What is a chronotope? The concept of chronotope in modern literature

CHRONOTOP

CHRONOTOP

(literally "time-space")

unity of spatial and temporal parameters aimed at expressing def. (cultural, artistic) sense. The term X. was first used in psychology by Ukhtomsky. It became widespread in literature and then in aesthetics thanks to the works of Bakhtin.

This means the birth of this concept and its rooting in the law. and aesthetic consciousness was inspired by the natural scientific discoveries of the beginning. 20th century And dramatic changes ideas about the picture of the world as a whole. In accordance with them, space and time are conceived as “interconnected coordinates of a single four-dimensional continuum, meaningfully dependent on the reality they describe. In essence, this interpretation continues the tradition of relationalism that began in antiquity (as opposed to substantial) understanding of space and time (Aristotle, St. Augustine, Leibniz, etc.). Hegel also interpreted these categories as interconnected and mutually defining. The emphasis placed by the discoveries of Einstein, Minkowski and others on the contain, determinacy of space and time, as well as their ambivalent relationship, is metaphorically reproduced in X. by Bakhtin. On the other hand, this term correlates with V.I. Vernadsky’s description of the noosphere, characterized by a single space-time associated with the spiritual dimension of life. It is fundamentally different from psychology. space and time, which have their own characteristics in perception.

Here, as in Bakhtin’s X., we mean simultaneously spiritual and material reality, with man at the center. Central to the understanding of X., according to Bakhtin, is axiological. the orientation of space-time unity, the function of which in art. the work consists in expressing a personal position, meaning: “Entry into the sphere of meanings occurs only through gate X.” In other words, the meanings contained in a work can be objectified only through their spatio-temporal expression. Moreover, with their own X.(and the meanings they reveal) possessed by both the author, the work itself, and the reader who perceives it(listener, viewer)

X. is individual for each meaning, therefore hu-doge. work from this view. has a multi-layer ("polyphonic") structure.

Each of its levels represents a reciprocal connection of spaces. and temporary parameters, based on the unity of discrete and continuous principles, which makes it possible to translate spaces and parameters into temporary forms and vice versa. The more such layers are revealed in a work (X.), especially since it is polysemantic, “much-meaningful.”

Each type of art is characterized by its own type of X., determined by its “matter”. In accordance with this, the arts are divided into: spatial, in chronotopes of which temporal qualities are expressed in space. forms; temporary, where space parameters are “shifted” to temporary coordinates; and spatiotemporal, in which X. of both types are present.

B means. degree, the birth of this concept and its rooting in lawsuits. and aesthetic consciousness was inspired by the natural scientific discoveries of the beginning. 20th century and fundamental changes in ideas about the picture of the world as a whole. In accordance with them, space and time are conceived as interconnected coordinates of a single four-dimensional continuum, meaningfully dependent on the reality they describe. In essence, this interpretation continues the tradition of a relational (as opposed to substantial) understanding of space and time, begun in antiquity (Aristotle, St. Augustine, Leibniz, etc.). Hegel also interpreted these categories as interconnected and mutually defining. The emphasis placed on the discoveries of Einstein, Minkowski and others is on contain. the determinism of space and time, as well as their ambivalent relationship, are metaphorically reproduced in X. by Bakhtin. On the other hand, this term correlates with V.I. Vernadsky’s description of the noosphere (see Vernadsky, Noosphere), characterized by a single space-time associated with the spiritual dimension of life. It is fundamentally different from psychology. space and time, which have their own characteristics in perception. Here, as in Bakhtin’s X., we mean both spiritual and material reality, with man at the center.

Central to the understanding of X., according to Bakhtin, is axiological. the orientation of space-time unity, the function of which in art. the work consists in expressing a personal position, meaning: “Entry into the sphere of meanings occurs only through gate X.”. In other words, the meanings contained in a work can be objectified only through their spatiotemporal expression. Moreover, both the author, the work itself, and the reader (listener, viewer) who perceive it have their own X (and the meanings they reveal). Thus, understanding a work, its sociocultural objectification is, according to Bakhtin, one of the manifestations of the dialogical nature of being.

X. is individual for each meaning, therefore the artist. work from this view. has a multilayer (“polyphonic”) structure.

Each of its levels represents a reciprocal connection of spaces. and time parameters, based on the unity of discrete and continuous principles, which makes it possible to translate spaces. parameters into temporary forms and vice versa. The more such layers (X.) are found in a work, the more polysemantic it is, “much-meaningful.”

Each type of art is characterized by its own type of X., determined by its “matter”. In accordance with this, the arts are divided into: spatial, in chronotopes of which temporal qualities are expressed in space. forms; temporary, where spaces. parameters are “shifted” to time coordinates; and spatiotemporal, in which X. of both types are present.

About chronotopic. the structure of the artist works can be spoken to the viewer. dept. plot motive(for example, X. threshold, road, turning point in life, etc. in Dostoevsky’s poetics); in the aspect of its genre definition (on this basis, Bakhtin distinguishes the genres of adventure novel, adventure novel, biographer, knightly, etc.); in a relationship individual style the author (carnival and mystery time in Dostoevsky and biogr. time in L. Tolstoy); in connection with the organization of the form of a work, since such, for example, meaning-bearing categories as rhythm and symmetry are nothing more than a reciprocal connection of space and time, based on the unity of discrete and continuous principles.

X., expressing common features artist spatio-temporal organization in a given cultural system, testify to the spirit and direction of the value orientations dominant in it. In this case, space and time are thought of as abstractions, through which it is possible to construct a picture of a unified cosmos, a single and ordered Universe. For example, space-time thinking primitive people objective-sensual and timeless, since the consciousness of time is spatialized and at the same time sacralized and emotionally colored. Cultural X. Ancient East and antiquity is built by myth, in which time is cyclical, and space (Cosmos) is animated. Middle-century Christ consciousness has formed its X., consisting of linear irreversible time and hierarchically structured, thoroughly symbolic space, the ideal expression of which is the microcosm of the temple. The Renaissance created X., which is in many ways relevant for modern times.

The opposition of man to the world as a subject-object made it possible to realize and measure its spaces. depth. At the same time, qualityless dismembered time appears. The emergence of unified temporal thinking and space alienated from humans, characteristic of the New Age, made these categories abstractions, which is recorded in Newtonian physics and Cartesian philosophy.

Modern culture with all the complexity and diversity of its social, national, mental and other relations is characterized by many different X.; Among them, the most revealing is, perhaps, the one that expresses the image of compressed space and flowing (“lost”) time, in which (in contrast to the consciousness of the ancients) there is practically no present.

Lit.: Rhythm, space and time in literature and art. L., 1974; Akhundov M.D. Concepts of space and time: origins, evolution, prospects. M., 1982; Gurevich A.Ya. Categories middle-century. culture. M., 1984; Bakhtin M.M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on history. poetics // Bakhtin M.M. Literary criticism articles. M., 1986; Space and time in art. L., 1988; Trubnikov N.N. Time is human. being. M., 1987; Florensky P.A. Time and space // Sociol. research. 1988. N 1; Time in Science and Philosophy. Prague, 1971.

N.D. Irza.

Cultural studies of the twentieth century. Encyclopedia. M.1996

Big Dictionary in cultural studies.. Kononenko B.I. . 2003.

See what "CHRONOTOP" is in other dictionaries:

CHRONOTOP (“time-space”). In the narrow sense aesthetic category, reflecting the ambivalent connection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered and expressed with the help of appropriate visual arts in literature… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

CHRONOTOP- (from Greek chronos time + topos place; literally timespace). Space and time are the harshest determinants human existence, even more severe than society. Overcoming space and time and mastering them is an existential... ... Great psychological encyclopedia

- (from other Greek χρόνος, “time” and τόπος, “place”) “a regular connection of space-time coordinates.” The term introduced by A.A. Ukhtomsky in the context of his physiological research, and then (at the initiative of M. M. Bakhtin) moved to ... ... Wikipedia

It is impossible to separate the spatio-temporal characteristics of processes and events either in nature or in socio-spiritual life.

“Chronotope” (from the Greek chronos - time + topos - place), expressing the unity of the spatio-temporal dimension associated with the cultural and historical meaning of events and phenomena.

The concept of “chronotope” reflects the universality of space-time relations: it is applicable not only to material, but also to ideal processes.

The study of culture requires taking into account the unity of space-time dimension.

One of the first to use this concept was neurophysiologist A. Ukhtomsky: he introduced the concept of “chronotope” into psychology and neurophysiology, assessing it as a dominant of consciousness, a center and focus of excitation that encourages the body to specific situation to certain actions.

M. Bakhtin used the concept of “chronotope” in literary criticism and aesthetics in his work “Essays on historical poetics" These were the first projections of the idea of ​​the interconnection of spatial and temporal relations into the plane of humanitarian knowledge.

Bakhtin introduced the concept of chronotope - a specific unity of spatio-temporal characteristics for a specific situation. He accepts Kant's assessment of the significance of space and time as necessary forms of all knowledge, but understands them not as transcendental, but as a form of reality itself.

The phenomenon of sub-play with time, space-time perspectives - the so-called. historical inversion, i.e. a depiction in the past of what in fact can only be in the future; stretching or compressing time in dreams as a result of witchcraft. This is the peculiarity of human and artistic consciousness - in its internal time it has full rights. Therefore it is worth distinguishing

· awareness of time - must be objective, accurately reflect its real flow

· time of consciousness – not tied to the outside world, allows for the absence of a time vector.

Thus, Bakhtin proposed a non-classical vision of human cognition: in addition to subject-object relations, it includes a synthesis of cognitive, value (ethical and aesthetic), as well as spatio-temporal relations. The philosophy of science of the 21st century should be built on this basis.

Bakhtin developed the idea of ​​a chronotope, which made it possible to create a unique ontology of the novel. "In literary artistic chronotope there is a merging of spatial and temporal signs into a meaningful and concrete whole. Time here thickens, becomes denser, becomes artistically visible, while space intensifies, is drawn into the movement of time, plot, history. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.”

The introduction of the chronotope allowed M.M. Bakhtin to reconstruct the logic of the formation of the novel depending on the depth of inclusion of space-time in it, starting from the adventurous Greek novel with its extremely abstract indicators of space-time up to the chronotope in the novels of F. Rabelais, in which very specifically “everything turns into everything.” MM. Bakhtin proved that it is the boundary of the genre that constitutes the boundary within which the chronotope of the novel as an object is formed, defining the exact genre boundaries of the chronotope in literature.

All this indicates that the space-time continuum is increasingly understood as an important principle, a condition for the ascension of any science - including social and humanitarian science - to the level of a conceptual-theoretical system. Therefore, it seems legitimate to raise the question of the possibility of its inclusion in the study of culture and to assume that the continuum exists in a hidden form in culture, and it is necessary to open it and clarify its nature.

A special topic to which so far undeservedly few works have been devoted is the introduction of the time factor into literary texts, clarifying his role, image and methods of presence. reversibility, changes in flow rate and many other properties that are not inherent in real physical time, but are significant in art and culture in general. So, M.M. Bakhtin connects consciousness and “all conceivable spatial and temporal relations” into a single center. Rethinking the categories of space and time in a humanitarian context, he introduced the concept of chronotope as a specific situation. Bakhtin left a kind of model for the analysis of temporal and spatial relations and ways of “introducing” them into artistic and literary texts. Taking the term “chronotope” from the natural science texts of A.A. Ukhtomsky, Bakhtin did not limit himself to the naturalistic idea of ​​the chronotope as a physical unity, the integrity of time and space, but filled it with humanistic, cultural, historical and value meanings. He strives to reveal the role of these forms in the process artistic knowledge, "artistic vision". Also justifying the need for a single term, Bakhtin explains that in the “artistic chronotope” there is an “intersection of rows and a merging of signs” - “time here thickens, becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space intensifies, is drawn into the movement of time, movement, history. Signs times are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time."

In the context of Bakhtin's historical poetics and the identification figurative value chronotopes, the phenomenon designated as a subjective play with time and space-time perspectives should not go unnoticed. This is a phenomenon specific to artistic, and generally humanitarian, reality - the transformation of time or chronotope under the influence of the “mighty will of the artist.” So close attention Bakhtin himself to the “subjective game” and the richness of the forms of time identified in this case force us to assume that artistic device There are also more fundamental properties and relationships. The “play with time” is most clearly manifested in the adventurous time of a chivalric romance, where time breaks up into a number of segments, is organized “abstractly and technically”, and appears at “break points (in the emerging gap)” of real time series, where the pattern is suddenly broken. Here hyperbolism - stretching or compression - of time, the influence of dreams, witchcraft on it, i.e., becomes possible. violation of elementary temporal (and spatial) relationships and perspectives.

Rich possibilities for epistemology are also fraught with Bakhtin’s text on time and space in the works of Goethe, who had “exceptional chronotopic vision and thinking,” although the ability to see time in space, in nature, was also noted by Bakhtin in O. de Balzac, J.J. Russo and W. Scott. He read Goethe's texts in a special way. In the first place he put his “ability to see time”, ideas about the visible form of time in space, the completeness of time as synchronism, the coexistence of times at one point in space, for example, thousand-year-old Rome - the “great chronotope” human history". Following Goethe, he emphasized that the past itself must be creative, i.e. effective in the present; Bakhtin noted that Goethe “dispersed what was nearby in space into different time stages,” revealing modernity at the same time as multi-temporality - the remnants of the past and the beginnings future; thought about everyday life and national characteristics"sense of time".

In general, reflections on Bakhtin’s texts about the forms of time and space in artistic and humanitarian texts lead to the idea of ​​​​the possibility of transforming the chronotope into a universal, fundamental category, which can become one of the fundamentally new foundations of epistemology, which has not yet been fully mastered and even avoided specific spatiotemporal characteristics of knowledge and cognitive activity.

Literature, like other forms of art, is designed to reflect surrounding reality. Including a person’s life, his thoughts, experiences, actions and events. The category of space and time is an integral component of constructing the author’s picture of the world.

History of the term

The very concept of chronotope comes from the ancient Greek “chronos” (time) and “topos” (place) and denotes the unification of spatial and temporal parameters aimed at expressing a certain meaning.

This term was first used by psychologist Ukhtomsky in connection with his physiological research. The emergence and widespread use of the term chronotope is largely due to natural scientific discoveries of the early 20th century, which contributed to a rethinking of the picture of the world as a whole. The dissemination of the definition of chronotope in literature is the merit of the famous Russian scientist, philosopher, literary critic, philologist and cultural critic M. M. Bakhtin.

Bakhtin's concept of chronotope

The main work of M. M. Bakhtin, dedicated to the category of time and space, is “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics", written in 1937-1938. and published in 1975 The main task For himself, in this work the author sees a study of the concept of chronotope within the framework of the novel as a genre. Bakhtin based his analysis on the European and, in particular, the ancient novel. In his work, the author shows that human images in literature, placed in certain spatiotemporal conditions, are capable of acquiring historical meaning. As Bakhtin notes, the chronotope of the novel largely determines the development of the action and the behavior of the characters. In addition, according to Bakhtin, the chronotope is the determining indicator genre affiliation works. That's why this term Bakhtin assigns a key role in understanding narrative forms and their development.

The meaning of the chronotope

Time and space in literary work- the main components of the artistic image that contribute to holistic perception artistic reality and organize the composition of the work. It is worth noting that when creating a work of art, the author endows the space and time in it with subjective characteristics that reflect the author’s worldview. Therefore, the space and time of one work of art will never be similar to the space and time of another work, and even less will it be similar to real space and time. Thus, the chronotope in literature is the interconnection of spatio-temporal relations mastered in a particular work of art.

Functions of the chronotope

In addition to the genre-forming function that Bakhtin noted, the chronotope also performs the main plot-forming function. In addition, it is the most important formal and content category of the work, i.e. laying the foundations artistic images, a chronotope in literature is a kind of independent image that is perceived at an associative-intuitive level. By organizing the space of a work, the chronotope introduces the reader into it and at the same time builds in the reader’s mind between the artistic whole and the surrounding reality.

The concept of chronotope in modern science

Since chronotope in literature is a central and fundamental concept, the works of many scientists of both the last century and the present are devoted to its study. IN Lately Researchers are paying more and more attention to the classification of chronotopes. Thanks to the convergence in last decades natural, social and humanities approaches to the study of chronotope have changed significantly. Interdisciplinary research methods are increasingly being used, which make it possible to discover new facets of a work of art and its author.

The development of semiotic and hermeneutic analysis of the text made it possible to see that the chronotope of a work of art reflects in itself color scheme and the sound tonality of the depicted reality, and also conveys the rhythm of the action and the dynamics of the development of events. These methods help to understand artistic space and time as a sign system containing semantic codes (historical, cultural, religious-mythical, geographical, etc.). Based modern research The following forms of chronotope are distinguished in the literature:

• cyclic chronotope;
• linear chronotope;
• chronotope of eternity;
• nonlinear chronotope.

It should be noted that some researchers consider the categories of space and the category of time separately, while others consider these categories in an inextricable relationship, which, in turn, determines the characteristics of a literary work.

Thus, in the light of modern research, the concept of chronotope is gaining increasing importance as the most structurally stable and established category of a literary work.

Space and time in a literary work. Types of artistic time and space. The concept of chronotope. Functions and types of chronotopes.

Hood literature (in this respect, theater and cinema are similar to it) reproduces life processes occurring in time, i.e. human life associated with a chain of experiences, thoughts, intentions, actions, events.

Aristotle was the first to connect “space and time” with the meaning of a work of art. Then the ideas about these categories were carried out by: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their works, “space and time” became established as the basis of literary categories. In any case work is inevitably reflected real time and space. As a result, a whole system of spatio-temporal relations develops in the work.

Artistic time And artistic space - this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organizes the compositional work.

Artistic time And space symbolic. Basic spatial symbols: house (image of a closed space), space (image of an open space), threshold, window, door (border). IN modern literature: station, airport (places of decisive meetings).

Artistic space can be: point, volumetric.

Artistic space Dostoevsky's novels are a stage. Time in his novels moves very quickly, but in Chekhov time has stopped.

The famous physiologist Ukhtomsky combined two greek words: chronos- time,topos- place into the concept chronotope– space-time complex.

MM. Bakhtin in his work “Forms of Time and Chronotope” in the novel explores chronotope in novels different eras since antiquity. He showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other.

Bakhtin: term "chronotope" For him these are two indivisible things, synthesis, unity.

Chronotope – a significant interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature or in a literary work.

According to Bakhtin, the chronotope is primarily an attribute of the novel. It has plot significance. Space structure built on opposition: top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, closed-open.

Time structure : day-night, spring-autumn, light-dark, etc.

Functions of the chronotope:

Determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality;

Organizes the space of the work, leads readers into it;

Can relate different space and time;

Can build a chain of associations in the reader’s mind and, on this basis, connect works with ideas about the world and expand these ideas.

In addition, both time and space distinguish between the concrete and the abstract. If time is abstract, then space is abstract, and vice versa.

Types of private chronotopes according to Bakhtin:

The chronotope of the road is based on the motive of a chance meeting.

The appearance of this motif in the text can cause a plot. Open space. chronotope of a private salon - non-random meeting

. Closed space.

chronotope of the castle (it is not found in Russian literature).

The dominance of the historical, tribal past. Limited space.

The chronotope of a provincial town is eventless time, a closed, self-sufficient space, living its own life.

Time is cyclical, but not sacred.

chronotype of threshold (crisis consciousness, turning point). There is no biography as such, only moments.

Large chronotope:

doubling

recalling a character's memory

strengthening the meaning of montage

time itself becomes the hero of the story

time and space are integral coordinates of the world.

And space. Then Albert Einstein drew attention to the continuity and infinity of the space-time continuum.

In Russia, the concept of chronotope was used by the famous physiologist Ukhtomsky. He put the words together Greek origin: chronos - “time” and “topos” - place. And after him, the philologist and literary critic M. M. Bakhtin used the concept.

What is a chronotope in literature?

The concept of “chronotope” was introduced into literary criticism by Mikhail Bakhtin. However, in literature this word has a different meaning. In his article, where the philologist examined the meaning of time and space in literary works, starting with ancient epics, the scientist mentioned that he uses the concept of chronotope metaphorically. He focused specifically on the inseparability of these concepts. The plot of the work depends significantly on the time chosen by the author.

Chronotope is the unity of place and time in a literary work. The writer must introduce the characters and events at the chosen time correctly. Artistically describing the time and place of each scene is an important task, and if a novice writer fails to cope with it, the text will be damp and difficult to read.

According to the thoughts of Mikhail Bakhtin, time is the leading characteristic of the chronotope. Space only concretizes and complements. Space and objects in space make time tangible. Each point in time becomes visible thanks to material space and the course of events in it.

Bakhtin's article on chronotopes

In his article “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel,” the scientist analyzes the description of time and actions within space in several works. The “Golden Ass” of Apuleius, which has come down from antiquity in full, is mentioned, famous novel Dante Alighieri, Roman "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by F. Rabelais, and others. There are 10 chapters in Bakhtin's work. In the last, 10th chapter, the literary critic describes the forms of the chronotope and the content that is often contained in them.

Mikhail Bakhtin combined philological and philosophical research in his works. Thanks to the analysis of chronotopes, it is much easier for modern writers to build a plot.

Forms of time and chronotope in the novel

If the world of a work is completely mystical, it should be well described. A reader cannot be fully immersed in a story or novel if there is not enough description of that world. important details or there are unforgivable logical errors in the narrative.

So, what worlds did Bakhtin describe? The era of the story greatly influences the character and the course of events. Let us describe the forms of chronotope identified by Bakhtin.

• Roads. They may meet on the road strangers, a conversation can begin and a story can begin.
• Castle. The novel will feature drama related to the family past. Most likely, the narrative space is limited. Castles always describe the feudal past, mentioning great personalities - kings, dukes. Present in the story are galleries with portraits, valuables, expensive antiques. The plot can unfold around the trampled right of inheritance or a knightly confrontation, or the defense of the dignity of a knight and his lady.
• Living room. This chronotope is clearly manifested in Balzac's novels. Living rooms are the birthplace of specific salon intrigues; this is an analysis of the characters’ characters and a search for context in actions.
• A provincial quiet town. The description of the city and its inhabitants assumes a closed space where the passage of time is almost not described, since in the province everything goes on as usual and nothing changes.
• threshold. This is a metaphorical space-time, where the novel is based on a crisis situation. On the “threshold” a story is built where there is no biography of the hero. Here the problem of a turning point in the consciousness of society arises acutely.

These chronotopes prevailed in the novels of bygone eras. Research Article published at the beginning of the 20th century, it did not yet cover the fantastic chronotopes that are popular today.

Idyllic or folklore chronotope

Separately, it is necessary to mention the folklore chronotope, to which Bakhtin devoted an entire chapter. The idyll can be divided into 2 parts:

• Family-idyllic chronotope. This is an idyll that is always tied to the natural region where the hero and his great-grandfathers grew up. Human life is always inseparably linked with nature. Another feature of such novels is the complete absence of everyday descriptions. Attention is paid exclusively to the romantic moments of life ( new life, development, love, search for meaning).
• Labor idyll. Work for the good of society is glorified.

Most often, these two forms appear together in the novel. The heroes of idyllic novels cannot go beyond this world artificially created by the writer. The outside world seems to be devalued.

Functions of the chronotope

The most basic function of a chronotope is to organize the space in which the characters live, to make it understandable and interesting.

Space-time determines the unity of the entire narrative. Time may be described differently in one literary work, but the reader should be organically introduced to each dimension.

Chronotope expands the reader's understanding of the world. The description of space should therefore not be narrow. If time and space are chosen conditionally, say, we're talking about about the future, then you need to tell as many little things as possible about this new space.

Modern chronotope. Approximate content

The heroes of today's literature live in others, modern chronotopes. These works differ significantly from the era of, say, Stendhal or Honore de Balzac. Since the chronotope largely determines, new spatio-temporal frameworks also create new genres, meanings and ideas. Fantasy, post-apocalyptic, and space adventures emerge.

Now let’s look at what defining characteristics of modern chronotopes are identified by literary scholars today.

• Abstraction and mythologization.
• Doubling.
• Use of symbolism.
• The characters' memories are of great importance.
• The emphasis is placed on the “flowing” time and the space “compressing” a person.
• Time itself can be the center of the story.

Modern culture provides the opportunity for a writer to create individual fantastic chronotopes. In general, time itself is much more abstract today than it was 100 years ago. Nowadays, social time and subjective time are distinguished, which are in no way connected with geographical time. Therefore, in literature, time-space is often blurred, depending on the internal affects of the hero.

Structure of time and space

What details does the chronotope in a work of art consist of? What does he look like? Time is formed by the cyclical changes of day and night, winter and summer, birth and death.

Space is built with the help of oppositions: north and south or the heavenly world and the underground, as the world is built in " Divine Comedy"Dante. Space is also characterized as open or closed, integral or discrete. Closed space is houses, galleries. Here it is necessary to describe household items and the atmosphere in the building. Open space is forests, mountains, seas. For an open landscape, it is also desirable to give several characteristics .

Discrete space is used more at the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. This is a conditional, almost unspecified space. For example, from symbolist writers you can take the image of a mirror as space. Simply put, the image prevails over reality, and in this abstract context the hero develops. For example, as in the works of Franz Kafka. The most abstract space is characteristic of romanticism and lyricism. In such a “blurred” space, the hero exists separately from everyday life. And here realistic work cannot be left without everyday details.

Interaction of chronotopes

The more tenses are used, the more interesting and intricate the plot. Between themselves art worlds are in dialogue. There can be a lot of worlds within one work. Chronotopes can be included in each other, smoothly transition or be opposed.

For example, in the book " Cloud Atlas"As many as 6 worlds with their own time and space are used.

Historical time moves from the 19th century into the immeasurably distant future. All 6 stories, 6 volumetric chronotopes have clear cause-and-effect relationships, while all the stories are collected into one puzzle - they are united by one theme. However, all these interactions of temporary episodes remain behind the scenes, only in the context of the plot.

Examples of chronotopes

Another shining example the combination of several chronotopes into one plot is the integrity of 3 worlds in the classic novel “The Master and Margarita”. The first time was the 30s in Moscow. Second chronotope - biblical times and appropriate to the era material world; the third world in the work is Woland’s well-known ball.

The third world includes the abstract transformations of Berlioz's apartment and the adventures of Margarita as a witch.

It is worth saying that in the novels of F. Dostoevsky, time always moves very quickly and this affects the characters. But in A. Chekhov’s stories it’s the other way around: time is almost absent, it freezes along with space.

Conclusion

So, what do we know about the chronotope in a literary work? The meaning of the word is given by M. Bakhtin; he explains this concept as a unified structure of chronos - time - and space where the events of the novel take place. The chronotope is the basis of the novel, which completely determines the genre of the work and gives the writer a “guide” to a possible plot. Time and space have their own function in the novel, their own structure.

The forms of time and chronotope analyzed by M. Bakhtin are basically no longer used, as completely new ideas and genres are being developed. have completely new chronotopes that affect the nature of the narrative and the behavior of the hero.