious theme colors.
- Use disharmonious colors wisely.
- Use regular colors for important objects.
4. Typography
- Choose readable fonts.
- Leave enough white space between the title and the text or image.
- Do not overlay pictures or icons on text.
- Set sufficient spaces between characters.
Now that you know the ins and outs of creating beautiful and compelling infographics, it's up to you!
Advertising as a tool of marketing communications is largely based on the behavior and psychology of consumers. Therefore, it is advisable to start the analysis of the issue of the role of communication in advertising with the identification of the psychophysiological characteristics of the human perception of information as such.
In the natural sciences, it is customary to distinguish three main types of perception:
- 1. Auditory perception. It is a way of perceiving information through hearing and auditory impressions (for example, through communication, noise, music).
- 2. Visual perception. It involves the perception of information by activating the visual channel and its subsequent storage in memory in the form of images.
- 3. Kinesthetic perception. It implies the perception of information through the creation of direct physical contact with the object through tactile (touch), olfactory (smell) and taste sensations.
The most informative channel of perception of the above is visual. According to the results of scientific research, it has been established that a person receives about 80% of the information coming from outside through visual receptors. Through this channel, a person is able to determine many properties of the observed object: its type, color, shape, size, texture, etc. The visual channel plays a key role in human cognition of the surrounding reality.
Visual perception (visual perception) The concepts of "visual perception" and "visual perception" are equivalent (derived from Latin words"visualis" and "perceptio"), however, Latin transliteration entered Russian professional use relatively recently, and began to be widely used only in the last decades of the existence of the USSR. defined as:
- - "a set of processes for constructing a visual image of the world based on sensory information obtained using the visual system" Meshcheryakov B.G., Zinchenko V.P. Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Olma-Press, 2004. - C. 124.;
- - "a system of successive perceptual actions aimed at reflecting the phenomena of the surrounding world in visual images" Khilko. N.F. audiovisual culture. Dictionary. - Omsk: Omsk Publishing House. state un-ta, 2000. - C. 20 ..
Within the framework of this study, the second definition will be adopted as a working one, since it emphasizes the gradual fixation of the image of the surrounding world in the human mind. So, first we see the big picture, and only after that our perception begins to fix the details. As a result, a certain established visual image of the surrounding reality is deposited in the mind.
Visual perception is a complex multi-level process consisting of two key stages:
- 1) obtaining information at the physiological level (along the chain: light stimulus - retina - electrical impulses in brain neurons);
- 2) deciphering visual signals (analysis of an electrical signal and awareness of the presence of a particular visual image in the field of view).
However, vision is not a purely automatic response to external stimuli, but is the most important tool for understanding the world around us. Visual perception draws on numerous sources of information beyond those perceived by the eye when a person looks at an object. Visual perception is the result of a complex interaction of a visual stimulus with a complex of knowledge, associations, experience, etc. already existing in the brain. Having received information about the object seen, our brain compares it with the existing samples, patterns, expectations in order to understand what to do and how to react to this object. Therefore, visual perception is a complex two-way process. On the one hand, seeing the details of the environment, we interpret them into a common whole. On the other hand, we turn to our memory, where all the patterns of our perception of the world are collected, and, depending on the current goals, we interpret the data we see.
There is no single template for the visual perception of an object - the assessment of what is seen is always formed on the basis of personal attitudes and principles. Each person has his own vision of the world, which largely depends on the socio-cultural environment surrounding him. The system of subconscious decoding of information is based on the life experience of a person and his environment, which means that people various origins, upbringing, education, it can be different. In other words, "external socio-cultural predestination is refracted in individual consciousness" Dmitrieva L.M. etc. Philosophy of advertising activity: tutorial. - M.: Master: NIC Infra-M, 2013. - S. 44 ..
Thus, visual perception is one of the most important human tools for orienting in reality and obtaining information about surrounding objects. This complex multilevel process includes not only a chain of neural reactions to stimuli, but also the whole variety of representations already available in the brain, thanks to which a person continuously replenishes his library of knowledge about the outside world through vision.
