Historical prototypes of the heroes of Russian epics. Kiev-Pechersky Monastery - the center of chronicle writing

Creators Slavic alphabet, preachers of Christianity Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius were natives of the city of Thessalonica (now the Greek city of Thessaloniki), which at that time was part of the Slavic (Bulgarian) territory and was cultural center Macedonia. Ancient Thessalonica was a bilingual city, in which, in addition to the Greek language, the Slavic dialect sounded.

In 863, Cyril, with the help of his brother Methodius, compiled the Old Slavonic alphabet and translated from Greek into Bulgarian the main liturgical books. These translations and works created in Bulgaria began to penetrate into Rus'. At the same time, the first works of Russian literature began to appear. What was Russian literature in the first seven hundred years of its existence, or otherwise ancient Russian literature?

IN Ancient Rus', as in many other countries, after the appearance and spread of writing at princely courts and large book libraries start keeping records of what happened. For the convenience of the reader, all these records were distributed over the years. This is how the first historical books - annals - were born. Monument to the first Russian library

What is a chronicle? "Things for a long time past days, legends of antiquity deep. A.S. Pushkin Chronicle is historical genre ancient Russian literature XI - XVII centuries. The chronicle is a record of events that is brought in year after year, as they happen. The chronicle is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries. The chronicle is a record of events, brought in year after year, as they occur.

How were chronicles created? Ancient chroniclers wrote their stories on parchment. Ancient chroniclers wrote their stories on parchment. Each monastery had its own chronicler. On the basis of the primary annals, annalistic codes were compiled. On the basis of the primary chronicles, annalistic codes were compiled.

Temple Intercession on the Nerl The Church of the Intercession of the Virgin, standing among water meadows at the confluence of the Nerl River with the Klyazma, is often called the soul of Russia. In the XII century in Russia, the center of princely power moved from Kyiv to Vladimir. The Mother of God became the heavenly intercessor, and in her honor was established new holiday– Cover Holy Mother of God. The legend says that in Hard time Russian people, besieged by numerous enemies, turned to the Mother of God with a plea for help. And she did not leave her spiritual children in trouble: she took off her headscarf and covered all the persecuted with it. In the blink of an eye, they became invisible, and the enemy cavalry sped away. This is how the white-stone Church of the Intercession on the Nerl was conceived and built, set not far from the new Russian capital - the city of Vladimir, and the residence of the Grand Duke in Bogolyubovo. It resembles a handkerchief dropped from heaven to earth.

Not far from Kyiv, the first capital of the Old Russian state, under the Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (son of Prince Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko), the first monastery in Rus', Kiev Pechersk, was founded. Pechersky (or Pechersky - from the word cave) it was called because its first inhabitants used caves in the high and steep bank of the Dnieper River as a dwelling.

Not everyone can be entrusted with the compilation of the chronicle. A simple scribe who was literate was not suitable here. The most experienced, most talented scribes of their time were selected to write the chronicle. The name has come down to us, and we know the works of one of the very first Russian chroniclers - Nestor. V. M. Vasnetsov

His words about the benefits of bookish wisdom have been preserved: “Great is the benefit of bookish teaching,” he said, “books ... teach us ..., because from bookish words we gain wisdom and abstinence. Depth is printed in books, they console us in sorrow, they are the bridle of abstinence. If you diligently seek wisdom, you will gain great profit for your soul, for he who reads books converses with God or with holy men." Saint Nestor is a chronicler. Icon. XIX century.

He wrote biographies (or, as they were called then, lives) of the Russian princes Boris and Gleb, biographies (lives) of those who lived with Nestor in the Kiev Caves Monastery. But the main feat of Nestor's life was the work on compiling the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, which is called "The Tale of Bygone Years".

Here is how Nestor the chronicler begins it: "Behold the tales of bygone years, where the Russian land came from, who in Kiev began to reign first, and where the Russian land began to be."

About the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled around 1113 by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery. In science, the annals are called annalistic codes, since each author in his narration combined into one whole the annals, stories, lives, various documents and his own records that already existed by that time. Nestor based his work on the Primary Code (1093–1095), which, in turn, was preceded by earlier chronicle codes. This text was significantly revised and supplemented by Nestor, using the translated Byzantine chronicle of George Amartol. In addition, he included in the "Tale" the treaties of the Russian princes with Byzantium, a number of folk tales, his own stories about the events of the late XI - early XII century.

Nestor founded an entire chronicle school. It is thanks to him that we know our ancient Russian history. We know about princes, warriors, ordinary people not as fabulous and epic heroes but as real people. The Russian Church highly appreciated the works of Nestor, recognizing him as a saint of the Russian land. M. Antokolsky. Nestor the chronicler.

Slavs on the Dnieper N. K. Roerich, Tempera, pastel, cardboard. 67 x 89. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

INFORMATION SOURCES

History of creation

Old Russian literature takes shape after the adoption of Christianity and spans seven centuries. Its main task is to reveal Christian values, to familiarize the Russian people with religious wisdom. "The Tale of Bygone Years" ("The Original Chronicle", or "Nester's Chronicle") is one of the oldest works of Russian literature.

It was created in early XII century monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra chronicler Nestor.

In the title of the chronicle, Nestor formulated his task: “Behold the tales of temporary years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began first to reign, and where did the Russian land come from?” The original “Tale ...” has not reached us. Several copies are currently available.

Of these, the most famous two are: a handwritten parchment collection of 1337 - is stored in the State public library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Laurentian Chronicle) and a handwritten collection of the beginning of the 15th century - is stored in the library of the Academy of Sciences of the Russian Federation (Ipatiev Chronicle). The Laurentian Chronicle is named after its scribe, the monk Lavrenty, who rewrote it for the Suzdal Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich in 1337 and put his name at the end. The Laurentian Chronicle is a collection, which included two works: the Tale of Bygone Years itself and the Suzdal Chronicle, brought up to 1305. The Ipatiev Chronicle is named after former place storage - Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma. This is also a collection, which includes several chronicles, including The Tale of Bygone Years. In this document, the narrative is brought up to 1202. The main difference between the lists is at the end: the Laurentian Chronicle brings the story up to 1110, while in the Ipatiev List the story goes into the Kievan Chronicle.

Genre, gender

Chronicle is one of the genres medieval literature. IN Western Europe it was called "Chronicles". Usually this is a description of the legendary and real events, mythological representations. Academician D.S. Likhachev said on this occasion that ancient Russian literature had one plot - "world history" and one theme - "meaning human life". The chroniclers did not record events of a private nature in their records, they were not interested in the life of ordinary people. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, "getting into chronicle records is a significant event in itself." Russian chroniclers not only recorded events in chronological order, but also created a code written sources and oral traditions, and then on the basis of collected material made their own generalizations. The result of the work was a kind of teaching.

The chronicle includes both brief weather records (that is, records of events that occurred in a certain year) and other texts of various genres (tales, teachings, parables, legends, legends, biblical stories, contracts). The main story in the annals is a story about an event that has a complete plot. There is a close connection with oral folk art.

The Tale of Bygone Years contains an account of the ancient history of the Slavs, and then of Russia, from the first Kievan princes to the beginning of the 12th century. "The Tale of Bygone Years" not only historical chronicle, but at the same time outstanding monument literature. Thanks to the state view, breadth of outlook and literary talent Nestor "The Tale of Bygone Years", according to D.S. Likhachev, was "not just a collection of facts of Russian history and not just a historical and journalistic work related to the urgent, but transient tasks of Russian reality, but a whole, literary exposition of the history of Russia."

Subject

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is the first all-Russian chronicle. It contains historical information about the life of Ancient Rus', legends are recorded about the origin of the Slavs, their settlement along the Dnieper and around Lake Ilmen, the clash of the Slavs with the Khazars and the Varangians, the calling of the Novgorod Slavs of the Varangians with Rurik at the head and the formation of the state of Rus. The legends recorded in The Tale of Bygone Years are practically the only source of information on the formation of the first ancient Russian state and the first Russian princes. The names of Rurik, Sineus, Truvor, Askold, Dir, prophetic Oleg are not found in other sources of that time, although attempts are being made to identify some historical characters with the listed princes. The role of the first Russian princes (Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir) in the fight against enemies, the formation of the Kyiv principality is the fundamental theme of The Tale of Bygone Years.

Among the chronicle texts: the story of Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans (945-946); a story about a young man and a Pecheneg (992); the siege of Belgorod by the Pechenegs (997) - the story of the death of Oleg from a horse (912) occupies a special place.

The main idea of ​​the “Tale...” is the condemnation by the author of the strife among the princes, a call for unity. The Russian people are presented by the chronicler as equal among other Christian peoples. Interest in history was dictated by the urgent needs of the day, history was involved in order to "teach" the princes - contemporaries of political state wisdom, the rational government of the state. This prompted the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery to become historians. Thus, ancient Russian literature performed the task of moral education society, formation national identity, acted as the bearer of civil ideals.

Main heroes

The heroes of the chronicles were, first of all, the princes. The Tale of Bygone Years tells about Prince Igor, Princess Olga, Prince Vladimir Monomakh and other people who lived in medieval Russia. For example, one of the editions of the story focuses on events related to the activities of Vladimir Monomakh, which talks about Monomakh's family affairs, data about the Byzantine emperors with whom Monomakh was related. And this is no coincidence. As you know, Vladimir Monomakh was the Grand Duke of Kyiv in 1113-1125. He was known to the people as a patriot and an active defender of Russia from the Polovtsians. Monomakh was not only a commander and statesman but also a writer. In particular, he wrote "Instruction for children".

Among the first Russian princes, Nestor was attracted by Prince Oleg. Prince Oleg (? - 912) - the first Kiev prince from the Rurik family. The chronicle says that Rurik, dying, transferred power to his relative, Oleg, since Rurik's son, Igor, was very small at that time. For three years, Oleg reigned in Novgorod, and then, having recruited an army from the Varangians and the tribes of Chud, Ilmen Slavs, Mary, Vesi, Krivichi, he moved south. Oleg seized Kiev by cunning, killing Askold and Dir, who reigned there, and made it his capital, saying: "This will be the mother of Russian cities." By uniting the Slavic tribes of the north and south, Oleg created a powerful state - Kievan Rus. A well-known legend is connected with the death of Oleg in the annals. According to the account of the chronicler, Oleg reigned for 33 years, from 879 (the year of Rurik's death) to 912. He possessed an outstanding talent as a commander, and his wisdom and foresight were so great that they seemed supernatural. Contemporaries called Oleg the Prophetic. The successful prince-warrior is called "prophetic", i.e. a magician (however, at the same time, the Christian chronicler did not fail to emphasize that Oleg was given the nickname by the pagans, “the people of trash and poor voice”), but he also cannot escape his fate. Under the year 912, the chronicle places a poetic tradition, apparently connected "with the grave of Olga", which "is ... to this day." This legend has a complete plot, which is revealed in a laconic dramatic narrative. It clearly expresses the idea of ​​the power of fate, which none of the mortals, and even the "prophetic" prince, can avoid.

The legendary Prince Oleg can be called the first Russian figure on a national scale. Many songs, legends and traditions were composed about Prince Oleg. The people sang of his wisdom, ability to predict the future, his talent as a great military leader, smart, fearless and resourceful.

plot, composition

Oleg reigned long years. One day he called the soothsayers to him and asked: “From what am I destined to die?” And the wise men answered: "You, prince, will accept death from your beloved horse." Oleg was saddened and said: “If so, then I will never sit on it again.” He ordered the horse to be taken away, fed and protected, and he took another for himself.

A lot of time has passed. Once Oleg remembered his old horse and asked where he was now and if he was healthy. They answered the prince: "Three years have passed since your horse died."

Then Oleg exclaimed: “The Magi lied: the horse, from which they promised death to me, died, but I am alive!” He wanted to see the bones of his horse and went to an open field, where they lay in the grass, washed by rain and bleached by the sun. The prince touched the horse’s skull with his foot and said, grinning: “Will I accept death from this skull?” But then a poisonous snake crawled out of the horse's skull - and stung Oleg in the leg. And Oleg died from snake venom.

According to the chronicler, "all the people mourned him with a great cry."

Artistic originality

"The Tale of Bygone Years", telling about the place of the Russian people among other peoples of the world, about the history of its formation, introduces us into the atmosphere of an epic folk-song attitude to Russian history. In The Tale of Bygone Years there is both an epic image and a poetic attitude to native history. That is why The Tale of Bygone Years is not only a work of Russian historical thought, but also of Russian historical poetry. Poetry and history are inextricably united in it. Before us is a literary work created on the basis of oral stories. The Tale of Bygone Years owes its magnificent, concise and expressive language to oral sources. Historicism, which underlies ancient Russian literature, assumed a certain idealization of what was depicted. Hence the artistic generalization, the lack of depiction of the inner psychology of the hero, his character. At the same time, the author's assessment is clearly traced in the annals.

A special feature of The Tale of Bygone Years is its unusually poetic style for that time. The style of the chronicle is concise. 06- different speech includes frequent reference to direct speech, to proverbs and sayings. Basically, the chronicle contains Church Slavonic vocabulary, which is closely intertwined with colloquial Russian. Reflecting reality, the chronicle also reflects the language of this reality, conveys the speeches that were actually delivered. First of all, this influence spoken language affects the direct speech of chronicles, but also indirect speech, the narrative, conducted on behalf of the chronicler himself, to a large extent depends on the living oral language of his time - primarily in terminology: military, hunting, feudal, legal, etc. Such were the oral foundations on which the originality of The Tale of Bygone Years was based as a monument of Russian historical thought, Russian literature and the Russian language.

The meaning of the work

Nestor was the first ancient Russian feudal historiographer who connected the history of Russia with the history of the Eastern European and Slavic peoples. In addition, a feature of the story is its direct connection with world history.

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is not only an example of ancient Russian literature, but also a monument cultural life people. The plots of the chronicle were widely used in their work by many poets. A special place belongs to the famous “Songs about the Prophetic Oleg” by A.S. Pushkin. The poet talks about Prince Oleg as an epic hero. Oleg made many campaigns, fought a lot, but took care of him. loved and knew Russian history, "traditions of the ages." In the legend of Prince Oleg and his horse, the poet was interested in the theme of fate, the inevitability of a destined fate. In the poem, there is also a proud confidence in the poet's right to freely follow his thoughts, consonant with the ancient notion, the belief that poets are heralds of a higher will.

Magi are not afraid of mighty lords, And they do not need a princely gift; Truthful and free is their prophetic language And friendly with the will of heaven.

Truth cannot be bought or circumvented. Oleg, as it seems to him, gets rid of the threat of death, sends away the horse, which, according to the magician's prediction, should play a fatal role. But after many years, when he thinks that the danger has passed - the horse is dead, fate overtakes the prince. He touches the horse's skull: "From dead head meanwhile, hissing grave snake crawled out.

Told by A.S. Pushkin's legend about glorious prince Oleg suggests that everyone has their own destiny, you can’t deceive it, and you need to love your friends, take care of them and not part with them during your lifetime.

Poetics

Over the course of many centuries, peculiar techniques have been developed that are characteristic of the poetics of the epic, as well as the way they are performed. In ancient times, it is believed that storytellers played along on the harp; later epics were performed in recitative. Epics are characterized by a special purely tonic epic verse (which is based on the commensurability of lines by the number of stresses, which achieves rhythmic uniformity). Although the storytellers used only a few melodies when performing epics, they enriched the singing with a variety of intonations, and also changed the timbre of the voice.

Emphatically solemn style of presentation of the epic narrating about heroic and often tragic events, determined the need to slow down the action (retardation). For this, a technique such as repetition is used, and not only individual words are repeated ... from far, far away, marvelously marvelous ( tautological repetitions), but also injection of synonyms: fight-rattling, tribute-duties, (synomimic repetitions), often the end of one line is the beginning of another: But they came to Holy Rus', / To Holy Rus' and even near Kiev city ..., there are often three repetitions of entire episodes, going with increased effect, and some descriptions are extremely detailed. Characteristic of the epic and availability of common areas», when describing situations of the same type, certain formulaic expressions are used: TO " common places”also include a description of the feast (for the most part, at Prince Vladimir), the feast, the heroic ride on a greyhound horse. A folk narrator could combine such stable formulas at his own will.

The language of epics is characterized by hyperbole, with the help of which the narrator emphasizes the character traits or appearance of the characters worthy of special mention. Determines the attitude of the listener to the epic and another technique - epithet(mighty, Holy Russian, glorious hero and filthy, evil enemy), and often occur fixed epithets(violent head, hot blood, frisky legs, burning tears). A similar role is played by suffixes: everything related to the heroes was mentioned in diminutive forms (hat, little head, little thought, Alyoshenka, Vasenka Buslaevich, Dobrynushka, etc.), but negative characters were called Ugryumishch, Ignatishch, Tsar Batuishch, Ugarishch filthy. Takes up a lot of space assonances (repetition of vowel sounds) and alliteration(repetition of consonant sounds), additional organizing elements of the verse.

Epic stories and heroes in art and literature. Ever since the publication of Kirsha Danilov's collection, epic stories and heroes have become firmly established in the world of modern Russian culture. Traces of acquaintance with Russian epics are easy to see in the poem A.S. Pushkin Ruslan and Lyudmila and in the poetic ballads of A.K. Tolstoy. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov(1844-1908) twice turned to the image of the Novgorod "rich guest". First, he created the symphonic musical picture Sadko (1867), and later, in 1896, the opera of the same name. V.M.Vasnetsov(1848–1926), mainly known to the public from paintings, the plots for which are taken from the Russian heroic epic, it is enough to name the canvases The Knight at the Crossroads (1882) and Bogatyrs (1898). M.A. Vrubel(1856–1910). The decorative panels Mikula Selyaninovich (1896) and Bogatyr (1898) interpret these seemingly well-known images in their own way.

"The Tale of Bygone Years". The main ideas and types of chronicle narrative

The history of the creation of "The Tale of Bygone Years"

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is one of the oldest chronicle works of Russian literature, created at the beginning of the 12th century by Nestor the Chronicler, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russian land, about the first Russian princes and about the most important historical events. The peculiarity of The Tale of Bygone Years is poetry, the author masterfully mastered the style, the text uses various artistic means to make the story more convincing.

Nestor was a scribe with a broad historical outlook and great literary talent: even before working on The Tale of Bygone Years, he wrote The Life of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of the Caves. In The Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor set himself a grandiose task: not only to supplement the "Initial Code" with a description of the events at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries, of which he was a contemporary, but also to rework in the most decisive way the story of the most ancient period in the history of Rus' - "where is the Russian land has gone.

Thanks to the state view, breadth of outlook and literary talent of Nestor, The Tale of Bygone Years was "not just a collection of facts of Russian history, and not just a historical and journalistic work related to the urgent, but transient tasks of Russian reality, but an integral, literary exposition of the history of Rus'" .

It is believed that the first edition of The Tale of Bygone Years has not reached us. Its second edition, compiled in 1117 by the abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery (near Kiev) Sylvester, and the third edition, compiled in 1118 by order of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, have been preserved. In the second edition, only the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years was revised; this edition has come down to us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, as well as other later chronicles. The third edition, according to a number of researchers, is presented in the Ipatiev Chronicle, the oldest list of which - Ipatiev - dates from the first quarter of the 15th century.

Features of the narrative in "The Tale of Bygone Years".

Types of annalistic articles in PVL:

* The weather record is the oldest, simplest and shortest record, which only states the fact.

* An annalistic legend is an oral historical tradition recorded in the annals, literary processed by a scribe (Foundation of Kyiv, Prophetic Oleg, Princess Olga, Nikita Kozhemyaka, Belgorod Kissel).

* The chronicle story is distinguished by its veracity and documentary quality, as a rule it was created by an eyewitness or from the words of an eyewitness (The Blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebolsky).

* The chronicle story is the most detailed and voluminous and chronicle article, the main thing in it is military theme(the struggle between Yaroslav the wise and Svyatoslav the accursed).

* Annalistic story - obituary - a story about death historical person(prince), designed in the form of lamentation for the deceased and praise to him.

PVL became the source for all subsequent chronicles, up to the 16th century. In addition, PVL is a source of plots, motives, images for the literature of subsequent centuries (18-19 centuries).

The main idea is the unity of the Russian land, a high patriotic feeling.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, two types of narration can be distinguished - weather records and chronicle stories. . Weather records contain reports of events, while chronicle stories describe them. In the story, the author seeks to portray the event, to give specific details, that is, he tries to help the reader imagine what is happening and causes the reader to empathize. Rus' broke up into many principalities and each had its own chronicles. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of their region and was written only about their princes. "The Tale of Bygone Years" was part of the local chronicles, which continued the tradition of Russian chronicle writing. "The Tale of Temporary Lies" determines the place of the Russian people among the peoples of the world, draws the origin of Slavic writing, the formation of the Russian state. Nestor lists the peoples paying tribute to the Russians, shows that the peoples who oppressed the Slavs have disappeared, and the Slavs remained and decide the fate of their neighbors. "The Tale of Bygone Years", written in the heyday of Kievan Rus, became the main work on history.

Artistic Features of The Tale of Bygone Years.

Nestor narrates about historical events poetically. The origin of Rus' Nestor draws against the backdrop of the development of the entire world history. The chronicler unfolds a wide panorama of historical events. A whole gallery of historical figures passes through the pages of the Nestor Chronicle - princes, boyars, merchants, posadniks, church servants. He talks about military campaigns, about the opening of schools, about the organization of monasteries. Nestor constantly touches the life of the people, their moods. On the pages of the annals, we will read about the uprisings, the murders of princes. But the author describes all this calmly and tries to be objective. Murder, betrayal and deceit Nestor condemns; honesty, courage, courage, fidelity, nobility he extols. It is Nestor who strengthens and improves the version of the origin of the Russian princely dynasty. Its main goal was to show the Russian land among other powers, to prove that the Russian people are not without family and tribe, but have their own history, which they have the right to be proud of.

From afar, Nestor begins his story, with the biblical flood itself, after which the earth was distributed among the sons of Noah. This is how Nestor begins his story: “So let's begin this story.

After the flood, the three sons of Noah divided the earth - Shem, Ham, Japheth. And Shem got the east: Persia, Bactria, even to India in longitude, and in breadth to Rinokorur, that is, from east to south, and Syria, and Media to the Euphrates River, Babylon, Korduna, Assyrians, Mesopotamia, Arabia the Oldest, Ely-maize, Indy, Arabia Strong, Kolia, Commagene, all of Phenicia.

Ham got the south: Egypt, Ethiopia, neighboring India ...

Japheth got the northern countries and the western

And at the same time, Ham and Japheth divided the land by casting lots, and decided not to enter into the share of a brother to anyone, and each lived in his own part. And there was one people. And when people multiplied on earth, they planned to create a pillar to the sky - it was in the days of Neggan and Peleg. And they gathered in the place of the field of Shinar to build a pillar to heaven, and near it the city of Babylon; and they built that pillar for 40 years, and did not finish it. And the Lord God came down to see the city and the pillar, and the Lord said: “Behold, one generation and one people.” And God confused the nations, and divided them into 70 and 2 nations, and scattered them over all the earth. After the confusion of the peoples, God destroyed the pillar with a great wind; and its remains are located between Assyria and Babylon, and are 5433 cubits high and wide, and these remains have been preserved for many years ... "

The author then talks about Slavic tribes, their customs and mores, about the capture of Constantinople by Oleg, about the foundation of Kiev by the three brothers Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv, ​​about Svyatoslav's campaign against Byzantium and other events, both real and legendary. He includes in his "Tale ..." teachings, records of oral stories, documents, contracts, parables and lives. The leading theme of most chronicles is the idea of ​​the unity of Rus'.

Composition "The Tale of Bygone Years

The introductory section sets out biblical legend about the division of the land between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japhet - and the legend of the Babylonian pandemonium, which led to the division of the "single clan" into 72 peoples, each of which has its own language. Having determined that the "language (people) of Slovenes" is from the tribe of Japheth , the chronicle further tells about the Slavs, the lands they inhabit, about the history and customs of the Slavic tribes. Gradually narrowing the subject of its narrative, the chronicle focuses on the history of the meadows, tells about the emergence of Kyiv. Speaking about the ancient times, when the Kyiv glades were tributaries of the Khazars, The Tale of Bygone Years proudly notes that now, as it was destined for a long time, the Khazars themselves are tributaries of the Kyiv princes.

Precise indications of the years begin in The Tale of Bygone Years from 852, since from that time, according to the chronicler, Rus' is mentioned in the “Greek chronicle”: this year, the Kiev princes Askold and Dir attacked Constantinople. A chronological calculation is also given here - a countdown of the years that have passed from one significant event to another. The calculation of the years from “the death of Yaroslavl to the death of Svyatopolchi” (i.e., from 1054 to 1113) completes the calculation, from which it follows that the Tale of Bygone Years could not have been compiled earlier than the beginning of the second decade of the 12th century.

The chronicle goes on to tell of major events 9th century - "calling of the Varangians", campaign against Byzantium Askold and Dir, the conquest of Kyiv by Oleg. The legend about the origin of the Slavic literacy, included in the chronicle, ends with the statement, important for the general concept of The Tale of Bygone Years, about the identity of the “Slovene” and Russian languages ​​- another reminder of the place of the meadows among the Slavic peoples and the Slavs among the peoples of the world.

Subsequent chronicle articles tell about the reign of Oleg. The chronicler cites the texts of his treaties with Byzantium and folk legends about the prince: a story about his campaign against Constantinople, with spectacular episodes, undoubtedly of a folklore nature (Oleg approaches the walls of the city in boats moving under sail on land, hangs his shield over the gates of Constantinople, "showing victory"). There is also a well-known legend about the death of Oleg. The sorcerer predicted the prince's death from his beloved horse. Oleg decided: “Nicole is everywhere on n, I don’t see him more than that.” However, he later learns that the horse has already died. Oleg laughed at the false prediction and wished to see the bones of the horse. But when the prince stepped with his foot on the “forehead” (skull) of the horse, he was stung by a snake that “came out” “from the forehead”, fell ill and died. The chronicle episode, as we know, formed the basis of A. S. Pushkin's ballad "The Song of the Prophetic Oleg."

Oleg inherited on the Kiev "table" Igor, whom the chronicler considered the son of Rurik. Two campaigns of Igor against Byzantium are reported and the text of the agreement concluded by the Russian prince with the Byzantine emperors-co-rulers is given. Igor's death was unexpected and inglorious: on the advice of his squad, he went to the land of the Drevlyans to collect tribute (usually the tribute was collected by his governor). On the way back, the prince suddenly turned to his soldiers: “Go with tribute to the house, and I will return, I will look like it again.” The Drevlyans, having heard that Igor intends to collect tribute a second time, were indignant: “If you drive a wolf (if a wolf gets into the habit) in a sheep, then endure the whole herd, if not kill him, so and so: if we don’t kill him, then we will all be destroyed” . But Igor did not heed the warning of the Drevlyans and was killed by them.

The story of Igor's death in the annals is very short; but legends about how Igor's widow, Olga, avenged the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, have been preserved in the people's memory. These legends were reproduced by the chronicler and are read in the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the article of 945.

After the murder of Igor, the Drevlyans sent ambassadors to Kyiv to Olga with a proposal to marry their prince Mal. Olga pretended that she “loved” the words of the ambassadors, and ordered them to appear the next day, and not on horseback or on foot, but in a very unusual way: by order of the princess, the people of Kiev were to bring the Drevlyans to princely court in the rooks. At the same time, Olga orders to dig a deep hole near her tower. When the triumphant Drevlyansky ambassadors (they sit in the boat “proudly,” the chronicler emphasizes) were brought to the princely court, Olga ordered them to be thrown into the pit along with the boat. Approaching its edge, the princess asked with a grin: “Are you good honor?” “Worse than we (worse for us) Igor's death,” the Drevlyans answered. And Olga ordered them to fall asleep alive in a pit.

The second embassy, ​​consisting of noble Drevlyansk "husbands", Olga ordered to be burned in a bathhouse, where the ambassadors were invited to "wash themselves." Finally, the squad of the Drevlyans, sent to meet Olga, in order to honorably introduce her to the capital of Mala, the princess ordered to be killed during the funeral feast - a memorial feast at the grave of Igor.

A close look at the legends how Olga took revenge on the Drevlyans three times, reveals the symbolic meaning of the subtext of the legend: each revenge corresponds to one of the elements of the pagan funeral rite. According to the customs of that time, the dead were buried by placing them in a boat; a bath was prepared for the deceased, and then his corpse was burned, on the day of burial a feast was arranged, accompanied by military games. This story about Olga's three revenges was already read in the "Initial Code". Another legend was added to The Tale of Bygone Years - about the fourth revenge of the princess.

Having killed the squad of the Drevlyans, Olga nevertheless could not take their capital - the city of Iskorosten. Then the princess again resorted to cunning. She turned to the besieged, convincing them that she was not going to impose heavy tribute on them, as Igor had once, but asked for an insignificant ransom: three sparrows and three doves from the house. The Drevlyans again did not guess about Olga's deceit and readily sent her the required tribute. Then Olga's warriors, on her orders, tied “tser” (burned tinder, dried tinder fungus) to the paws of the birds and released them. The birds flew to their nests, and soon the whole city was on fire. People who tried to flee were captured by Olga's soldiers. So, according to legend, the princess avenged the death of her husband.

The chronicler enthusiastically depicts Igor's son - Svyatoslav, his militancy, chivalrous directness (he seemed to have warned his enemies in advance: “I want to go to you”), unpretentiousness in everyday life. The chronicle tells about Svyatoslav's campaigns against Byzantium: he almost reached Constantinople and, having conquered the Balkan countries, suggested moving his capital to the Danube, because there, according to him, "there is the middle of the earth", where all the blessings flow - precious metals, expensive fabrics , wine, horses and slaves. But the plans of Svyatoslav were not destined to come true: he died, falling into an ambush of the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids.

After the death of Svyatoslav between his sons - Oleg, Yaropolk and Vladimir - internecine struggle broke out. Came out a winner Vladimir, who became in 980 the sole ruler of Rus'.

In the section "The Tale of Bygone Years", dedicated to the reign Vladimir, the theme of the baptism of Rus' occupies a large place. The chronicle reads the so-called "Philosopher's Speech" with which a Greek missionary allegedly turned to Vladimir, urging the prince to accept Christianity. The "Speech of the Philosopher" was of great cognitive importance for the Old Russian reader - it briefly outlined the entire "sacred history" and reported the basic principles of the Christian faith.

Various folk legends were grouped around the name of Vladimir. They were also reflected in the annals - in memories of the generosity of the prince, his crowded feasts, where almost all warriors were invited, about the exploits of unknown heroes who lived during the time of this prince, - about the victory of the kozhemyaka boy over the Pecheneg hero or about the old man, with his wisdom liberated the city of Belgorod from the siege of the Pechenegs. These legends will be discussed below.

After the death of Vladimir in 1015, internecine struggle broke out again between his sons. Svyatopolk is the son of Yaropolk and a captive nun, whom Vladimir, having killed his brother, made his wife, killed his own stepbrothers Boris and Gleb. The chronicle reads short story about the fate of the princes-martyrs, about the struggle of Yaroslav Vladimirovich with Svyatopolk, which ended in a military defeat of the latter and terrible divine retribution. When Svyatopolk, defeated in battle. turned to flight, the demon “attacked” him, “and weakening his bones, he could not sit on horses.” It seems to Svyatopolk that a chase is following him, he hurries his warriors, who carry him on a stretcher. "We are persecuted by God's wrath", Svyatopolk dies in the "desert" (in a remote, uninhabited place) between Poland and the Czech Republic, and from his grave, according to the chronicle, "comes ... the stench of evil." The chronicler takes the opportunity to emphasize that the terrible death of Svyatopolk should serve as a warning to the Russian princes, to save them from the resumption of fratricidal strife.

In 1037, the chronicle tells about the construction activities of Yaroslav(in particular, about the laying of the famous St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, the fortress walls with the Golden Gate, etc.). Of great importance is the dying testament of Yaroslav, placed in the article of 1054, urging his sons to live in peace, to protect the land "of their fathers and grandfather”, which they acquired “by their great labor”, to obey the eldest in the family - the Kiev prince.

The last decade of the 11th century was full of stormy events. After internecine wars, the instigator and indispensable participant of which was Oleg Svyatoslavich (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls him Oleg Gorislavlich), the princes gather in 1097 in Lyubech for a congress, at which they decide from now on to live in peace and friendship, keep the father’s possessions and do not encroach on other people's inheritances. However, immediately after the congress, a new atrocity happened: the Volyn prince Davyd Igorevich convinced the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich that the Terebovl prince Vasilko was plotting against them. Svyatopolk and Davyd lured Vasilko to Kyiv, captured him and gouged out his eyes. This event shocked all the princes: Vladimir Monomakh, according to the chronicler, complained that there was no such evil in Rus' "neither under our grandfathers, nor under our fathers." In the article of 1097 we find a detailed story about the dramatic fate of Vasilko Terebovskiy; it was probably written specifically for the chronicle and is fully included in its composition.

We do not know exactly how the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years, second edition, looked like. In the Laurentian Chronicle, the text of the article of 1110 is artificially cut off: the chronicler Sylvester's entry immediately follows the story of a miraculous sign in the Caves Monastery, which is regarded as the appearance of an angel; at the same time, in the Ipatiev Chronicle, after the description of the sign, there is a discussion about angels, which, undoubtedly, was included in the original text of the article of 1110, that is, it should have been present in the text of the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years. In addition, it is not known whether the article of 1110 was the last in this edition: after all, Sylvester’s postscript says that he wrote the “books of the chronicler” in 1116. The question of the relationship between the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years and the third edition remains controversial. , as well as with what kind of text the second edition of the Tale ended.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign". idea content, art form, connection with folklore.

"Words about Igor's Campaign" was opened famous collector of ancient Russian manuscripts Count A.I. Musin-Pushkin at the end of the 18th century. Since that time, an intensive study of this outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature began.

The researchers analyzed the text of the "Word", its artistic merits, language, considered ideological concept of the monument, the historical outlook of its author, clarified the circumstances of the discovery of the manuscript of the Lay and the principles of its publication. Most of these issues are currently sufficiently deeply and comprehensively studied.

Controversy about the time of writing the Lay

In the research literature on the "Word" a significant place is occupied by the controversy about the authenticity of the monument or about the time of its creation.

Distrust of the antiquity of the Lay arose after the destruction of the manuscript in a fire in 1812. There were several reasons for the emergence of a “skeptical view” on the antiquity of the Lay. First, at the beginning of the 19th century. scientists knew too little about the literature of Ancient Rus', and therefore the "Word" seemed to them unnaturally perfect for the level of artistic culture of Kievan Rus. Secondly , confused obscure, "dark places" of the "Words", the abundance of incomprehensible words in it, which at first they tried to explain on the basis of other Slavic languages. But the main reason for the emergence of distrust in the "Lay" was that trend in Russian historiography of the early 19th century, which is called "skeptical school". Doubt about the authenticity of the "Word" was only a particular episode in this trend: "skeptics" also questioned the antiquity of Russian chronicles, a collection of ancient Russian laws - "Russian Truth", the writings of Cyril of Turov, etc.

In the middle of the 19th century after opening "Zadonshchina" (about Dmitry Donskoy and Mamai "Golden Horde"), eldest of known lists which dates back to the end of the 15th century, there is no longer any doubt about the antiquity of the Lay. However, in the 90s. same century Louis Léger put forward the hypothesis that it was not the author of the Zadonshchina who imitated the Lay, but, on the contrary, the Lay is an imitation of the Zadonshchina. This assumption was developed by L. Leger in the works of the French scientist, academician A. Mazon, and later in the works of the Soviet historian A. A. Zimina . A. A. Zimin believed that the Lay was written on the basis of the Zadonshchina in the 18th century. and its author was Joel Bykovsky, the Yaroslavl archimandrite, from whom A. I. Musin-Pushkin acquired the collection with the Lay.

Subsequent studies of the entire sum of issues raised in the hypothesis of A. A. Zimin: the relationship between the Lay and Zadonshchina, the language and style of the Lay, the history of the discovery of the collection and publication of the Lay by A. I. Musin-Pushkin, personality characteristics and creativity of Joil Bykovsky - with all obviousness approved the authenticity and antiquity of the Lay.

The time of writing the "Lay" and the question of its author - the monument could have been created no later than October 1, 1187 - the time when Yaroslav Osmomysl died, since he is mentioned in the "Word" as alive.

The historical basis of the word and its main idea:

The word is based the story of the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Ig. St. in 1185 to the Polovtsians. The prince went on a campaign alone, resorting to the help of only three close princes (brother Buytur Vsevolod, son of Vladimir and the tribe of Svyatoslav). He did not inform the ruler of Kyiv, his elder cousin Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv. The campaign ended in a major failure (the Polovtsy won, all the princes were captured, the honor of the whole family was desecrated, the Russian lands again began to suffer due to the Polovtsian raids (southern). The word is not a documentary accurate, consistent historical story about the campaign, but a lyric-epic response to the events of that time, i.e. the narration is conducted through the personal perception and deep emotional attitude of the author.The word poetically evaluates historical events. sounds the main idea of ​​the monument. This - Call for unity of the Russian princes(The story of an unsuccessful campaign for the author was a reason for reasoning about the tragic consequences of the disunity of the princes in Rus'). The political ideal for the author of the word is a strong and authoritarian princely power. It is the throne of Kiev that should unite the Russian princes.

Composition "Words"

The Word begins with a lengthy introduction in which the author remembers the old singer "Slav" Boyan, wise and skillful, but nevertheless declares, that he will not follow this tradition in his work, he will lead his "song" "according to the epics of this time, and not according to Boyan's plan."

Having determined the chronological range of his narrative (“from the old Vladimer to the current Igor”), the author tells about Igor's daring plan to "bring" his regiments to the Polovtsian land, "drink the Don's helmet". He, as it were, "trying on" Boyan's poetic style to his theme.

Genre "Words"

The composition of the Lay is unusual for a historical story. We see that the focus of the author not so much a consistent story about the events of the campaign itself, butreasoning about him, an assessment of Igor's act, reflections on the causes of the "tightness" and sadness that has engulfed the entire Russian land in the present, an appeal to the events of the past with its victories and misfortunes. All these features of the "Word" lead us to the question of the genre of the monument. This question is all the more important because in ancient Russian literature, with its strict system of genres, the "Word" (like a number of other monuments) seems to be outside the genre system. A. N. Robinson and D. S. Likhachev compare the “Word” with the genre of the so-called “chanson de gesture” - “songs about exploits”, in this case, analogies to it are, for example, “The Song of Roland” or other similar works of Western European feudal epic.

The heyday of chronicle

Genre originality A page of the Ipatiev Chronicle The chronicle is a special kind historical narrative by years (years). Russian chronicle originated in the 11th century. and continued until the 17th century.

Genre originality A whole workshop worked on the annals: about 15 scribes and 10 artists. Thumbnails not only illustrate the text, but also complement it. Some events are not written, but only drawn.

The history of chronicle writing Chronicle writing arose during the time of Yaroslav the Wise, at a time when Rus' began to fight for church and political independence. Apparently, then the first historical writings, claiming that the history of Rus' repeats the history of other Christian powers.

History of chronicle writing Chronicles - the most important historical sources, the most significant monuments of social thought and culture of Ancient Rus'. Chronicles testify to the high patriotic consciousness of the Russian people in the 11th-17th centuries.

The history of chronicle writing At least 1,500 lists of chronicles have survived. Many works of ancient Russian literature have been preserved in their composition: “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Mamaev massacre”, “Journey beyond three seas” by Afanasy Nikitin and others.

Kyiv Chronicles In Kyiv in the XII century. the annals were kept in the Kiev-Pechersk and Vydubitsky Mikhailovsky monasteries, as well as at the princely court.

South Russian chronicles South Russian chronicles have been preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle, which consists of The Tale of Bygone Years, continued mainly by Kyiv News (ending 1200), and the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle (ending 1289-92).

Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the main centers of chronicle writing were Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and Pereyaslavl. The monument of this chronicle is the Laurentian Chronicle, which begins with the Tale of Bygone Years, continued by the Vladimir-Suzdal news until 1305.

Novgorod Chronicles big development received annals in Novgorod at the court of the archbishop, at monasteries and churches.

History of chronicle writing The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused a temporary decline in chronicle writing. The revival of chronicle work begins only after the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). Old Russian chronicles have come down to us as part of later (mainly XIV-XV centuries) chronicle collections.

History of chronicle writing New phenomena in chronicle writing were noted in the 15th century, when Russian state centered in Moscow. The policy of the Moscow Grand Dukes was reflected in the all-Russian annals. The most famous is the Vologda-Perm chronicle.

History of chronicle writing in the 17th century. there was a gradual withering away of the annalistic form of narration. The word "chronicle" continues to be used according to tradition even for such works that faintly resemble the Chronicles of the past.

The Tale of Bygone Years The most famous of the early chronicles, which has come down to our time, is “The Tale of Bygone Years”. Nestor, a monk of the Pechersky Monastery in Kyiv, who wrote his work around 1113, is considered its creator.

The Tale of Bygone Years "The Tale of Bygone Years" is an ensemble work, as it includes various genres, such as: legend, life, prayer, chronicle narrative itself, chronicle story, codes, contracts.

The Tale of Bygone Years "The Tale of Bygone Years", as a monument of historiography, is permeated with a single patriotic idea: chroniclers strive to present their people as equal among other Christian peoples, proudly recall the glorious past of their country - the valor of pagan princes, the piety and wisdom of princes - Christian.

The Tale of Bygone Years The chroniclers speak on behalf of all of Rus', rising above petty feudal disputes, resolutely condemning the strife and "which", describing with pain and anxiety the disasters brought by the raids of nomads.

The Tale of Bygone Years In a word, The Tale of Bygone Years is not just a description of the first centuries of the existence of Rus', it is a story about great beginnings: the beginning of Russian statehood, the beginning of Russian culture, about the beginnings, which, according to the chroniclers, promise their power and glory in the future Motherland.

Significance of Chronicle for Russian Medieval Culture historical facts. They embodied a wide range of ideas and concepts of medieval society. Chronicles are monuments of both social thought and literature, and even the rudiments of scientific knowledge.

Radzivilov Chronicle

"Hero" of Russian chronicles

Russian chronicles about Mamai begin to be written from 6869 to S. M. For simplicity, we will use the Nikon chronicle, since this is practically a collection of information from all that preceded it.

So: “In the summer of 6869 ... That same summer, Prince Orda Temnik Mamai raised hatred against his king, and was very strong; and rise up against his king on Temir Khozya, Khidyr’s son, and hushed up his whole kingdom of the Volga, and take the king with the name of Avdul, and be scolding and hushing the velia in the Horde ... And then Prince Mamai, in great strength, went beyond the Volga River to a mountainous country, and the whole Horde is with him, and the king was with him by the name of Avdul ... That same summer, Prince Mamai made war with Omurat the king and with all the princes of Sarai, and many princes of the Horde old huts " {145} .

The following year, the chronicler again reports that “In the summer of 6870, Mamay the prince had a great battle with Amurat the king about the Volz. The same summer, Amurat, the tsar, having been driven out, came to Mamai, the prince, and Tatars killed many of him. {146} .

The following year, Mamai, on behalf of Abdullah, gives a label to the great reign of Dmitry of Moscow, and Murat - to Dmitry of Suzdal. Internal Russian squabbles begin, but Mamai is not mentioned in them until 1370, when "Prince Mamai Ordinsky in his Horde planted the king of another Mamat Saltan" {147} .

Then, according to the chroniclers, Mamai began to play with a label for a great reign. First he gave it to Tver, then handed it back to Moscow. Seriously speaking, sold: “The Great Prince Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow has come to the Horde of Mamaev to Tsar Mamaev, and take good care of the princes Mama, and the king, and the queens, and the princes ...”(148) . In 6881 from S.M. he makes a raid on Ryazan. Dmitry at this time stands on the Oka, but is in no hurry to help the people of Ryazan. So who helps, God knows. Because the same chronicle says that "Prince the Great Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow was to be reconciled with the Tatars and with Mamai"(149) . And this entry is under the year 6882. So, there was no “truce” a year earlier?

The following year, the Tatar ambassador Sarayka was killed in Suzdal. Whose ambassador, again, is not said. What's next “Tatars came from the Mamaev Horde and took Kashin (in other chronicles - Kish, which is more real, since Kashin is the Tver land, and then it says that a certain boyar Parfen Fedorovich was killed in the drunkenness)”, proves nothing. On the contrary, if the ambassador from the Mamaevs was killed, why didn’t the Horde at least go to Nizhny? Robbed somewhere on the outskirts. It's more like a normal raid that has nothing to do with the assassination of the ambassador. Although, of course, the next year, Mamai again passes the label on the great reign to Mikhail of Tverskoy. But remember: he and Dmitry Moskovsky have not had peace since last year, so there is nothing surprising. That's when Dmitry Moskovsky did not recognize the label and put together a coalition against Tver, the next year, large raids by the Mamaev Tatars on Nizhny and Novosil immediately follow. The answer is quite adequate, not like the death of Saraika.

In 6884 Dmitry “I went to the army across the Oka River, guarding the Tatar army from Mamai”(150) . In general, during this period, Mamai is mentioned almost constantly.

But… Russian chronicles do not localize his land at all. It is only clear that she is on this, the right bank of the Volga, and that's it. Our chroniclers do not tell about any Crimea, like Mamaev land. Horde and Horde. Furthermore, Mityai, when he leaves for Constantinople, “I came to the Horde, to the Polovtsian place and to the Tatar borders”(151) . It was there that Mamai kept him for some time. But he soon let go, and even gave guides to the sea. All this is clearly on the Don, and Mityai is leaving from Azak (Azov), and not from the Crimea.

6. Times are changing, but the speed of publishing Russian chronicles is not. Then came a 27-year break, until the age of 49. After that, the publication resumed. TO