Known from several editions and lists with minor deviations in the texts introduced by scribes. Was compiled in Kyiv.

The covered period of history begins with biblical times in the introductory part and ends with the year 1117 (in the 3rd edition). The dated part of the history of the Old Russian state begins in the summer of 6360 by Emperor Michael (852).

The name of the set gave rise to the first phrase "The Tale of Bygone Years ..." or in part of the lists "Behold the tale of bygone years ..."

The history of the creation of the chronicle

The author of the chronicle is listed in the Khlebnikov list as monk Nestor, a famous hagiographer at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries, a monk of Kiev Caves Monastery. Although this name was omitted from earlier lists, researchers of the 18th-19th centuries considered Nestor the first Russian chronicler, and The Tale of Bygone Years the first Russian chronicle. The study of chronicles by the Russian linguist A. A. Shakhmatov and his followers showed that there were chronicle codes that preceded The Tale of Bygone Years. It is now recognized that the first original edition of the Tale of Bygone Years by the monk Nestor has been lost, and modified versions have survived to this day. At the same time, there is no indication in any of the chronicles where exactly the Tale of Bygone Years ends.

The problems of sources and the structure of PVL were developed in most detail at the beginning of the 20th century in the works of Academician A. A. Shakhmatov. The concept presented by him still plays the role of the “standard model”, on which subsequent researchers rely or argue. Although many of its provisions have often been subjected to well-founded criticism, it has not yet been possible to develop a comparable concept in terms of significance.

The second edition is read as part of the Laurentian Chronicle (1377) and other lists. The third edition is contained in the Ipatiev Chronicle ( oldest lists: Ipatievsky (XV century) and Khlebnikovsky (XVI century)). In one of the annals of the second edition, under the year 1096, an independent literary work was added, “Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh”, dated 1117.

According to Shakhmatov's hypothesis (supported by D. S. Likhachev and Ya. S. Lurie), the first annalistic code, called the most ancient, was compiled at the metropolitan see in Kyiv, founded in 1037. The sources for the chronicler were legends, folk songs, oral stories contemporaries, some written hagiographic documents. The most ancient set was continued and supplemented in 1073 by the monk Nikon, one of the founders of the Kyiv Caves Monastery. Then in 1093 hegumen of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery John was created Initial code, who used Novgorod records and Greek sources: “Chronograph according to the great exposition”, “The Life of Anthony”, etc. The initial code was fragmentarily preserved in the initial part of the Novgorod First Chronicle of the younger version. Nestor revised the Primary Code, expanded the historiographic basis and brought Russian history into the framework of traditional Christian historiography. He supplemented the chronicle with the texts of treaties between Russia and Byzantium and introduced additional historical traditions preserved in oral tradition.

According to Shakhmatov, Nestor wrote the first edition of the Tale of Bygone Years in the Kiev Caves Monastery in 1110-1112. The second edition was created by hegumen Sylvester in Kiev's Vydubitsky St. Michael's Monastery in 1116. Compared to Nestor's version, the final part was revised. In 1118, the third edition of the Tale of Bygone Years was compiled on behalf of Prince of Novgorod Mstislav Vladimirovich.

The history of the Russian land goes back to the time of Noah. Three of his sons divided the Earth:

• Sim got the east: Bactria, Arabia, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, Media, Syria and Phoenicia.
• Ham got the south: Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Numidia, Ethiopia, but also Bithynia, Cilicia, Troad, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Cyprus, Crete, Sardinia.
• Japheth (st. Slav. Afet) got the northwest: Armenia, Britain, Illyria, Dalmatia, Ionia, Macedonia, Media, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Scythia and Thessaly.

The descendants of Japheth are called Varangians, Germans, Rus, Swedes (St. Slavic Svei). At the beginning, humanity was a single people, but after the Babylonian pandemonium, “Noriks, who are the Slavs,” stood out from the tribe of Japheth. The original ancestral home of the Slavs is the banks of the Danube River in the region of Hungary, Illyria and Bulgaria. As a result of the aggression of the Vlachs, part of the Slavs went to the Vistula (Poles), and the other - to the Dnieper (Drevlyans and Glade), to the Dvina (Dregovichi) and Lake Ilmen (Slovenes). The resettlement of the Slavs dates back to the time of the Apostle Andrew, who stayed with the Slavs on Ilmen. The Polans founded Kyiv and named it after their prince Kyi. Other ancient Slavic cities are called Slovenian Novgorod and Krivichi Smolensk. Then, under Tsar Heraclius, the Danubian Slavs experienced the invasion of the Bulgarians, Ugrians, Obrovs and Pechenegs. However, the Dnieper Slavs became dependent on the Khazars.

The first mentioned date in the annals is 852 (6360), when the Russian land began to be called, and the Rus first sailed to Constantinople. In 859 Eastern Europe was divided between the Varangians and the Khazars. The former took tribute from the Slovenes, Krivichi, Vesi, Mary and Chud, and the latter - from the meadows, northerners and Vyatichi.

An attempt by the northern Slavs to get rid of the power of the overseas Varangians in 862 led to civil strife and ended with the calling of the Varangians. The Russian land was founded by three brothers Rurik (Ladoga), Truvor (Izborsk) and Sineus (Beloozero). Soon Rurik became the sole ruler of the country. He founded Novgorod and appointed his deputies in Murom, Polotsk and Rostov. In Kyiv, a special Varangian state was formed, headed by Askold and Dir, which disturbed Byzantium with raids.

In 882, Rurik's successor Prince Oleg captured Smolensk, Lyubech and Kyiv, uniting the two Russo-Varangian states. In 883, Oleg conquered the Drevlyans, and in 884-885 he conquered the Khazar tributaries of the Radimichi and northerners. In 907, Oleg undertook a major sea campaign on boats to Byzantium, which resulted in an agreement with the Greeks.

After the death of Oleg from a snake bite, Igor began to reign, who fought with the Drevlyans, Pechenegs and Greeks. The Ruses were originally overseas Varangians, but gradually merged with the glades, so that the chronicler could say that the glades are now called Rus. The money of the Rus was hryvnia, and they worshiped Perun.

Igor was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans, and his wife Olga inherited his throne, who, with the help of the Varangian governors Sveneld and Asmud, brutally avenged herself by killing over 5 thousand Drevlyans. Olga ruled as regent for her son Svyatoslav. Having matured, Svyatoslav conquered the Vyatichi, Yass, Kasogs and Khazars, and then fought on the Danube against the Greeks. Returning after one of the campaigns against the Greeks, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs and died.

From Svyatoslav, the princely throne passed to Yaropolk, whose reign was complicated by civil strife. Yaropolk defeated his brother and ruler of the Drevlyansk Oleg, but died from the Varangians of another brother Vladimir. Vladimir first sent the Varangians away, unified the pagan pantheon, but then converted to Christianity. During the years of his reign there were wars with the Poles, Yotvingians, Vyatichi, Radimichi and Volga Bulgars.

After the death of Vladimir, Svyatopolk began to reign in Kyiv. For the brutal reprisal against his brothers, he was nicknamed the Accursed. He was overthrown by his brother Yaroslav. The opposition to the new prince was the ruler of Tmutarakansky Mstislav. After the end of the strife, Yaroslav built stone walls in Kyiv and the Cathedral of St. Sofia. After the death of Yaroslav, the Russian land fell apart again. Izyaslav ruled in Kyiv, Svyatoslav in Chernigov, Igor in Vladimir, Vsevolod in Pereyaslavl, and Rostislav in Tmutarakan. In the strife, Vsevolod won. After Vsevolod, Kyiv was ruled by Svyatopolk, who was replaced by Vladimir Monomakh.

Christianity in The Tale of Bygone Years

Tale of Bygone Years imbued with Christian motives and allusions to the Bible, which is quite natural, given that its author was a monk. One of the central places of the work is occupied by the choice of faith, carried out by Prince Vladimir. He chose Greek-style Christianity, which was distinguished by communion with wine and bread, and not wafers, like the Germans. Basics Christian faith(in the form of a retelling of the book of Genesis and the Old Testament history before the division of the kingdom of Israel) Vladimir is expounded by a certain philosopher who, among other things, mentions the fall of the elder angel Satanael on the 4th day of creation. God replaced Satanael with Michael. The Old Testament prophets (Mal. 2:2, Jer. 15:1, Ezek. 5:11) are mentioned to prove the end of the Israelite mission (vv. rejection of the Jews). In 5500 from the creation of the world in Nazareth, Gabriel appeared to Mary and announced the incarnation of God, who was born as Jesus in the years of King Herod (v. tsar jidovesk), reaching the age of 30 and was baptized in the Jordan River by John. Then he gathered 12 disciples and healed the sick. Out of envy, he was betrayed to be crucified, but resurrected and ascended. The purpose of the incarnation was redemption from the sin of Adam.

God is "three beings": Father, Son and Holy Spirit ( one deity in three faces). It is curious that in relation to the persons of the Trinity, which to separate oneself not separately, and to copulate undividedly, the term is used similarly. Since the 18th century, historians have been interested in the question of why, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, Kagan Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, who baptized Russia, allegedly read a rather strange Creed at his own baptism, and why the monk Nestor reproduced this creed. According to him, Vladimir said: “The Son is similar in essence and co-original to the Father ...” He is similar in essence, and not consubstantial, as it is stated in the Orthodox Nicene and Niceno-Tsaregradsky creeds. This could be a reflection of the fact that the Arians of Russia, unlike neighboring Khazaria, did not convert to Nestorianism, Judaism and Orthodoxy until 988 and continued to be an influential force that Vladimir wanted to rely on in the fight against paganism. But it could also be just a slander against Vladimir in order to prevent his canonization. God has willingly save creature. For this, God takes flesh and ghost and dies true not a dream) and is also truly resurrected and ascends to heaven.

Also, the Christianity of the Tale prescribes the veneration of icons, the cross, relics and sacred vessels, the support of church tradition and the adoption of seven councils: the 1st Council of Nicaea (against Arius), Constantinople (for the consubstantial Trinity), Ephesus (against Nestorius), Chalcedon, Second Constantinople (against Origen, but for the God-manhood of Christ), 2nd Nicaea (for icon veneration).

God is in heaven, seated in the inexpressible Light on the throne, surrounded by angels, whose nature is invisible. He is opposed by demons mob, krilati, tail property), whose abode is the abyss.

The meaning of the baptism of Russia in the annals is revealed as deliverance from idolatry, ignorance and the charms of the devil. After death, the righteous instantly go to heaven, becoming intercessors for their people.

After baptism in Korsun, Vladimir ordered to baptize the people in the Dnieper and build wooden churches. One of the first was the church of St. Basil, erected on the site of the temple of Perun. There were also churches of the Virgin, St. Sophia, St. apostles, St. Peter, St. Andrew, St. Nicholas, St. Fedor, St. Dmitry and St. Michael. In churches, decorated with icons, vessels and crosses, liturgies, prayers were performed and euangelie. The baptized were supposed to wear pectoral crosses. The Annunciation, Ascension, Assumption of the Mother of God and the day of the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb were especially celebrated. An important role was played by the 40-day fast on the eve of the Resurrection of the Lord. The head of a single church was priests clothed in robes, bishops stood over priests, and the metropolitan was the spiritual head of Russian Christians. The first monastery on Russian soil was the Pechersk Monastery, which consisted of the brethren of the Chernorizians who lived in cells, headed by the abbot.

Sources and insert stories

Abbreviations: N1L - Novgorod First Chronicle. N4L - Novgorod fourth chronicle. S1L - Sofia First Chronicle, VoskrL - Resurrection Chronicle. PSRL - complete collection Russian chronicles. PVL 1999 - The Tale of Bygone Years. / prepare text, trans., art. and comment. D. S. Likhachev; ed. V. P. Adrianov-Peretz. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1999.

Texts of folklore origin

• The story of the death of Oleg from a horse (under 912). Not in N1L.
• The story of Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans (under 945-946). Only a few words in the Nikon chronicle.
• A story about a young man and a Pecheneg, under the year 992. Not in N1L.
• The siege of Belgorod by the Pechenegs, under the year 997. Not in N1L.

• Treaty of 912. Not in N1L.
• Treaty of 945. Not in N1L and in the Nikon chronicle.
• Treaty of 971. Not in N1L.

• 852 - Year 6360, indiction 15. “Michael began to reign…”.
• 858 - Michael's campaign against the Bulgarians. Baptism of the prince and boyars of Bulgaria. From the "Successor of Amartol", but he has no date.
• 866 - Campaign of Askold and Dir against the Greeks, in the 14th year of Michael.
• 868 - "Basil began to reign."
• 869 - "The whole Bulgarian land was baptized."

All the information below is from the "Successor of Amartol". In N1L they are all absent, in N4L they are all present.

• 887 - "Leon, the son of Basil, who was nicknamed the Lion, and his brother Alexander reigned, and reigned for 26 years." Missed in S1L.
• 902 - The war of the Hungarians with the Bulgarians. In fact, the campaign was in 893.
• 907 - Oleg's campaign against Byzantium.
• 911 - Appearance of a star in the west (Halley's comet).
• 913 - "Constantine, son of Leon, began to reign."
• 914 - Campaign of Simeon of Bulgaria to Tsargrad. Not in N4L, S1L.
• 915 - The capture of Adrianople by Simeon.
• 920 - “Tsar Roman has been installed among the Greeks” (more complete in N4L and S1L).
• 929 - Simeon's campaign against Tsargrad. Peace with Roman.
• 934 - Hungarian campaign against Constantinople. World.
• 942 - Simeon defeated by the Croats and died. Peter became prince. The news of the "Successor of Amartol", under the year 927.
• 943 - Hungarian campaign against Constantinople. Under the year 928 (1 indict).

• "Chronicle of George Amartol". Extracts: a list of peoples and a story about the customs of peoples. Not in N1L.
• The story about the visit of Andrew the First-Called Russia. Not in N1L.
• The story about the origin of the Slavic letter (under 898). Not in N1L.
• The story of Apollonius of Tyana from Amartol (under 912). Not in N1L.
• The story of Olga's trip to Tsargrad (under the year 955).
• Praise to Olga (under 969).
• The story of the Varangian and his son (without names, under the year 983).
• Controversy about faith: the arrival of Muslims, Jews and Catholics (under 986).
• "The Philosopher's Speech".
• The story of the campaign against Korsun.
• The Creed, the Seven Councils, and the Corruption of the Latins.
• A story about the return from Korsun and the baptism of the people of Kiev.
• Stories about the murder of Boris, the murder of Gleb, praise to Boris and Gleb.
• Praise for books under 1037. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L, Sunday.
• The story of the beginning of the Pechersk Monastery, under 1051. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L, Sunday.
• A story about signs in the present and the past, with borrowings from the Chronograph according to the great presentation, under the year 1065.
• Teaching about the executions of God, under the year 1068. Not in N4L, S1L, Sunday.
• Reasoning about the cross that helped Vseslav, under the year 1068.
• The story of the Magi and Jan, under the year 1071, and the continuation of the story of the Magi.
• The story of the death of Theodosius of the Caves and the monks of the monastery, under 1074. Not in N4L.
• Discourse on the death of Izyaslav and brotherly love, under the year 1078. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L, Sunday.
• The story of the death of Yaropolk Izyaslavich, under 1086. Not in N1L, N4L.
• The story of the transfer of the relics of Theodosius of the Caves, his predictions and praise to him, under 1091. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L.
• Teaching about the executions of God, under the year 1093. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L, Sunday.
• The story of the Polovtsian raid on Kyiv and the monastery, under 1096. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L.
• An extract about the tribes from Methodius of Patara and the story of Gyuryata Rogovich. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L.
• The story of the blinding of Vasilko and subsequent events, under the year 1097. Not in N1L, N4L.
• A story about a campaign against the Polovtsians in 1103. Not in N1L, N4L, S1L.

• Discourse on Angels with Quotations from David, Epiphanius and Hippolytus. Not found in other chronicles.
• Campaign of 1111 against the Polovtsy.
• A story about a trip to Ladoga, Slavic and ancient gods. Not found in other chronicles.
• The story of the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb. Not found in other chronicles.

Quotes

Quotes from the Ipatiev copy of The Tale of Bygone Years.

• About the settlement of the Slavs in Russia after their departure from the Danube in ancient undated times:

... the same is the same with Slovenia · who came sodosha along the Dnieper · and the narcoshasѧ Polѧna · and the friends of Derevlѧne · behind the sedosha in the woods · and the friends of the sedosha between the Pripet and the Dvina · and the narcoshas Dregovichi · and the other sodsha on the Dvina · and the river Polochash · . ꙗ to flow into the Dvina · the name of Polot · ѿ seꙗ was nicknamed Polochan. Slovene sat down like Lake Ilmer · and called him by his name · and created the city · and called Novgorod · and the friends sat down on the Desna · and along the Seven and along the Sul · and narcoshasѧ Svero · and tako razidesѧ Slovenesk ꙗzyk. the darkness was also nicknamed Slovenska ꙗ letter ...

• On the calling of the Varangians led by Rurik in 862:

In lѣⷮ҇. ҂ѕ҃. t҃. o҃ ⁘ and exiled Varygy across the sea. and do not give them tribute. and more often in your own hands. and there would be no truth in them. and stand rod on roⷣ. and the former ѹsocial in noneⷯ҇. and fight on your own for a bowl. and we will look for rkosha ourselves in our princes. ilk would have led us and rѧdil. by right. go across the sea to Varѧgoⷨ҇. to Russia. sіtse bo call. you Varⷽ҇gy Rus. ꙗko all friends are called Svej. friends are zhrmani. English. ini and Gotha. tacos and si rkosha. Rus. Chud. Slovenia. Krivichi. and all our earth is great. and sbilna. but there are no people in it. yes, go princesⷮ҇ and rule over us. and choose. three brothers. from their birth. and on your own all Russia. and came to the Sloven first. and cut down the city of Ladoga. and the elders in Ladoz Rurik. and others Sineѹs on Bѣlѡzerѣ. and the third Truvor in Izborsk. and ѿ tѣkh Varѧg. nicknamed Ruskaꙗ of the earth.

Criticism

Criticism of the beginning of this chronicle is present in Karamzin's History of the Russian State. In particular, he questions the fact that in 862, according to the chronicle, the Slavs first drive the Varangians out of their lands, and then after a few months invite their princes to rule Novgorod. Karamzin argues that the Slavs, due to their warlike nature, could not do this. He also doubts the brevity of the narrative about the times of Prince Rurik - Karamzin concludes that Nestor bases the beginning of the chronicle solely on dubious oral legends.

THE TALE OF TIME YEARS CHRONICLE- Old Russian chronicle, created in the 1110s. Chronicles are historical works in which events are described according to the so-called yearly principle, combined according to annual, or “weather” articles (they are also called weather records). “Annual articles”, which combined information about events that occurred within one year, begin with the words “In the summer such and such ...” (“summer” in Old Russian means "year"). In this regard, chronicles, including Tale of Bygone Years, are fundamentally different from the Byzantine chronicles known in Ancient Russia, from which Russian compilers borrowed numerous information from world history. In translated Byzantine chronicles, events were distributed not by years, but by the reigns of emperors.

The earliest surviving list Tales of Bygone Years belongs to the 14th century. He got the name Laurentian Chronicle named after the scribe, monk Lavrenty, and was compiled in 1377. Another oldest list Tales of Bygone Years preserved in the so-called Ipatiev Chronicle(middle of the 15th century).

Tale of Bygone Years- the first chronicle, the text of which has come down to us almost in its original form. Through careful textual analysis Tales of Bygone Years researchers have found traces of earlier works included in its composition. Probably, the oldest chronicles were created in the 11th century. The hypothesis of A.A. Shakhmatov (1864–1920), which explains the emergence and describes the history of Russian chronicle writing in the 11th and early 12th centuries, received the greatest recognition. He resorted to the comparative method, comparing the surviving chronicles and finding out their relationships. According to A.A. Shakhmatov, approx. 1037, but not later than 1044, was compiled The most ancient Kyiv chronicle, who told about the beginning of history and the baptism of Russia. Around 1073 in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, probably the monk Nikon completed the first Kiev-Pechersk chronicle. In it, new news and legends were combined with the text ancient vault and with borrowings from Novgorod Chronicle mid 11th century In 1093–1095, here, on the basis of the code of Nikon, a second Kiev-Pechersk vault; it is also called Primary. (The name is explained by the fact that A.A. Shakhmatov originally considered this chronicle to be the earliest.) It condemned the folly and weakness of the current princes, who were opposed by the former wise and powerful rulers of Russia.

In 1110–1113 the first edition (version) was completed Tales of Bygone Years- a lengthy chronicle that absorbed numerous information on the history of Russia: about the Russian wars with the Byzantine Empire, about the calling to Russia for the reign of the Scandinavians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, about the history of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, about princely crimes. The probable author of this chronicle is the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. This edition has not survived in its original form.

In the first edition Tales of Bygone Years the political interests of the then Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich were reflected. In 1113 Svyatopolk died, and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh ascended the throne of Kyiv. In 1116 the monk Sylvester (in the spirit of Pronomakh) and in 1117–1118 an unknown scribe from the entourage of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh) text Tales of Bygone Years has been redesigned. This is how the second and third editions arose. Tales of Bygone Years; the oldest list of the second edition has come down to us as part of Lavrentievskaya, and the most early list third - in the composition Ipatiev Chronicle.

Almost all Russian chronicles are vaults - a combination of several texts or news from other sources of an earlier time. Old Russian chronicles 14th–16th centuries open with text Tales of Bygone Years.

Name Tale of Bygone Years(more precisely, Tales of Bygone Years- in the Old Russian text the word "story" is used in the plural) is usually translated as Tale of past years, but there are other interpretations: A story in which the narrative is distributed over the years or Narrative in a measured time frame, narration about last times - telling about the events on the eve of the end of the world and the Last Judgment.

Narration in Tales of Bygone Years begins with a story about the settlement on earth of the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japhet - together with their families (in the Byzantine chronicles, the starting point was the creation of the world). This story is taken from the Bible. The Russians considered themselves descendants of Japheth. Thus, Russian history was included in the history of the world. Goals Tales of Bygone Years was an explanation of the origin of the Russians ( Eastern Slavs), the origin of princely power (which for the chronicler is identical to the origin of the princely dynasty) and a description of the baptism and spread of Christianity in Russia. Narrative of Russian events in Tales of Bygone Years opens with a description of the life of the East Slavic (Old Russian) tribes and two legends. This is a story about the reign in Kyiv of Prince Kiy, his brothers Schek, Khoriv and sister Lybid; about the calling by the warring northern Russian tribes of three Scandinavians (Varangians) Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, so that they become princes and establish order in the Russian land. The story about the Varangian brothers has an exact date - 862. Thus, in the historiosophical concept Tales of Bygone Years two sources of power in Russia are established - local (Kiy and his brothers) and foreign (Varangians). The erection of ruling dynasties to foreign clans is traditional for medieval historical consciousness; similar stories are also found in Western European chronicles. So ruling dynasty was given greater nobility and dignity.

Major events in Tales of Bygone Years- wars (external and internecine), the foundation of churches and monasteries, the death of princes and metropolitans - the heads of the Russian Church.

chronicles, including Tale..., are not works of art in the strict sense of the word and not the work of a historian. Part Tales of Bygone Years included treaties of Russian princes Oleg the Prophetic, Igor Rurikovich and Svyatoslav Igorevich with Byzantium. The chronicles themselves were, apparently, significant legal document. Some scientists (for example, I.N. Danilevsky) believe that the annals and, in particular, Tale of Bygone Years, were compiled not for people, but for the Last Judgment, at which God will decide the fate of people at the end of the world: therefore, the annals listed the sins and merits of the rulers and the people.

The chronicler usually does not interpret events, does not look for their distant causes, but simply describes them. In relation to the explanation of what is happening, the chroniclers are guided by providentialism - everything that happens is explained by the will of God and is considered in the light of the coming end of the world and the Last Judgment. Attention to the cause-and-effect relationships of events and their pragmatic rather than providential interpretation are irrelevant.

For the chroniclers, the principle of analogy, the echo between the events of the past and the present is important: the present is thought of as an “echo” of the events and deeds of the past, primarily the deeds and deeds described in the Bible. The chronicler presents the murder of Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk as a repetition and renewal of the homicide committed by Cain (the legend Tales of Bygone Years under 1015). Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the baptizer of Russia - is compared with St. Constantine the Great, who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire (the legend of the baptism of Russia under 988).

Tales of Bygone Years the unity of style is alien, it is an "open" genre. The simplest element in an annalistic text is a brief weather record that only reports the event, but does not describe it.

Part Tales of Bygone Years legends are also included. For example - a story about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv on behalf of Prince Kyi; tales of Prophetic Oleg, who defeated the Greeks and died from a snake bite that hid in the skull of a deceased princely horse; about Princess Olga, cunningly and cruelly taking revenge on the Drevlyane tribe for the murder of her husband. The chronicler is invariably interested in news about the past of the Russian land, about the founding of cities, hills, rivers, and about the reasons why they received these names. This is also reported in the legends. AT Tales of Bygone Years the share of legends is very large, since the initial events described in it ancient Russian history separated from the time of the work of the first chroniclers by many decades and even centuries. In the later annals, telling about contemporary events, the number of legends is small, and they are also usually found in the part of the annals devoted to the distant past.

Part Tales of Bygone Years stories about saints, written in a special hagiographic style, are also included. Such is the story of the brothers-princes Boris and Gleb under 1015, who, imitating the humility and non-resistance of Christ, meekly accepted death at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk, and the story of the holy Pechersk monks under 1074.

Much of the text in Tales of Bygone Years occupied by narratives of battles written in the so-called military style, and princely obituaries.

Editions: Monuments of literature of Ancient Russia. XI - first half of the XII century. M., 1978; Tale of Bygone Years. 2nd ed., add. and correct. SPb., 1996, series "Literary monuments"; Library of Literature of Ancient Russia, v. 1. XI - beginning of XII in. SPb., 1997.

Andrey Ranchin

Literature:

Sukhomlinov M.I. On the ancient Russian chronicle as a literary monument. St. Petersburg, 1856
Istrin V.M. Notes on the beginning of Russian chronicle writing. - News of the Department of the Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences, vol. 26, 1921; v. 27, 1922
Likhachev D.S. Russian chronicles and their cultural and historical significance. M. - L., 1947
Rybakov B.A. Ancient Russia: legends, epics, annals. M. - L., 1963
Eremin I.P. "The Tale of Bygone Years": Problems of its historical and literary study(1947 ). - In the book: Eremin I.P. Literature of Ancient Russia: (Etudes and Characteristics). M. - L., 1966
Nasonov A.N. History of Russian Chronicle XI - early XVIII in. M., 1969
Curd O.V. Plot narrative in the annals of the XI-XIII centuries.. - In the book: The origins of Russian fiction . L., 1970
Aleshkovsky M.Kh. Tale of Bygone Years: Destiny literary work in ancient Russia. M., 1971
Kuzmin A.G. Initial stages ancient Russian chronicle. M., 1977
Likhachev D.S. Great legacy. "The Tale of Bygone Years"(1975). – Likhachev D.S. Selected works: In 3 vols., v. 2. L., 1987
Shaikin A.A. "Behold the Tale of Bygone Years": From Kiy to Monomakh. M., 1989
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Danilevsky I.N. The Bible and the Tale of Bygone Years(On the problem of interpretation of chronicle texts). - Domestic history, 1993, No. 1
Trubetskoy N.S. Lectures on Old Russian literature (translated from German by M.A. Zhurinskaya). - In the book: Trubetskoy N.S. Story. Culture. Language. M., 1995
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Shakhmatov A.A. . Book 1 2) The Tale of Bygone Years (1916). - In the book: Shakhmatov A.A. History of Russian Chronicle. T. 1. The Tale of Bygone Years and the Oldest Russian Chronicles. Book. 2. Early Russian chronicle 11th-12th centuries SPb., 2003

A TALE OF TIME YEARS

A huge number of interpretations and readings of Russian chronicles forces us to reject everything at once, to collect bare facts, and on their basis to re-build a logical version of the events that took place. To build a version on a different fundamental basis, we apply the proven deductive method that Arthur Conan Doyle so fascinated the world with. Its principle is simple: when you meet a person with an odd number of flowers, you cannot determine whether he is going on a date, to the theater or to visit. But if you notice a cake in his hands, then doubts will disappear. Other details may suggest to whom, where, for how long, and on what occasion the object under study is moving. Fact, motivation, causation - this is the necessary set that will be required to restore our clouded initial history. We will study characteristic details.

As the main source, we will take, as expected, "The Tale of Bygone Years", created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. He used earlier chronicles and vaults, generalized everything and tied the events to the annual grid. After Nestor PVL, two more chroniclers wrote, but we will not go so far - everything is detailed, understandable and logical there. For convenience, we will call Nestor the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. Several lists of the annals have been preserved - we will take the oldest one - Lavrentievsky (1377), which received this name by the name of the scribe. The version adapted by D.S. Likhachev will be enough for us. The principle of the investigation is as follows: where the descriptions of the PVL will be confirmed, either in other sources, or by archaeological data, or by logic, we will take them as a basis. But first of all, we will try to track the political and economic motives that justify the logic of the events described in the annals.

Before I start, I want to point out a few important details. Since there was no television in those days, people thought with their own heads and were much more far-sighted than modern ones. The difficult conditions of existence constantly stimulated their brain, and it did not let people down - otherwise we, the descendants, simply would not exist. Only thanks to the intelligence and insight of our ancestors did we inherit their inheritance. Let us treat them accordingly - there were few stupid among them. But stupid ones came across - how could it be without them!

The messages of the chronicle should be considered similar to the messages of modern news releases - the head of state arrived, decided, indicated, etc. Details that the chronicler does not have, try to imagine yourself. If the prince went to war, then this whole apparatus began to work - from the procurement of fodder, to the construction of ships, and from suppliers of weapons to the creation of an administrative center in the conquered territories.

There were no roads (transport arteries) in the territory of the Slavs in the forest zone - the messages were water. Travel by water transport was less energy-intensive and troublesome, relatively safe, but seasonal. The basis of economic development, as always, was trade. The further the merchants climbed, the higher their profits turned out to be. A trade caravan could be more than a thousand people and several dozen ships. Merchants independently defended their goods from robbery attacks and united in entire detachments. Slave labor was actively used. The basis of the goods transported around the world by merchants were leather, wool, carpets and cotton fabrics, gold-embroidered fabrics, silk, cosmetics, military equipment, gold and silver, semi-precious stones and glassware, porcelain and metal utensils, lacquerware, tea, rice, salt. , spices, horses, hunting dogs and birds. There was also the most expensive commodity - slaves.

If you don't mind, let's get started. First of all, let's look for the motives for the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Let's try to search in a geographical location. And while pundits are digging deeper and deeper into the archives, we, on the contrary, will try to ascend as high as possible and look at the beginning of Russian history from a bird's eye view.

Take a close look at the map - on the way of merchant caravans following the Silk Road from Central Asia to Europe, in the 9th century it becomes restless: robberies and wars have become more frequent, which means that taxes are growing. The reason for the restlessness of the region is economic - trade routes from Asia to Europe and control over them. The Arab conquest is replaced by constant strife between Shiites and Sunnis, which leads the region to fragmentation and civil strife. In this struggle, the empire of the Romans (Byzantine Empire) also defends its economic interests.

Merchants in anxiety: how to trade, how not to lose goods and super profits (transcontinental trade brought up to 1500% profit)? Can you save on overhead costs? Take another look at the map and look for alternative routes from Central Asia to Europe. I recommend looking for waterways - traveling by ship is more profitable, safer, faster. There are only pluses for the merchants: there are no problems with pack animals, the carrying capacity is higher, time and money are saved in parking lots, slaves do not scatter, the risk of contracting diseases is reduced.

Rice. 1. Map of river routes and settlement of tribes

I hope that you managed to see a couple of routes, and we can compare our results. The routes will start from the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea and further through Khazaria along the Kum, then the Kuban to the Black Sea, from there along the Danube to the Frankish Empire, or along the Dniester to the Western Bug, then to the Vistula and the Baltic. Another route - again through Khazaria, but along the Volga to Beloozero and further to Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland. There is another way from the Caspian Sea to the Baltic - along the Volga to Rzhev, then to the Western Dvina and the Baltic. Why do I dwell in such detail on water trade routes? Yes, because the entire initial Russian history is closely connected with the battle for control over these "gold veins". This is quite comparable to today's hydrocarbon war. The trade routes of the Middle Ages also filled the budgets, like today's gas and oil pipelines. From this point of view, we will try to explore the primary sources.

Word to the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra chronicler Nestor:

« In the year 6360 (852), index 15, when Michael began to reign, the Russian land began to be called. We learned about this because, under this king, Russia came to Constantinople, as it is written about this in the Greek annals. That is why from now on we will begin and put the numbers. “From Adam to the flood of 2242, and from the flood to Abraham 1000 and 82 years, and from Abraham to the exodus of Moses 430 years, and from the exodus of Moses to David 600 and 1 year, and from David and from the beginning of the reign of Solomon to the captivity of Jerusalem 448 years" and from captivity to Alexander 318 years, and from Alexander to the birth of Christ 333 years, and from nativity to Constantine 318 years, from Constantine to Michael this 542 years. And from the first year of the reign of Michael to the first year of the reign of Oleg, the Russian prince, 29 years, and from the first year of the reign of Oleg, since he sat in Kyiv, until the first year of Igor, 31 years, and from the first year of Igor to the first year of Svyatoslav 33 years, and from the first year of Svyatoslavov to the first year of Yaropolkov 28 years; and Yaropolk reigned for 8 years, and Vladimir reigned for 37 years, and Yaroslav reigned for 40 years. Thus, from the death of Svyatoslav to the death of Yaroslav, 85 years; from the death of Yaroslav to the death of Svyatopolk 60 years.

In the year 6366 (858). Tsar Michael went with soldiers to the Bulgarians along the coast and the sea. The Bulgarians, seeing that they could not resist them, asked to be baptized and promised to submit to the Greeks. The king baptized their prince and all the boyars and made peace with the Bulgarians.

In the year 6367 (859). The Varangians from overseas levied tribute from the Chud, and from the Slavs, and from the Mary, and from the Krivichi. And the Khazars took from the field, and from the northerners, and from the Vyatichi, a silver coin and a squirrel from the smoke.

In the year 6370 (862). They expelled the Varangians across the sea, and did not give them tribute, and began to rule themselves, and there was no truth among them, and clan stood against clan, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said to themselves: "Let's look for a prince who would rule over us and judge by right." And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and others are Normans and Angles, and still others are Gotlanders - like these. The Russians said Chud, Slovenes, Krivichi and all: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers were elected with their families, and they took all of Russia with them, and they came, and the eldest, Rurik, sat in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, on Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Novgorodians are those people from the Varangian family, and before that they were Slovenes. Two years later, Sineus and his brother Truvor died. And one Rurik took all power, and began to distribute cities to his men - Polotsk to that, Rostov to that, Beloozero to another. Varangians in these cities are finders, and indigenous people in Novgorod - Slovenia, in Polotsk - Krivichi, in Rostov - Merya, in Beloozero - all, in Murom - Murom, and Rurik ruled over all of them. And he had two husbands, not his relatives, but the boyars, and they asked for leave to Tsargrad with their kind. And they set off along the Dnieper, and when they sailed by, they saw on the mountain small town. They asked: “Whose town is this?”. They answered: “There were three brothers, Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv, ​​who built this town and disappeared, and we are sitting here, their descendants, and pay tribute to the Khazars.” Askold and Dir remained in this city, gathered many Varangians and began to own the land of the meadows. Rurik reigned in Novgorod».

Just think about what Nestor tells us to believe: merchant cities are looking for a leader! Moreover, at a distance of hundreds of kilometers from each other (from Novgorod to Belozersk in a straight line 400 km!) Several peoples need to establish order among them. The oligarchs need a prime minister! And then after all, there is no one to pay taxes! Novgorod is the same merchant city as Venice and suddenly invites the Varangians, who have been keeping the whole of Europe in fear for several decades! And Novgorod merchants call them to their place! Put in order...

We know from medieval chronicles how these Vikings, having eaten fly agarics (tranquilizers), put things in order in Europe - in 820, a Viking detachment penetrated the mouth of the Seine and devastated its banks. In 832, a flotilla of Danish ships along a tributary of the Rhine reached a large shopping center Dorestad in Frisia and sacked it. Dorestad was devastated by the Vikings every year until 837. In 841, the Normans climbed up the Seine and sacked the monastery of Saint-Vandril-de-Fontenelle. In 842, the Scandinavians captured Nantes. In 844, a Viking fleet of 100 ships attacked the northern coast of Spain, Lisbon, Cadiz and the northern coast of Morocco. In 845, the fleet of the Danish robber Ragner captured and sacked Paris. In the same year 845, the Normans sacked Hamburg. In 859, Bjorn Ironside, at the head of a fleet of 62 ships, passed through the Strait of Gibraltar, devastated the lands of Northern Morocco, southern France, and ravaged Italian Pisa, the Moon and Fiesole with a hurricane. Then the ships of the Scandinavians reached the Byzantine borders ... There was no life from them for the Slavs either.

As it turned out, not only luck accompanied the Normans in attacks on European cities. They had accomplices. On several occasions, surviving witnesses of the attacks reported that the Vikings arrived under the cover of trading caravans. Residents of cities simply did not expect such a vile attack. We will talk about who provided the northern robbers with their ships a little later.

And in such a nervous situation, having driven out the Varangian robbers, the Slavic merchant cities decided to invite them again to “justify”! Karamzin expressed his doubts about the version presented by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra:

« The beginning of Russian history presents us with an amazing and almost unparalleled case in the annals. The Slavs voluntarily destroy their ancient rule and demand Sovereigns from the Varangians, who were their enemies. Everywhere the sword of the strong or the cunning of the ambitious introduced Autocracy (for the peoples wanted laws, but were afraid of captivity): in Russia it was established with the general consent of the citizens: this is how our Chronicler narrates...»

By the way, the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his essay “On the Management of the Empire”, compiled in 948-952. we can read the story of how the trading city of the Slavs - Venice was offered to "put things in order" by a completely civilized European monarch:

« When King Pepin came against the Venetics with a large strong army, he overlaid the crossing leading from land to the islands of Venice, in a place called Aivola. Therefore, the Venetians, seeing that King Pepin was coming towards them with his army and that he intended to sail with horses to the island of Madamavka (this island lies near the mainland), throwing frames, blocked the entire crossing. Once inactive, the army of King Pepin (for he was unable to transport them elsewhere) stood opposite the Venetics, on land, for six months, fighting with them daily. While the Venetians climbed onto their ships and settled behind the frames they had sketched out, King Pepin stood with his army on sea ​​shore Venetiki, fighting with bows and slings, did not allow them to cross to the island. So, having achieved nothing, King Pepin declared to the Venetians: "Be under my hand and protection, for you come from my country and state." But the Venetians objected to him: "We want to be slaves of the Basil of the Romans, and not yours." However, prompted by the troubles that had been falling on them for a long time, the Venetics concluded a peace treaty with King Pepin on the condition that a large pact be paid to him. But since then, the pact has been decreasing every year, although it remains to this day. For the Venetians pay to the ruler of the kingdom of Italy, or Papias, a light tribute of 36 litres. Thus ended the war between the Franks and the Venetians. When the people began to flee to Venice and accumulate here, so that a multitude of people gathered, they proclaimed a duke over themselves a man who surpasses the rest in nobility. The first duka appeared among them before King Pepin went against them. Dukat at that time was in a place called "Civitanuva", which means "New Fortress". But since the named islet is close to land, with common solution they transferred the ducat to another island, on which it is still located, since it is as far from land as you can see a person sitting on a horse».

Here is such a story. Quite realistic for a trading city, so to speak, a normal, adequate reaction. What do we have? "Come reign and rule over us." And the two husbands “are not his relatives, but the boyars,” Askold and Dir, in general, went hundreds of miles away to Kyiv, and there they were also received with open arms. There was even a concept Kievan Rus- powerful public education who dared to attack the Byzantine Empire:

« In the year 6374 (866). Askold and Dir went to war against the Greeks and came to them in the 14th year of the reign of Michael. The tsar was at that time on a campaign against the Agarians, had already reached the Black River, when the eparch sent him news that Russia was marching against Tsargrad, and the tsar returned. The same went inside the Court, killed many Christians and laid siege to Tsar-grad with two hundred ships. The king, with difficulty, entered the city and prayed all night with Patriarch Photius in the church of the Holy Mother of God in Blachernae, and they carried out the divine robe of the Holy Mother of God with songs, and soaked it in the sea floor. There was silence at that time and the sea was calm, but then suddenly a storm arose with the wind, and huge waves arose again, scattered the ships of the godless Russians, and washed them ashore, and broke them, so that few of them managed to avoid this disaster and return home».

The attack really took place in 860, as we learn from Byzantine sources. On June 18, 860, the Russians, led by Askold, sacked the neighborhood of the Roman capital, and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople asked in the St. Sophia Cathedral:

« What's this? What kind of blow and anger is so heavy and amazing? Where did this northern and terrible thunderstorm come from? What condensed clouds of passions and what powerful collisions of destinies ignited this unbearable lightning against us?.. Where is the Christ-loving emperor now? Where is the army? Where are the weapons, vehicles, military advice and supplies? Was it not the invasion of other barbarians that removed them and attracted all this to itself? .. The people left the northern country, rushing, as it were, to another Jerusalem, and the tribes rose up from the ends of the earth, holding a bow and a spear. They are cruel and merciless; their voice roars like the sea; we heard the news of them, or, rather, saw their formidable appearance, and our hands dropped ... The unexpected invasion of the barbarians did not give time to rumor about it, so that something could be invented for safety. Do not go out into the field and do not walk on the road, for the sword is on every side».