Work: Artistic image as an aesthetic category.

Plot(from Frenchsujet - subject, content) - a system of events that constitutes the content of a literary work. Sometimes, in addition to the plot, the plot of the work is also singled out. Plot - a chronological sequence of events described in a work. Famous example discrepancies between the plot and the plot - Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time". If you follow the plot (chronological) sequence, then the stories in the novel should have been arranged in a different order: “Taman”, “Princess Mary”, “Bela”, “Fatalist”, “Maxim Maksimovich”.

The plot of the work includes not only events from the life of the characters, but also the events of the spiritual (inner) life of the author. So, digressions in "Eugene Onegin" by Pushkin and in " Dead souls» Gogol - these are deviations from the plot, and not from the plot.

Composition(from Latin composition - compilation, connection) - construction of a work of art. The composition can be organized plot ( J 1. Tolstoy "After the ball") and non-plot (I. Bunin "Antonov apples"). A lyrical work can also be plot-driven (Nekrasov's poem "Reflections at the Front Door", which is characterized by an epic event plot) and non-plot (Lermontov's poem "Gratitude").

The composition of a literary work includes:

- arrangement of images-characters and grouping of other images;

- plot composition;

- composition of non-plot elements;

- ways of narration (from the author, from the narrator, from the hero; in the form oral story, in the form of diaries, letters);

- composition of details (details of the situation, behavior);

- speech composition (stylistic devices).

The composition of a work depends on its content, genre, genre, etc.

The development of action in a work of art includes several stages: exposition, plot, climax, denouement, epilogue.

exposition(from Latin expositio - presentation, explanation) - prehistory of the events underlying the work of art. Usually, it gives a description of the main characters, their placement before the start of the action, before the plot. The exposition motivates the behavior of the characters. The exposition can be direct, that is, standing at the beginning of the work, or delayed, that is, located in the middle or end of the work. For example, information about Chichikov's life before his arrival in provincial city given in the last chapter of the first volume of Dead Souls by Gogol. Delayed exposure usually gives the work a mystery, ambiguity.

tie - it is an event that is the beginning of an action. The plot either reveals the already existing contradictions, or itself creates ("tie up") conflicts. For example, the plot in Gogol's comedy "The Inspector General" is the receipt by the mayor of a letter informing him of the arrival of the auditor.

climax(from Latin culmen - top) - the highest point of tension in the development of action, the highest point of conflict, when the contradiction reaches its limit and is expressed in a particularly acute form. So, in Ostrovsky's drama "Thunderstorm" the climax is Katerina's confession. The more conflicts in the work, the more difficult it is to reduce the tension of the action to only one climax. The climax is the sharpest manifestation of the conflict and at the same time prepares the denouement of the action.

denouement - outcome of events. This is the final moment in the creation of artistic conflict. The denouement is always directly connected with the action and, as it were, puts the final semantic point in the narrative. Such, for example, is the so-called silent scene in N. Gogol's The Inspector General, where all the plot knots of the comedy are "untied" and a final assessment of the characters' characters is given. The denouement can resolve a conflict (Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"), but it may not eliminate conflict situations (in Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit", in Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" the main characters remain in difficult situations).

Epilogue(from Greek epilogos - afterword) - always concludes the work. The epilogue tells about the further fate of the heroes. For example, Dostoevsky in the epilogue of "Crime and Punishment" reports on how Raskolnikov has changed in hard labor.

Lyrical digression - deviation of the author from the plot, author's lyrical inserts on topics that have little or no connection with the main theme of the work. On the one hand, they hinder the plot development of the work, and on the other hand, they allow the writer to openly express his subjective opinion on various issues that are directly or indirectly related to the central theme. Such, for example, are the lyrical digressions in Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin", in Gogol's "Dead Souls".

Conflict(from Latin conflictus - collision) - clash between characters, or between characters and environment, hero and fate, and internal contradictions character. Conflicts can be external (Chatsky's clash with the "famus" society" in Griboedov's "Woe from Wit") and internal (Chatsky's internal, psychological conflict). Often, external and internal conflicts are closely interconnected in a work (“Woe from Wit” by Griboedov, “Eugene Onegin” by Pushkin).

Narrator - the author, who directly expresses this or that idea of ​​the work, speaks to the reader from own name. So, the image of the author-narrator is present in Nekrasov's "Who Lives Well in Russia". It arises almost from the first lines of the poem, when the narrator begins the story of the seven "temporarily liable" who met "on the pole path" and argued "who lives happily, freely in Rus'." However, the role of the narrator is not limited to dispassionate information about what the men are doing, who they are listening to, where they are going. The attitude of men to what is happening is expressed through the narrator, who acts as a kind of commentator on events. For example, in one of the first scenes of the poem, when the peasants argued and could not find a solution to the question “who lives happily, freely in Rus'”, the author comments on the intransigence of the peasants:

A man, like a bull, vtemyashitsya In the head, what a whim - You can't knock it out with a stake: they resist, Everyone stands on his own!

Author - art creator. His presence in literary text noticeable to varying degrees. He either directly expresses this or that idea of ​​the work, speaks to the reader on his own behalf, or hides his “I”, as if he removes himself from the work. Such a double structure of the author's image is always explained general idea writer and style of his work. Sometimes in a work of art the author acts as a completely independent image.

The image of the author is a character, the protagonist of a work of art, considered in a number of other characters. He has the features of a lyrical hero or storyteller; may be extremely close to the biographical author or deliberately distant from him.

For example, we can talk about the image of the author in Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin". It is no less important than the images of other heroes. The author is present in all scenes of the novel, comments on them, gives his explanations, judgments, assessments. He gives a unique originality to the composition and appears to the reader as an author-character, an author-narrator and an author-a lyrical hero who tells about himself, his experiences, views, life.

Character(from Frenchcharacter - personality, face) - character of a work of art. As a rule, the character takes an active part in the development of the action, but the author or someone from literary heroes. Characters are main and secondary. In some works, the focus is on one character (for example, in Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time"), in others, the writer's attention is drawn to a number of characters ("War and Peace" by L. Tolstoy).

Character(from Greek character trait, feature) the image of a person in a literary work, which combines the general, repetitive and individual, unique. Through the character reveals the author's view of the world and man. The principles and techniques of creating a character differ depending on the tragic, satirical and other ways of depicting life, on the literary type of the work and genre.

Should be distinguished literary character from character in life. Creating a character, the writer can also reflect the features of the real, historical man. But he inevitably uses fiction, "thinks" the prototype, even if his hero is a historical figure.

"Character" and "character" - concepts are not identical. Literature is focused on the creation of characters that often cause controversy, are perceived by critics and readers ambiguously. Therefore, in the same character you can see different tempers(the image of Bazarov from Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons"). In addition, in the system of images of a literary work, as a rule, there are much more characters than characters. Not every character is a character, some characters perform only a plot role. As a rule, secondary heroes of the work are not characters.

Type - a generalized artistic image, the most possible, characteristic of a certain public environment. A type is a character that contains a social generalization. For example, the type of "superfluous person" in Russian literature, with all its diversity (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), had common features: education, dissatisfaction real life, the desire for justice, the inability to realize oneself in society, the ability to strong feelings etc. Each time gives birth to its own types of heroes. The “extra person” was replaced by the type of “new people”. This, for example, is the nihilist Bazarov.

Lyrical hero - the image of the poet, the lyrical "I". The inner world of the lyrical hero is revealed not through actions and events, but through a specific state of mind, through the experience of a certain life situation. lyric poem- a concrete and single manifestation of the character of the lyrical hero. With the greatest completeness, the image of the lyrical hero is revealed in all the work of the poet. So, in separate lyrical works of Pushkin (“In the depths of Siberian ores ...”, “Anchar”, “Prophet”, “Desire of glory”, “I love you ...” and others), various states of the lyrical hero are expressed, but, taken together, they give us a fairly holistic view of it.

The image of the lyrical hero should not be identified with the personality of the poet, just as the experiences of the lyrical hero should not be perceived as the thoughts and feelings of the author himself. The image of the lyrical hero is created by the poet in the same way as the artistic image in the works of other genres, with the help of the selection of life material, typification, and fiction.

Image system - a set of artistic images of a literary work. The system of images includes not only images of characters, but also images-details, images-symbols, etc.

Artistic means of creating images (speech characteristics of the hero: dialogue, monologue-author's characteristic, portrait, internal monologue, etc.)

When creating images, the following artistic means are used:

1. speech characterization of the hero, which includes monologue and dialogue. Monologue- a character's speech addressed to another character or to the reader without counting on an answer. Monologues are especially characteristic of dramatic works(one of the most famous is Chatsky's monologue from Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit"). Dialogue- verbal communication between the characters, which, in turn, serves as a way to characterize the character and motivates the development of the plot.

In some works, the character himself tells about himself in the form of an oral story, notes, diaries, letters. This technique, for example, is used in Tolstoy's story "After the Ball".

2. Mutual characteristic,when one character talks about another (mutual characteristics of officials in Gogol's The Government Inspector).

3. Author's characteristic,when the author talks about his character. So, while reading "War and Peace", we always feel the author's attitude to people and events. It is revealed both in the portraits of the actors, and in direct assessments-characteristics, and in the author's intonation.

Portrait - the image in a literary work of the appearance of the hero: facial features, figures, clothes, postures, facial expressions, gestures, demeanor. In literature, there is often a psychological portrait in which, through the appearance of the hero, the writer seeks to reveal his inner world (portrait of Pechorin in Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time").

Scenery- depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work. The landscape also often served as a means of characterizing the hero and his mood at a certain moment (for example, the landscape in the perception of Grinev in " Captain's daughter"Pushkin before visiting the robber "military council" is fundamentally different from the landscape after this visit, when it became clear that Grinev's Pugachevites would not be executed).

"Eternal" themes - These are the topics that are always, at all times, of interest to mankind. They contain a generally significant and moral content, but each era puts its own meaning into their interpretation. The "eternal" themes include such as the theme of death, the theme of love and others.

motive - the smallest significant component of the story. Also, a motive is called a constantly repeating in various works artistic plot. It can be contained in many works by one writer or by several writers. "Eternal" motives- such motives that for centuries pass from one work to another, since they contain a universal, universally significant meaning (the motive of the meeting, the motive of the path, the motive of loneliness, and others).

In the literature there are "eternal" images. "Eternal" images- characters of literary works that went beyond their scope. They are found in other works of writers from different countries and eras. Their names have become common nouns, often used as epithets, pointing to some qualities of a person or a literary character. These are, for example, Faust, Don Juan, Hamlet, Don Quixote. All these characters have lost their purely literary meaning and acquired universal human meaning. They were created a very long time ago, but again and again they appear in the works of writers, because they express what is generally significant, important for all people.

Artistic image as an aesthetic category

Introduction to the concept of "image"

What is meant by the definition of an image?

This definition It is used in 2 meanings: narrow and wide.

In a narrow sense, an image is an expression that gives color, concreteness to speech; from this point of view in the lines

Forest, like a painted tower, purple, gold, crimson

A merry, colorful wall stands over a bright glade.

there is already an image, i.e. expression, thanks to which our idea of ​​the forest becomes more concrete, as it is described autumn forest, it is compared with a tower.

In a broad sense, an image is a type of reflection of life by an artist. In this understanding, the image covers not only the language, but a number of aspects of literary creativity. The concept of image in a broad sense means general properties literature and art in general.

Consider several definitions of the image from different sources: encyclopedic Dictionary terms, Aesthetics - Dictionary, Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary and monograph "Horizons of the artistic image" Khrapchenko M.B.

So, how does the term "image" explain Literary-encyclopedic dictionary of terms?

Image- general category artistic creativity; a form of reproduction, interpretation and development of life inherent in art by creating aesthetically affecting objects. An image is often understood as an element or part of an artistic whole, usually such a fragment that has, as it were, independent life and content (directional character in the literature, symbolic images, like "Sails" by Lermontov).

But in a general sense, the image is the very way of existence of the work, taken from the side of its expressiveness, impressive energy and significance. Among other aesthetic categories, this is the most comparatively late origin, although the beginnings of the theory of the image can be found in the teachings of Aristotle about "mimesia" - about the artist's free imitation of life in its ability to produce integral, internally arranged objects, and about the aesthetic pleasure associated with this. In the aesthetic aspect, the image appears to be an expedient life-like organism, in which there is no superfluous, random, mechanically auxiliary, and which gives the impression of beauty precisely because of the perfect unity and ultimate meaningfulness of its parts. The inner form of the image is personal, it bears an indelible trace of the author's ideology, his isolating and implementing initiatives, due to which the image appears as a valued human reality, cultural value among other values, the expression of historically relative tendencies and ideals.

In another dictionary source Aesthetics Here is how this concept is interpreted. An artistic image is a specific art form of reflecting reality and expressing the artist's thoughts and feelings. The image is born in the imagination of the artist, embodied in the work he creates in one way or another. material form(plastic, sound, gesture-mimic, verbal) and is recreated by the imagination of the perceiving art of the viewer, reader, listener. Other types of image: photographic documents, abstract geometric. Unlike them, the artistic image reflects certain phenomena of reality, at the same time it carries a holistic spiritual content, in which the emotional and intellectual attitude of the artist to the world is organically merged. An artistic image has a special structure, on the one hand, determined by the peculiarities of the spiritual content expressed in it, and on the other hand, by the nature of the material in which this content is embodied. The artistic image in architecture is static, in literature it is dynamic, in painting it is pictorial, in music it is intonational. In some genres, the image appears in the image of a person, in others - as an image of nature, in the third - a thing, in the fourth - it connects the representation of human action and the environment in which it unfolds. But in all cases, the way of perceiving an artistic image is not only contemplation, but experience. Finally, sometimes the artist's work is seen as a single mega-image of the world and a person in the world. Such images can be found in the works of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov. The multi-scale significance of the artistic image is one of the evidences that everything in art has an artistic and figurative character.

How is this concept interpreted? philosophical dictionary ?

Artistic image- a general category of artistic creativity, a means and a form of mastering life by art. An image is often understood as an element or part of a work that has, as it were, an independent existence and meaning (in literature - the image of a character, in painting- image subject). In a general sense, an artistic image is the very way of being of a work of art, taken from the side of its expressiveness, impressive energy and meaningfulness. Among other aesthetic categories, art. The image is of comparatively late origin.

In the ontological aspect, x.o. - a fact of ideal being, “embedded” in its material basis, but not coinciding with it (marble is not the flesh that it depicts, the plane of the canvas is not three-dimensional space, the story of an event is not the event itself).

In the semiotic aspect, X.O. - sign, i.e. a means of meaningful communication within a given culture or related cultures.

In the epistemological aspect, H.o. - a fiction related to such a kind of cognizing thought as an assumption.

In the aesthetic aspect, H.o. - an organism in which there is nothing accidental and mechanically auxiliary and which is beautiful due to the perfect unity and final meaningfulness of its parts.

At M.B. Khrapchenko in the monograph "Horizons of the artistic image" gives the following definition: " Artistic image - one of the most important internal principles of art, active, dynamic principles. Aesthetic assimilation of reality is inseparable from the development of figurative creativity, the history of which reveals its amazing richness and diversity, its unlimited possibilities. The artistic image is sometimes brought together or even confused with the image as a direct reflection objective world, processes of life in human consciousness. However, H.o. often expresses illusions, social prejudices, delusions. Figurative assimilation of reality is a special and very important area of ​​human spiritual activity, which is characterized by amazing diversity. What is the essence of the artistic image, what is its social and aesthetic function?

There are 4 “elements” of H.O., the spheres of its disclosure:

reflection and generalization of the essential properties, features of reality, human ideas about the world, disclosure of the complexity of the spiritual life of people.

An expression of an emotional attitude to everything that serves as an object of creativity.

The embodiment of the ideal, the perfect, the beauty of life, nature, the creation of an aesthetically significant object world.

The internal setting on the perception of the reader, viewer, listener, inherent in figurative creativity and associated with this setting, the potential force of the aesthetic impact that a separate image and art as a whole has always had and is having on its consumers.

The horizons of the artistic image, the scope of its action - this is the modern life of mankind in all its limitless diversity, this is history with its conquests and dramas, this is the future society into which the human eye penetrates, this is the world of violent resistance to the new, and the ardent aspirations of people to the transformation of the social order and themselves, the construction of a just social order. H.O. Horizons - the vast expanses of living life, creativity, creations.

Thus, based on the above sources, we will define the artistic image.

Let us find something common in all interpretations of this concept.

All sources say that image - a universal category of artistic creativity, a reflection of reality and an expression of the thoughts and feelings of the artist. Also great importance attributed aesthetic aspect, we note that the way of perceiving an artistic image is not only contemplation, but also experience.

So, Artistic image- a generalized, artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific, individual phenomenon.

An artistic image is an expression of content in a literary work. Based on this position, we can consider the structure of the artistic image:

– H.o. - a product of the writer's thought, and then this is a broad picture of life presented to the reader's gaze;

– H.o. - the carrier of an aesthetic idea, and then it is a thought, or a super-sense embedded in a specific image.

Means of creating an artistic image: tropes, hero's speech, author's narration or description, artistic detail, composition of a sentence, paragraph, chapter, rhythm and melody of a work, etc.

And now, given the above, we will give a definition of the image.

The image is a concrete and at the same time generalized picture. human life, created with the help of fiction and having aesthetic value.

An image is a way of reflecting reality.

What should be understood by the definition of a literary image?

literary image - a verbal image, designed in a word, that peculiar form of reflection of life, which is inherent in art.

So, imagery is the central concept of the theory of literature, it answers its most basic question: what is the essence of literary creativity?

Image - a generalized reflection of reality in the form of a single, individual - such a common definition of this concept. The most basic features are emphasized in this definition - generalization and individualization. Indeed, both of these features are essential and important. They are present in every literary work.

For example, the image of Pechorin shows the common features of the younger generation of the time in which M.Yu. lived. Lermontov, and at the same time it is obvious that Pechorin is an individual depicted by Lermontov with the utmost concreteness of life. And not only this. To understand the image, it is necessary, first of all, to find out: what is the artist really interested in, what does he focus on among life phenomena?

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“The artistic image, according to Gorky, is almost always wider and deeper than the idea, it takes a person with all his diversity of his spiritual life, with all the contradictions of his feelings and thoughts.”

So, the image is a picture of human life. To reflect life with the help of images means to draw pictures of the human life of people, i.e. actions and experiences of people characteristic of a given area of ​​life, allowing to judge it.

Speaking about the fact that the image is a picture of human life, we mean precisely that it is reflected in it synthetically, holistically, i.e. "personally", and not any one of its side.

A work of art is valuable only when it makes the reader or viewer believe in itself as a phenomenon of human life, either external or spiritual.

Without a concrete picture of life, there is no art. But concreteness itself is not an end in itself. artistic image. It necessarily follows from its very subject, from the task that art faces: the depiction of human life in its entirety.

So, let's complete the definition of the image.

An image is a concrete picture of human life, i.e. her personalized image.

Let's consider further. The writer studies reality on the basis of a certain worldview; in the process of his life experience, he accumulates observations, conclusions; he comes to certain generalizations reflecting reality and at the same time expressing his views. He shows these generalizations to the reader in living, concrete facts, in the destinies and experiences of people. Thus, in the definition of "image" we supplement: An image is a specific and at the same time a generalized picture of human life.

But even now our definition is not yet complete.

Very big role fiction plays in the image. Without creative imagination artist there would be no unity of the individual and the generalized, without which there is no image. On the basis of his knowledge and understanding of life, the artist imagines such life facts by which it would be possible to judge the life he depicts better than his own. This is the meaning of art. At the same time, the artist's fiction is not arbitrary, it is suggested to him by his life experience. Only under this condition will the artist be able to find real colors for depicting the world into which he wants to introduce the reader. Fiction is a means of selection by the writer of the most characteristic of life, i.e. is a generalization of the life material collected by the writer. It should be noted that fiction does not oppose reality, but is a special form of reflection of life, a peculiar form of its generalization. Now we must again complete our definition.

So, the image is a concrete and at the same time a generalized picture of human life, created with the help of fiction. But that's not all.

A work of art evokes in us a feeling of immediate excitement, sympathy for the characters, or resentment. We treat it as something that personally affects us, directly relating to us.

So. This is an aesthetic feeling. The purpose of art is to aesthetically comprehend reality, in order to evoke an aesthetic feeling in a person. Aesthetic sense is associated with the idea of ​​the ideal. It is this perception of the ideal embodied in life, the perception of the beautiful that causes us aesthetic feelings: excitement, joy, pleasure. This means that the significance of art lies in the fact that it should evoke an aesthetic attitude towards life in a person. Thus, we have come to the conclusion that the essential side of the image is its aesthetic value.

Now we can give a definition of the image, which has absorbed the features that we talked about.

So, summing up what has been said, we get:

IMAGE - A SPECIFIC AND AT THE SAME TIME GENERALIZED PICTURE OF HUMAN LIFE, CREATED WITH THE HELP OF FICTION AND HAVING AESTHETIC SIGNIFICANCE.

The structure of the artistic image

The structure of X.O. represents the dialectical unity of a whole complex of opposite principles:

- knowledge and appreciation

- objective and subjective,

- rational and emotional,

– images and expressions,

- real and fictional

- lifelikeness and conventions,

- specificity and generalization.

So what is included in the content of the image itself?

The objective content of a work of art. This is a historical reality that determines the life situation in which the artist himself finds himself and which he reflects in his work, no matter how he himself relates to it.

subjective content. This is the assessment in the light that the writer himself gives in the phenomenon of life he depicts.

The immediate, concrete content of the work is the history of these characters and the events that it tells about.

Aesthetic value image - a concrete embodiment of human ideals.

So any piece of art- first of all, the writer's expression of his attitude to reality. And the writer expresses his attitude by showing the manifestations of life that interest him figuratively, that is, in pictures of human life, with all its inherent properties, while preserving internal logic the relationships they portray.

The concept of image is also understood as the character of a person, although the concept of image is much broader than character. For example, the image of Pechorin, the Image of Peter Grinev. IN this concept talk about the characters of these characters in the image of the world around them.

What are the main characteristics of the artistic image?

Let's give 1 example

"The image of Bazarov (based on Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons")

The time of the novel.

Written in crucial moment historical development of Russia, the novel "Fathers and Sons" showed the acute problems of our time, which, after the appearance of this work, worried Russian society. The novel was a reflection of the social conflict of the 60s of the 19th century, which is shown on the example of the eternal conflict of fathers and children. The novel shows typical representative raznochintsy, for whom, for all their differences in socio-political views, democracy was characteristic. The main conflict rests on the opposition of democracy and aristocracy, fathers and children.

The main characters, the image as a characteristic of the characters, relationships different heroes as a necessary condition for the disclosure of the artistic image.

Bazarov is a democrat-raznochinets. These people labored their way into life and did not recognize the class division of society. Striving for knowledge, they valued a person not by wealth, but by his deeds, the benefit to the people around him.

Democracy is inherent not only in Bazarov's convictions, but also in his appearance. The appearance of the hero of the novel in a noble environment in a hoodie is in itself a challenge to convention, a deliberate disregard for it. We pay attention to his red hand, accustomed to physical labor. It is too different from the hand of the nobleman Pavel Petrovich (Kirsanov's hands are aristocratic, well-groomed, and indeed he leads an idle life). Even in the village where Bazarov came to rest, he took work with him: a microscope for experiments. Thus, the author contrasts the era of aristocrats with their idle life with the era of commoners with their closeness to the people.

The image of Yevgeny Bazarov is more fully revealed in comparison with Pavel Petrovich.

In the course of the novel, this opposition is always preserved: in the description of the clothes of the heroes, their belongings, and actions. The writer calls Bazarov’s clothes clothes, since she is nothing, on the contrary, Pavel Petrovich’s clothes are described in detail, since she is his face: a dark English suit, a fashionable low tie and patent leather ankle boots.

Behind Bazarov's negligence is his nihilism, and behind Kirsanov's exquisite appearance are his principles.

In general, in the appearance of Bazarov, Turgenev emphasizes his intellectual beginning: intelligence and self-respect.

We see that the life of an idle aristocratic society passes in idleness, which cannot be said about Bazarov. His continuous work is the content of his life. He continues his natural science studies in Maryino.

The opposition is also characterized by the age of the characters. And every age has its own fashion, its own views. All fathers and children are different. The time in which this or that generation began to live makes differences in everything: in clothes, in habits, in character, in behavior. And all this taken together affects the worldview of a person. And there is something that unites different generations. Bazarov denies the existing, because at this time that he lives, it is useful to deny everything. Pavel Petrovich does not want to change anything in life, because he has already lived at this time for a long time and is used to his leisurely, measured life, but nevertheless he agrees with some of Bazarov's views. The main thing is that he recognizes that not everything is in order in modern society.

When the dispute turned about the people, they seemed to see eye to eye. Bazarov agrees with Pavel Petrovich that the people "revere traditions, they are patriarchal, they cannot live without faith." But if Kirsanov is convinced of the value of these qualities, then Bazarov is ready to devote his whole life to making this not so. The protagonist of the novel, it would seem, speaks disparagingly about the peasants. But he opposes not against them, but against tenderness before their backwardness, superstition, ignorance.

Continuation
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What is the main thing for these people?

For Bazarov - to fix society, i.e. the same thing that the revolutionaries wanted.

The existing system, according to Bazarov, must be destroyed. Kirsanov says that it is necessary not only to destroy, but also to build, and this is very difficult.

Kirsanov demonstrates his admiration for the beauty of art, classical literature.

And Bazarov prefers not to talk about it. So, he mockingly treats Pushkin, denies painting, poetry. Sometimes the position of Bazarov, referring to everything from a critical point of view, is distinguished by its extremeness. This can be said about his egoistic views.

He does not notice the beauty of nature, although he loves it in his own way, believing that it has huge resources that can be used for the benefit of man.

What is the attitude of other persons in the novel towards him?

Nikolai Petrovich is a kind, gentle person, so he treats Bazarov somewhat aloof, with misunderstanding, fear: “He was afraid of the young nihilist and doubted the benefits of his influence on Arkady.”

Pavel Petrovich's feelings are stronger and more definite:

"He hated Bazarov, considered him proud, impudent, cynic, plebeian."

The clash between Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich, as representatives of not only different generations, but also beliefs, was inevitable. Pavel Petrovich was only waiting for an excuse to pounce on the enemy. Bazarov, on the other hand, considered the verbal battle useless, but he could not evade it. Terrible words that he denies everything, Bazarov speaks with inexpressible calmness. His words sound confident in his innocence.

The image of Yevgeny Bazarov is more fully revealed precisely in comparison with Pavel Petrovich. In the words of the latter, aristocracy is felt. He constantly uses expressions emphasizing the good manners of a true aristocrat (I am sensitively obliged to you, I have the honor). Abundance in the speech of this hero foreign expressions irritates Bazarov: “Aristocracy, liberalism, progress, principles ... just think how many foreign and useless words! Russian people do not need them for nothing.

The speech of Bazarov himself is distinguished by wit, resourcefulness, excellent knowledge of his native language and the ability to master it. In Bazarov's speech, his characteristic mindset is manifested - sober, sensible, clear.

In the frequent disputes of these different people almost all the main issues on which the raznochintsy democrats and liberals disagreed were touched upon: about the ways of the country's further development, about materialism and idealism, about knowledge of science, understanding of art and about the attitude towards the people. All the principles of Pavel Petrovich boil down to defending the old order, and Bazarov's views - to denouncing this order.

In his views, Bazarov is alone. The novel does not show a single follower of Bazarov. There are only imaginary students. This is a little liberal gentleman Arkady. However, his passion for Bazarov is a tribute to his youth, but he is the best of Bazarov's students depicted in the novel. His other "followers" are depicted satirically.

Sitnikov and Kukshina see in nihilism the negation of all the old moral standards and enthusiastically follow this fashion.

The novel shows another 1 representative of the old generation, Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov. In it, the author embodied at the same time the features of sons and fathers. This hero recalls how his mother once did not understand him either, how he told her that they belonged to different generations. And then he said to Pavel Petrovich: "Now it's our turn." These words capture the essence of the conflict between fathers and children.

For if something is denied, something else must be offered instead, and fathers will be wiser than children in some respects until the children themselves become fathers.

3) Summing up, assessment of the positions of the hero through the eyes of the author himself.

At the end of the novel, Bazarov dies, which confirms the author's inferiority of his positions.

Arkady marries and begins to run the household in a new way. Using his example, the author showed the reader that only such people can take the best that their fathers had, and, given their mistakes, build their own new one.

Turgenev himself admitted that his hero Bazarov was still on the eve of the future, he wanted to make a tragic face out of him ... He dreamed of a gloomy, wild figure, half grown out of the soil, strong, vicious, honest and yet doomed to death. And Turgenev created just such an image, thanks to which readers were able to make main conclusion: you can’t deny everything, and if you deny it, then in return you need to create something new, and you need to learn from the mistakes of the older generation, but at the same time listen to the elders, since they are wiser.

Conclusion

The image as an aesthetic category includes the content of the reality about which the author writes, the author's assessment of the actions that his character performs, the relationship of the main character with other characters. this work, assessment of the behavior of other characters and the aesthetic pleasure that the reader receives when reading this work.

Thus, we see that the concept of an artistic image as an aesthetic category is very diverse, includes many different aspects, there are no clear boundaries to this concept. After all, this is an image of heroes, and an image of nature, and an image of life itself, which the writer shows us in order to bring joy, pleasure from reading. The writer evokes in us an experience for the fate of his hero, teaches us, using his example, how the reader should act in a similar situation, what can be learned from him and what is unacceptable for the reader. The author teaches the reader through the artistic image to see what is beautiful and what is ugly, what is possible and what is not, what one must be in order to live fully. right life, not to repeat the mistakes of his heroes from the work. And although there is fiction in any work, there are also truthful sides of the depicted life, which the writer shows us in order to introduce us to the world in which his characters live and act.

Literature and library science

Prose genres were on the periphery of human consciousness. The task becomes to correlate genres with genres of literature. Genres are types of literary work that develop historically in different literary traditions. In Western literature genres are extremely close to each other.

literary genre

Already Aristotle introduces the classification of poetry (at that time there was art literature). In late antiquity, there was an antique novel. But all the works were in verse: and the epic, such as the epic poems of Homer; and drama (primarily tragedy); and songs of praise in honor of the gods). Literature was predominantly poetic. Prose genres were on the periphery of human consciousness. All this existed orally. Already Plato distinguished three types of poetry, as did Aristotle. He classified poetry according to whose voice we hear:

1. When only the voice of the poet or performer is heard. For example: dithyramb (choral song in honor of God Dionysus).
2. When both the voice of the narrator and the voices of the characters are heard. This is epic.
3. Only imitative voices are heard. This is drama.

In the 16th century, when Aristotle was discovered by Europeans, these three types of poetry were elevated to three types of literature: epic, drama, narrative. This concept has been kept. At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. philosophers (Schlegel, Hegel) took up its development. They believed that there were three huge groups into which all literary works can be divided. The epic and drama were preserved, but the lyrics were added. The term "lyric" was fixed by Hegel. In poetic genres, direct speech was very often included. this was the time of the romantics in literature, who exalted poetry, because it expresses feelings and thoughts. The task becomes to correlate genres with genres of literature.

The epic takes shape at the dawn of the Middle Ages. There are epic poems that seem to replace the epic. It's a pretty rare genre. In the 18th century a novel of a new type appears, this is the heyday of the epic kind. epic genus almost equal to narrative works. Drama included everything dramatic works, regardless of the genre and whether it is prosaic or lyrical. In poetry, the form is important, not the content. The genus turns into a meaningful category. It can be formulated abstractly. The tasks of deducing the essence of the literary genre are set.

Hegel tries to divide gender into objective (epic works) and subjective ( lyrical works). And his drama is a mixture of the subjective and the objective. There was a problem of literary genera, their origin and history.

Alexander Veselovsky

Searched for the roots of literary genera in archaic folklore

He believed that at the very beginning of literature there is a song-dance

He believed that a story (epos), an action (drama), a song (lyrics) are gradually distinguished

But in the 20th century the theory of three genera is perceived as an anachronism.

In the literature of the 19th and especially the 20th century. there are works that do not fall under any literary genre:

Stream of consciousness novels

Essays are small notes, reflections on a case, life, morality, etc.

IN Lately Literary genera are generally not dealt with, unlike genres.

Genres types of literary work that develop historically in different literary traditions.

In Western literature genres are extremely close to each other. A genre has its origin, history, often a period of existence (for example, miracles have disappeared), development. This is studied by literary critics. There are other problems as well. Since the genre is a historical category, the question arises: how does the genre stand out?

Genre features:

1. meaningful
   1. special topic
   2. special national sentiments
   3. plot type
2. formal (metric)
   1. composition of the work
   2. partitions of the product
   3. special meter (for example, in Ancient Greece is a hexameter)

A genre can be defined by both meaningful and formal features, or maybe by one thing. For example, the elegy is distinguished as a genre only on the basis of formal features these are small poems written in a special meter in elegiac distich.

The subject matter is very varied. The elegy is preserved in modern tradition(written in the 18th-19th centuries). in some poetry (Russian, French), elegy is not associated with meter. The theme becomes stable it is the theme of disappointment in life.

The study of genres poses many problems:

1. the problem of the origin of genres
2. history of genres
3. question of genre identity

As a rule, the novel has a title (designation). Its certain features are associated with this name (a certain model of a literary work is built). There are cases when the genre changes its characteristics over time. But the possibility of considering it as a single remains, because. the name does not change.

Elegy (from gravestone inscriptions). Formal features: a small poem with a certain size elegiac distich.

Sonnet

There are only formal signs in the definition: the verses alternate in a certain way: 2 quatrains are followed by 3 tertiary lines.

But in general, only formal signs are rarely distinguished.

Significant features also appear in the elegy: an elegy is a poem of civil, personal, moralistic content. Content begins to stabilize in the era ancient rome. It was mostly love content. There are no metrical signs in the European elegy there is no fixed poetic size. But the theme is the main one the theme of disappointment in life. There is a complete change of signs. In the European elegy there are no formal features, they are replaced by meaningful ones. And the content changes.

Tragedy is a dramatic genre that was formed in ancient Greece in the 5th century. BC. (Sophocles, Aeschylus). The tragedy had rigid formal signs:

• tragedy was poetic
• the tragedy involved the participation of the choir
• the articulation of the tragedy was determined by the performance of the choir
• the plot of the tragedy develops from the plot to the ups and downs

Medieval European literature develops its own literary genres - religious and comic. But from about the 15th c. ancient genres are being revived. In drama it is tragedy and comedy.

Shakespeare

Shakespearean tragedy changes very much:

• it does not involve the participation of the choir
• it is often written in a mixture of verse and prose.
• ancient greek tragedy this is a serious genre, but in the European tragedy, funny scenes are possible, a new role appears the role of the jester

In this inclusion of comic scenes in tragedy, they see the influence of medieval theater.

Tragedy of the 17th century (France, classicism):

• a tragedy entirely in verse that allows for happy endings
• no choir

Tynyanov was opposed to classifying transformed genres with the same name as one genre.

What connects the tragedies of different eras?

This applies only to the content side. But there is a common problem: the hero's clash with fate or with life circumstances that are stronger than him.

In ancient Greek tragedy, fate and the establishment of customs were contrary to the will of the people. In Shakespearean tragedy there is a clash of the individual with the surrounding society and the rules that reign in it. For example, in "Hamlet": uncle's betrayal and revenge on him. But the hero does not accept the fight, the man does not change himself and does not submit. For him, the consciousness of his dignity in choosing the path is extremely valuable. It is better for him to die than to submit.

The common thing that connects these genres is the genre essence. A universal model of the genre emerges. In an elegy, we cannot single out such an essence.

Genre selection

Genre identification begins with folklore, but in it they are distinguished in a different way: according to the rite (for example, wedding songs in a wedding ceremony), according to the everyday situation (for example, recruit songs).

A verbal genre is distinguished by its connection with the system in which it is born or used. In literature verbal art becomes an independent unit. For example, the ancient Greek tragedy was played out twice a year on religious holidays - the holidays of Dionysus. In the medieval theater, a liturgical drama is distinguished, which was staged in churches, temples and was part of the service. Likhachev singled out functional genres in medieval literature - genres of religious and court literature.

In literature, the genre is distinguished by the following signs:

1. by shape

2. by content

The appearance of the genre meets the demands in the field of literature and culture. Continuity, imitation in a good sense (as Tomashevsky said about a detective novel) has limited meanings. Borrowed:

• character placement, ending
• style
• plot

a set is formed permanent signs, which for the authors becomes a genre standard. In certain eras, deviation from the genre was considered a big error. The genre retained in itself the memory of works containing the memory of antiquity (Bakhtin coined the term "memory of the genre").

Elegy

Tomashevsky believed that continuity was needed in the elegy. The genre is borrowed from ancient literature.

Since comedy is a genre of laughter, it is lower than tragedy. The name and basic setting are borrowed. In a conscious orientation to the ancient past, only the name could be borrowed. For example, Goethe wrote "Roman Elegies" as an imitation of an ancient model.

The problem of genre essence remains in yet another aspect, that of the East. Any oriental literature creates its own genres with its own history. But, speaking about genres in the context of world literature, they must be correlated.

The concept of typology arises, which implies that a certain type of genre is not only non-temporal, but also non-spatial.

We use the term "novel" regardless of literary era, which we are talking about: an antique (ancient Greek) novel, a medieval chivalric novel, a picaresque novel of the 17th century. etc. These terms in medieval literature, which appear in France, denoted a narrative work in Romance. In general, a novel is a narrative work of a large volume, often of love and adventure content.

There was also a romance in the East:

In Persian literature (the novel was a genre of high literature)

In Indian literature (novel as a prose genre)

In Arabic Literature (poetic novel)

In Japanese literature

In the East, a novel meant a work of major poetry or prose form, often with love or adventure content. They were like chivalric romances.

The use of a general term must inevitably have some universal pattern. Bakhtin devoted many works and reflections to the novel.

In particular, there was a line of rupture between the ancient, chivalric romance and the novel of the 18th century. The chivalric romance is not genetically related to the ancient one (they have a typological commonality). Roman 18th century is not connected successively with the romance of chivalry. Features of the novel of the 18th century. were used and continued into the 19th and 20th centuries. Ancient literature depicts the activities of the past. Also a chivalric novel, which tells about the exploits of knights, which were already legends. And the 18th century breaks this tradition by depicting ordinary contemporary people and contemporary events. Roman 18th century absorbed all other narrative genres almost completely. Much research has been devoted to the specifics, historical and genre essences of the novel. Some believe that before the 18th century. there was no romance. Others believe that all novels are varieties of the same genre, because The novel is about a private person.

In medieval literature, there was a genre of epic poem that told about a person (about the love of a knight for a beautiful lady, etc.). The knight was a private individual. In the ancient novel, the hero is also a private person.

The novel has 2 varieties:

1. a novel built on the sharpness and intricacy of the plot (misadventures, adventures, etc.)
2. novel about inner life the hero, his formation, opposition to the environment as a person, about the spiritual life of the hero.

For Bakhtin, the most important thing in the novel was the “becoming” personality and activity.

Genres early eras and literature of modern times are built and combined in different ways. The whole functioning of the genre changes. The existence of the genre has features:

Genre features are more stable in traditional literature.

The genre is fixed in theoretical writings (in Europe in poetics). They give a description of the genre, indicating the signs that are the norms. But not all genres were described, but only high ones.

Genre canons

1. All genres of medieval and ancient literature, as well as the Renaissance formed a genre system, which was divided into a subsystem:
   1. The most important feature was the hierarchy of genres. They were divided into high, medium and low. High genres played a big role. This hierarchical division was based on the following points:
      1. to what genre
      2. what slice of reality depicts the genre

Genres of high literature reflect the life of a high part of society (sometimes they were called court genres).

Middle genres are the genres of urban literature.

But the hierarchy was respected in the subsystem as well. The question was raised: what audience is the genre intended for? Authors of high style are guided by a high consumer: educated person with sophisticated requirements, high demands and high taste.

Genres before modern times were sometimes called canonical (traditional).

The difference between ancient genres and modern ones is as follows:

1. In traditional literature, there was an extreme hardness of genre features:
   1. The dictatorship of the genre was very high.
   2. The author had to comply with the norms of the form.
   3. Any deviation from the genre was considered a disadvantage.
2. Genres in traditional literature are in a rigid system:
   1. The system is limited hierarchically.
   2. The literature is divided into several layers:
      1. High (court). It was very important for poets before the New Age to get a place at court. Literary circles existed at the court. In the East, the author had a dignity at court. The rich also triple their lives, as at court. High genres depict high world: knights, kings, court life. Such works are saturated with high morality. They paint a picture of a high aesthetic world, far from everyday issues. These genres are alien to everyday life.
      2. urban literature. Her hero is a city dweller (merchant, craftsman). In Arabic literature, the hero of urban literature could be a wandering poet.
      3. folklore literature(for peasants)
      4. Religious literature (its status in the hierarchy is not very defined). In its center is a monastery and a clergyman. There were simply religious genres. And also there were religious genres that existed on the border with fiction (lives). There was a religious lyric.

Each class had its own vocabulary. And different literatures reflected their class.

It is also important how literature relates to the world depicted: seriously or with humor:

• Urban literature and folklore may depict knights, religious figures, but with derision.
• IN high literature the epic poem stood above the chivalric romance.
• In religious literature, works that speak of the essentiality of religion (sermons, etc.) were higher than the lives of the saints.
• The more serious the genre, the higher it is in the hierarchy.
• Comic genres were very common in urban literature. One of the most popular genres was the story, similar to an anecdote. In the East, such heroes, ridiculing something, become the heroes of entire cycles.
• The more fiction in a work, the lower its status.

The entire genre system gives the impression of extreme fragmentation. This state of affairs continued almost until the 18th century. Gualu (a figure of classicism) draws this whole system, but without religious literature. He excludes some genres altogether, for example, he refuses to consider the novel. In the 18th century only in Europe does this system and its hierarchy begin to loosen, because the transition to the New Age begins. The blurring of this hierarchy is most noticeable in drama. The drama clearly delimits 2 genres: serious, which gravitates towards religion and traditions; and laughter (farcical). Japan in the 14th century the theater “No” appears, in which the serious and the comic (kyogen) also stand out.

In Europe, serious genres include mystery (they describe episodes of the Gospel associated with the death of Christ), miracles (written on the basis of hagiographic stories that show miracles), etc. But farcical genres are also popular. In the ancient era, 2 main genres were created: tragedy (ritual, ritual drama) and comedy. The higher status of the tragedy is created by the fact that it is built on a non-fictional plot. In the 18th century begin to gravitate towards the sharp delimitation of tragedy and comedy. The bourgeoisie appears, which wants to see itself as a lofty hero of tragedy. Therefore, middle genres appear. Molière believed that there could be a drama depicting the middle class.

Beaumarchais "The Marriage of Figaro"

At first he is a servant, and then turns out to be the son of noble parents.

The internal changes of the genre begin, the conventions break down. The drama could retain the hallmarks of a tragedy that portrayed an average hero. Comedy has also become not only to make fun of something.

In the 18th century The novel, which tells about the life of a modern hero, takes on extraordinary significance. The genre system is being updated. In many respects, the romantics of the 19th century contributed to this. The estate system is abolished. The time has come for a society that puts forward the individual. Romanticism the first cultural movement thatstem. yasoslovnaya if the romance of the 19th century. in a single hero. layered plot. a) comedy. but without religious literature. eproclaims the individuality of personality, artistic consciousness, writer's individuality. Hierarchy is being overthrown. The presence of high and low genres is denied. Romanticism deliberately mixes genres and literary genres(an example is a lyric poem). Sometimes they even advocate the abolition of genres, arguing that every author's work is already a genre. The system of genres begins to transform strongly and collapses. It begins in poetry from the beginning of the 19th century. There were many genres in European poetry. Most of them originated during the Renaissance. Some were borrowed from ancient literature. Some appeared on the basis of folklore. Even in Russian poetry (Pushkin, Lermontov), ​​which usually lags behind, genres disappear. Romantics cultivate a free element, which reflects the personality of the poet, his experiences. Genres in lyrics disappear, appearing only as a stylization. The form remains, but with all sorts of individual variations.

In narrative prose, the novel becomes the main genre. Even medieval literature was extremely varied. In the 18th century there were various varieties of novels that resembled genres. There were narrative poems. In the 18th century Philosophical stories and philosophical dialogues were popular. In the 19th century in fact, 3 forms remain: the novel (as a major narrative form), the story, and the short story.

In the Renaissance, based on comic narratives, a short story is created (a small witty story with an unexpected denouement). Boccaccio "The Decameron": 10 days 10 short stories each. 19th century rarely uses the short story (Maupassant "Necklace", "Jewels"; Pushkin "Belkin's Tales"). The story becomes more important (a fragment from life without beginning and without end). In the 20th century stories are increasingly leaving the stage of literature, and the novel comes to the fore. Each novel is individual in its own way (the novels of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy).

Genres are historically established types of works of art.

The genre definition can be given by the author ("novel in verse", "MD - poem"), or implied. Genre designations are well known to the reader, he knows the signs of the works of one or another literary genre. The genres of literature include, for example, a poem, a fable, a novel, a short story - epic, i.e. narrative genres; ode, elegy - lyrical; tragedy, comedy - dramatic.

The concept of genre is always a historical concept. The connection between the elements of content and the elements of composition, language and verse that we find in one genre or another represents a typical traditional unity that has developed historically, under certain conditions.

When choosing a genre, the writer proceeds from a certain genre system, from the classification of works (here we can recall the author's subtitles for works. They “represent” the work to the reader, partly hint to him how this work should be understood.) According to Bakhtin, “genre - a representative of creative memory in the process of literary development.

The genre is intended to give a holistic view of the work. The genre is defined through a set of features. Genre features - variable value in literary process which is reflected in successive genre theories. Thus, not all tragedies even of the era of classicism correspond to the genre canon presented in the "poetics" of this direction. In the history of all genres, it is possible to single out variable and stable features, and it is the latter that provide continuity, allow you to recognize and identify the genre throughout its centuries-old history. Along with the specific historical description of genres, genre constants, which ensure genre continuity, have taken an important place.

So the tragedy is characterized by two main features: belonging to dramatic kind, tragic content, generating a special style.

(B. Croce generally declared the genre a “prejudice”, a “ghost”, since this concept contains high degree abstractions; works, according to Croce, are expressions of a single and indivisible intuition. However, in general, Western literary criticism of the 20th - 21st centuries, after devoted to genres International Congress in Lyon in 1939, shows great interest in the theory of genres, especially in their typological study.

In the 1960s in domestic literary criticism was popular t.zr., according to which in the literature of the 19th - 20th centuries. there is atrophy of genres, blurring of genre boundaries: strictly regulated structures are less and less used by writers, are perceived as an anachronism, and the main representatives of the epic, lyrics and drama are flexible "synthetic forms" of the novel, poem, play: it is difficult to attribute them to any particular genre. (Kozhinov "The novel of the new time", Kurginyan "Drama")).