And space. Then Albert Einstein drew attention to the continuity and infinity of the space-time continuum.

In Russia, the concept of chronotope was applied by the famous physiologist Ukhtomsky. He combined the words Greek origin: chronos - "time" and "topos" - place. And after him, the philologist and literary critic M. M. Bakhtin used the concept.

What is a chronotope in literature?

The concept of "chronotope" was introduced into literary criticism by Mikhail Bakhtin. However, in literature this word has a different meaning. In his article, where the philologist considered the meaning of time and space in literary works, starting from ancient epics, the scientist mentioned that he uses the concept of chronotope metaphorically. He emphasized precisely the inseparability of these concepts. The plot of the work depends significantly on the time chosen by the author.

Chronotope is the unity of place and time in a literary work. The writer must correctly introduce the characters and the series of events at the chosen time. Artistically describing the time and place of each scene is an important task, and if an aspiring writer fails to do it, the text will be raw and hard to read.

According to Mikhail Bakhtin, time is the leading characteristic of the chronotope. The space only concretizes, complements. Space and objects in space make time tangible. Each point of time becomes visible thanks to the material space and the course of events in it.

Bakhtin's article on chronotopes

In his article "Forms of Time and Chronotope in the Novel", the scientist analyzes the description of time and actions within space in several works. Mention is made of the "Golden Ass" of Apuleius, which has come down from antiquity in full, famous novel Dante Alighieri, Roman "Gargantua and Pantagruel" F. Rabelais, and others. There are 10 chapters in Bakhtin's work. In the last, 10th chapter, the literary critic describes the forms of the chronotope and the content that is often contained in them.

Mikhail Bakhtin combined philological and philosophical research in his works. Thanks to the analysis of chronotopes, it is much easier for contemporary writers to build a plot.

Forms of time and chronotope in the novel

If the world of the work is completely mystical, it must be well described. The reader cannot fully immerse himself in a story or novel if the description of this world lacks important details or there are unforgivable logical errors in the narrative.

So, what worlds did Bakhtin describe? The era of the story has a significant impact on the character and on the course of events. Let us describe the forms of the chronotope distinguished by Bakhtin.

• Roads. May meet on the road strangers, a conversation can start and a story can begin.
• castle. In the novel, there will be a drama associated with the ancestral past. Most likely, the narrative space is limited. In castles, the feudal past is always described, great personalities are mentioned - kings, dukes. There are galleries with portraits, valuables, expensive antiques in the narrative. The plot may revolve around the violated right of inheritance or knightly confrontation, or the defense of the dignity of a knight and his lady.
• living room. This chronotope is clearly shown in Balzac's novels. Living rooms are the place where specific salon intrigues originate, this is an analysis of the characters' characters and a search for context in actions.
• Provincial quiet town. The description of the city and its inhabitants suggests a closed space, where the passage of time is almost not described, since in the province everything goes on as usual and nothing changes.
• threshold. This is a metaphorical space-time, where the novel is based on a crisis situation. On the "threshold" a story is built, where there is no biography of the hero. Here the problem of a change in the consciousness of society sharply arises.

These chronotopes prevailed in the novels of bygone eras. Research Article published at the beginning of the 20th century, the fantastic chronotopes that are popular today have not yet been covered.

Idyllic or folklore chronotope

Separately, it is necessary to mention the folklore chronotope, to which Bakhtin singled out an entire chapter. The idyll can be divided into 2 parts:

• Family-idyllic chronotope. This is an idyll, which is always tied to the natural edge where the hero and his great-grandfathers grew up. Human life is always inextricably linked with nature. Another feature of such novels is the complete absence of everyday descriptions. Attention is paid exclusively to romantic moments of life (new life, development, love, search for meaning).
• Labor idyll. Work is sung for the benefit of society.

Most often, these two forms occur together in the novel. The heroes of idyllic novels cannot go beyond this world artificially created by the writer. The outside world seems to depreciate.

Chronotope Functions

The most basic function of the chronotope is to organize the space in which the characters live, to make it understandable and interesting.

Space-time determines the unity of the entire narrative. Time can be described differently in one literary work, but the reader must be organically introduced into each dimension.

Chronotop expands the reader's understanding of the world. The description of space should therefore not be narrow. If time and space are chosen conditionally, say, in question about the future, then you need to tell as many little things as possible about this new space.

Modern chronotope. Approximate content

The heroes of today's literature live in others, modern chronotopes. These works differ significantly from the era of, say, Stendhal or Honore de Balzac. Since the chronotope largely determines the new spatio-temporal framework also creates new genres, meanings and ideas. There are fantasy, post-apocalyptic, space adventures.

Now let's consider what defining characteristics of the chronotopes of our time are distinguished by literary critics today.

• Abstraction and mythologization.
• Doubling.
• The use of symbolism.
• The memories of the characters are important.
• Emphasis is placed on the "leaking" time and space "squeezing" a person.
• Time itself can be the center of the story.

Modern culture provides the writer with the opportunity to create separate fantastic chronotopes. In general, time itself is much more abstract today than it was 100 years ago. Now allocate social time and subjective, which are in no way connected with the geographical. Therefore, in literature, time-space is often blurred, depending on the internal affects of the hero.

Structure of time and space

What details does the chronotope in a work of art consist of? What does he look like? Time is formed by the cycles of day and night, winter and summer, birth and death.

Space is built with the help of oppositions: north and south, or the heavenly world and the underworld, as the world is built in " Divine Comedy"Dante. Space is also characterized as open or closed, integral or discrete. Closed space is houses, galleries. A description of household items and the atmosphere in the building is necessary here. Open space is forests, mountains, seas. For an open landscape, it is also desirable to give several characteristics .

Discrete space is used more at the end of XX - early XXI century. This is a conditional, almost non-concretized space. For example, the symbolist writers can take the image of a mirror as space. Simply put, the image prevails over reality, and in this abstract context the hero develops. For example, as in the works of Franz Kafka. The most abstract space is characteristic of romanticism and lyrics. In such a "blurred" space, the hero exists separately from everyday life. And here realistic work cannot be left without the details of everyday life.

Interaction of chronotopes

The more tenses used, the more interesting, intricate the plot. Artistic worlds are in dialogue with each other. There can be many worlds within one work. Chronotopes can be included in each other, smoothly transition or contrast.

For example, in the book Cloud Atlas"As many as 6 worlds are used with their own time and space.

Historical time moves from the 19th century into the immeasurably distant future. All 6 stories, 6 voluminous chronotopes have clear cause-and-effect relationships, while all stories are collected in one puzzle - they are united by one theme. However, all these interactions of temporary episodes remain, as it were, behind the scenes, only in the context of the plot.

Examples of chronotopes

Another a prime example the combination of several chronotopes into one plot is the integrity of 3 worlds in the classic novel "The Master and Margarita". The first time - the 30s in Moscow. Second chronotope - biblical times and age appropriate material world; the third world in the work is the well-known ball at Woland's.

The third world includes the abstract transformations of Berlioz's apartment and the adventures of Marguerite already in the role of a witch.

It is worth saying that in the novels of F. Dostoevsky time always moves very quickly and this affects the characters. And in the stories of A. Chekhov, the opposite is true: time is almost absent, it freezes together with space.

Conclusion

So, what do we know about the chronotope in a literary work? The meaning of the word is given by M. Bakhtin, he explains this concept as a single structure of chronos - time - and space, where the events of the novel take place. The chronotope is the basis of the novel, which completely determines the genre of the work and gives the writer a "tip" on a possible plot. Time and space have their function in the novel, their structure.

The forms of time and chronotope analyzed by M. Bakhtin are basically no longer used, as completely new ideas and genres are developing. have completely new chronotopes that affect the nature of the narrative and the behavior of the hero.

THE CONCEPT OF CHRONOTOPE IN MODERN LITERATURE

annotation
Artistic text, no matter to which literary genre it belongs to, reflects events, phenomena, or the psychological state of the characters this work. Being an integral characteristic of any work, artistic space and time give it a certain internal unity and completeness, giving this unity a completely new and unique meaning. The article deals with the concept of chronotope in literature and linguistics.

THE NOTION OF CHRONOTOPE IN MODERN LITERATURE

Tarakanova Anastasiia Andreevna
Nizhny Novgorod State University named after N. I. Lobachevsky, Arzamas branch
the 5-year student of the historical-philological faculty

Abstract
Works of literature, no matter what genre they belong to, provide us with the information about events and even reflect the state of mind and disposition of the character. Temporal and spatial relationships are integral parts of a literary work, they determine the internal unity of the text, its completeness. It also acquires some additional hidden information. This article deals with the notion of chronotope in Literature and Linguistics.

In a literary work, artistic space is inseparable from the concept of "time".

Thus, literary critics consider time and space as a reflection of the artist's philosophical, ethical, and other ideas; they analyze the specifics of artistic time and space in different eras, in different literary directions and genres, study grammatical time in a work of art, consider time and space in their inseparable unity.

These concepts reflect the correlation of events, associative, causal and psychological relationships between them, in the work they create a complex series of events built in the course of the development of the plot. The artistic text differs from the usual (everyday) text in that the speaker creates an imaginary world in order to produce a certain effect on the reader.

Time in fiction has certain properties associated with the specifics of the literary text, its features and the author's intention. Time in the text may have clearly defined or, conversely, blurred boundaries (events, for example, may cover decades, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may / may not be indicated in the work as related to historical time or time, which the author sets conditionally.

The first property of artistic time is systemic character . This property is manifested in the organization of the fictional reality of the work, its inner world with the embodiment of the author's concept, his perception of the surrounding reality, with the reflection of his picture of the world through the characters.

In a work of art, time can be multidimensional. This property of artistic time is connected with the very nature or essence of literary work, having, firstly, the author and assuming the presence of a reader, and secondly, the boundaries: the beginning of the story and its end. In the text, thus, there are two time axes - "the axis of storytelling" and "the axis of the events described." At the same time, the "narrative axis" is one-dimensional, while the "axis of the described events" is multidimensional. The correlation of these "axes" gives rise to the multidimensionality of artistic time and makes possible temporal shifts and multiple temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Often in works of art the sequence of events is violated, and the very temporal shifts, violations of the temporal sequence of the narrative play a big role, which characterizes the property of multidimensionality that affects the author's division of the text into semantic segments, episodes, chapters.

The relationship of temporal and spatial relations M.M. Bakhtin outlined chronotope(which literally means “time-space”). MM Bakhtin used this term in literary criticism to express the inseparability of space and time from each other. Time here represents the fourth dimension of space. In the literature, the chronotope has a significant genre meaning. The genre and genre varieties of a work are determined precisely by the chronotope, and in literature the leading principle in the chronotope is time. Bakhtin believes that in the literary chronotope, time certainly dominates space, making it more meaningful and measurable.

Literary chronotopes have, first of all, a plot meaning, they are organized centers of the main events described by the author. The chronotope, as the unity of the time and place of the action of the work, not only determines the circumstances and forms of communication, but also in a certain way supports the attitude towards these circumstances accepted in a given culture.

The relationship between space and time is obvious. So, in English there are prepositions that express both spatial and temporal relations, such as in, at, before, after, by, next, etc.

By my side - space;

By six o'clock - time.

In linguistics, there is an objective image of space and time. If the space is accessible to the direct perception of a person and is described in the language with the help of words, expressions, phrasal verbs, etc., used in their direct or figurative meaning, then the time is not available to the direct perception of the senses, so its models can be changeable.

Consequently, each writer comprehends time and space in his own way, endowing them with their own characteristics, reflecting the worldview of the author. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unique and unlike any other artistic space and time. The connection of a literary text with the categories of space and time is conditioned by the linguistic category of predicativity itself, which is the main characteristic of a sentence as a communicative linguistic unit. Since the phenomena of the surrounding world themselves exist in time and space, the linguistic form of their expression cannot but reflect this property of them. Using the language, it is impossible to form a statement without expressing the temporal correlation of its content with the moment of speech or a certain position in space.

Literature, like other forms of art, is designed to reflect surrounding reality. Including the life of a person, his thoughts, experiences, actions and events. The category of space and time is an integral component of the construction of the author's picture of the world.

History of the term

The very concept of chronotope comes from the ancient Greek "chronos" (time) and "topos" (place) and denotes the unity of spatial and temporal parameters, aimed at expressing a certain meaning.

For the first time, the psychologist Ukhtomsky began to use this term in connection with his physiological research. The emergence and widespread use of the term chronotope is largely due to the natural science discoveries of the early 20th century, which contributed to a rethinking of the picture of the world as a whole. The spread of the definition of chronotope in literature is the merit of the famous Russian scientist, philosopher, literary critic, philologist and culturologist M. M. Bakhtin.

Bakhtin's concept of chronotope

The main work of M. M. Bakhtin, devoted to the category of time and space, is “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics”, written in 1937-1938. and published in 1975. The main task for himself in this work, the author sees the study of the concept of chronotope within the framework of the novel as a genre. Bakhtin based his analysis on the European and, in particular, the ancient novel. In his work, the author shows that the images of a person in literature, placed in certain spatio-temporal conditions, can acquire historical significance. As Bakhtin notes, the chronotope of the novel largely determines the development of the action and the behavior of the characters. In addition, according to Bakhtin, the chronotope is a defining indicator genre affiliation works. Therefore, Bakhtin assigns a key role to this term in understanding narrative forms and their development.

The meaning of the chronotope

Time and space in a literary work are the main components of the artistic image, which contribute to holistic perception artistic reality and organize the composition of the work. It should be noted that when creating artwork the author endows space and time in it with subjective characteristics that reflect the author's worldview. Therefore, the space and time of one work of art will never be similar to the space and time of another work, and even more so will not be similar to real space and time. Thus, the chronotope in literature is the interconnection of space-time relations mastered in a particular work of art.

Chronotope Functions

In addition to the genre-forming function that Bakhtin noted, the chronotope also performs the main plot-forming function. In addition, it is the most important formal-content category of the work, i.e. laying the foundations of artistic images, the chronotope in literature is a kind of independent image that is perceived at an associative-intuitive level. Organizing the space of the work, the chronotope introduces the reader into it and at the same time builds in the reader's mind between the artistic whole and the surrounding reality.

The concept of chronotope in modern science

Since the chronotope in literature is a central and fundamental concept, the works of many scientists of both the last century and the present are devoted to its study. IN Lately researchers are paying more and more attention to the classification of chronotopes. Thanks to the convergence of recent decades natural, social and human sciences, approaches to the study of the chronotope have changed significantly. Increasingly, interdisciplinary research methods are used, which allow discovering new facets of a work of art and its author.

The development of semiotic and hermeneutic analysis of the text made it possible to see that the chronotope of a work of art reflects the color scheme and sound tonality of the depicted reality, and also conveys the rhythm of action and the dynamics of the development of events. These methods help to comprehend artistic space and time as a sign system containing semantic codes (historical, cultural, religious-mythical, geographical, etc.). Based contemporary research the following forms of chronotope are distinguished in the literature:

• cyclic chronotope;
• linear chronotope;
• chronotope of eternity;
• non-linear chronotope.

It should be noted that some researchers consider separately the category of space and the category of time, while others consider these categories in an inextricable relationship, which, in turn, determines the features of a literary work.

Thus, in the light of modern research, the concept of chronotope is becoming increasingly important as the most constructively stable and well-established category of a literary work.

χρόνος "time" and τόπος "place") - "a regular connection of space-time coordinates". A term introduced by A. A. Ukhtomsky in the context of his physiological research, and then (at the initiative of M. M. Bakhtin) passed into the humanitarian sphere. “Ukhtomsky proceeded from the fact that heterochrony is a condition for possible harmony: coordination in time, in speeds, in the rhythms of action, and hence in the timing of the implementation of individual elements, forms a functionally defined “center” from spatially separated groups” . Ukhtomsky refers to Einstein, mentioning the "splice of space and time" in Minkowski space. However, he introduces this concept into the context of human perception: “from the point of view of the chronotope, there are no longer abstract points, but events that are alive and indelible from being” .

M. Bakhtin also understood by the chronotope "the essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations".

The chronotope in literature has a significant genre significance. It can be said directly that the genre and genre varieties are determined precisely by the chronotope, and in literature the leading principle in the chronotope is time. The chronotope as a formally meaningful category determines (to a large extent) the image of a person in literature; this image is always essentially chronotopic.

... The development of the real historical chronotope in the literature was complicated and discontinuous: they mastered some certain aspects of the chronotope available in the data historical conditions, only certain forms were developed artistic reflection real chronotope. These genre forms, productive at the beginning, were fixed by tradition and continued to exist stubbornly in subsequent development even when they had already completely lost their realistically productive and adequate significance. Hence the existence in literature of phenomena that are deeply different in time, which greatly complicates the historical and literary process.

- Bakhtin M. M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel.

Thanks to the works of Bakhtin, the term has become widespread in Russian and foreign literary criticism. Of the historians, it was actively used by the medievalist Aron Gurevich.

see also

Notes

Literature

• Bakhtin M. M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics // Bakhtin M. M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. : Sat .. - M. : Hood. lit., 1975. - S. 234-407.
• Gogotishvili L. A. Chronotop // New Philosophical Encyclopedia. - M.: Thought, 2000. - V. 4. - ISBN 5-244-00961-3.
• Smethurst P. The postmodern chronotope: reading space and time in contemporary fiction. - Amsterdam: Rodopi B.V., 2000.
• Azarenko S. A. Social chronotope and methodology of modern social science // Sociems. No. 13. 2007.
• Big psychological dictionary / Comp. B. Meshcheryakov, V. Zinchenko. M.: Olma-press, 2004.
• Poetics of the Chronotope: Language Mechanisms and Cognitive Foundations: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference / Ed. G. Berestneva. - Vilnius: Publishing House of the Lithuanian Language Institute, 2010. - 236 p. - 200 copies. -

A chronotope is a culturally processed stable position from which or through which a person masters the space of a topographically voluminous world, according to M. M. Bakhtin - the artistic space of a work. The concept of chronotope introduced by M. M. Bakhtin unites space and time, which gives an unexpected turn to the theme of artistic space and opens up a wide field for further research.

A chronotope cannot in principle be single and unique (i.e., monologue): the multidimensionality of artistic space eludes a static view that fixes any one, frozen and absolutized side of it.

Ideas about space are at the heart of culture, so the idea of ​​artistic space is fundamental to the art of any culture. The artistic space can be characterized as the deep connection of its substantive parts, characteristic of a work of art, which gives the work a special internal unity and endows it with the character of an aesthetic phenomenon. Artistic space is an integral property of any work of art, including music, literature, etc. Unlike composition, which is a significant ratio of parts of a work of art, such space means both the connection of all elements of a work into some kind of internal, unlike anything else unity, so and giving this unity a special, irreducible quality to anything else.

A relief illustration of the idea of ​​a chronotope is the difference described by Bakhtin in archival materials. artistic methods Rabelais and Shakespeare: the former shifts the value vertical itself (its “top” and “bottom”) in front of the static “look” of the coalition author and hero, Shakespeare has “the same swing”, but it’s not the scheme itself that shifts, but the one controlled by the author with the help of change of chronotopes movement of the reader's gaze along a stable topographic scheme: to its top - to its bottom, to the beginning - to the end, etc. The polyphonic technique, reflecting the multidimensionality of the world, reproduces this multidimensionality in inner world reader and creates the effect that was called by Bakhtin "expansion of consciousness".

Bakhtin defines the concept of chronotope as an essential interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature. “In the literary and artistic chronotope, there is a fusion of spatial and temporal signs in a meaningful and concrete whole. Time here thickens, condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time, the plot of history. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. Chronotope is a formally meaningful category of literature. At the same time, Bakhtin also mentions the broader concept of " artistic chronotope”, representing the intersection in the work of art of the series of time and space and expressing the inseparability of time and space, the interpretation of time as fourth dimension space.

Bakhtin notes that the term "chronotope", introduced and substantiated in Einstein's theory of relativity and widely used in mathematical natural science, is transferred to literary criticism "almost as a metaphor (almost, but not quite)".

Bakhtin transfers the term "chronotope" from mathematical natural science to literary criticism and even connects his "time-space" with Einstein's general theory of relativity. This remark seems to need clarification. The term "chronotope" was indeed used in the 1920s. of the last century in physics and could be used by analogy also in literary criticism. But the very idea of ​​the continuity of space and time, which is intended to denote this term, took shape in aesthetics itself, and much earlier than Einstein's theory, which linked together physical time and physical space and made time the fourth dimension of space. Bakhtin himself mentions, in particular, G.E. Lessing, in which the principle of the chronotopicity of the artistic and literary image was first revealed. The description of the static-spatial must be involved in the time series of the events depicted and the story-image itself. IN famous example Lessing's beauty of Helen is not described statically by Homer, but is shown through her influence on the Trojan elders, revealed in their movements and actions. Thus, the concept of the chronotope gradually took shape in literary criticism itself, and was not mechanically transferred to it from a scientific discipline that was completely different in nature.

Is it difficult to say that the concept of a chrontop is applicable to all types of art? In the spirit of Bakhtin, all arts can be divided depending on their relationship to time and space into temporary (music), spatial (painting, sculpture) and spatio-temporal (literature, theater), depicting spatio-sensory phenomena in their movement and formation. In the case of the temporal and spatial arts, the concept of a chronotope linking together time and space, if applicable, is to a very limited extent. Music does not unfold in space, painting and sculpture are almost simultaneous, because they very restrainedly reflect movement and change. The concept of chronotope is largely metaphorical. When used in relation to music, painting, sculpture, and similar art forms, it becomes a very vague metaphor.

Since the concept of chronotope is effectively applicable only in the case of the space-time arts, it is not universal. For all its significance, it turns out to be useful only in the case of arts that have a plot that unfolds both in time and in space.

In contrast to the chronotope, the concept of artistic space, which expresses the interconnection of the elements of a work and creates their special aesthetic unity, is universal. If the artistic space is understood in a broad sense and is not reduced to displaying the placement of objects in real space, then we can talk about the artistic space not only of painting and sculpture, but also about the artistic space of literature, theater, music, etc.

In works of spatio-temporal arts, space, as it is represented in the chronotopes of these works, and their artistic space do not coincide. Staircase, front, street, square, etc., which are elements of the chronotope of the classical realistic novel(“small” chronotopes according to Bakhtin) cannot be called “elements of the artistic space” of such a novel. Characterizing the work as a whole, the artistic space is not decomposed into separate elements; no “small” artistic spaces can be distinguished in it.

Artistic space and chronotope are concepts that capture different aspects of a work of spatio-temporal art. The space of the chronotope is a reflection of the real space put in connection with time. Artistic space as an internal unity of the parts of a work, assigning to each part only its own place and thereby giving integrity to the whole work, deals not only with the space reflected in the work, but also with the time imprinted in it.

As applied to works of spatial and visual art, the concepts of artistic space and chronotope are close in meaning, if not identical. One can therefore say that Bakhtin was one of those authors who made a significant contribution to the formation of the concept of artistic space.

It should be emphasized once again that, unlike the chronotope, which is a local concept applicable only in the case of spatio-temporal arts, the concept of artistic space is universal and applies to all types of art.

In developing the concept of the chronotope, Bakhtin left the field of pure literary criticism and entered the sphere of the philosophy of art. I saw my task precisely in creating a philosophy in the proper sense of the word, which, while fully preserving the elements embodied in Russian “thinking”, would at the same time become consistent and “complete”.

The share of strictly philosophical texts in Bakhtin's legacy is insignificant. The originality of Bakhtin's thought is that it constantly connects philosophical ideas with philological research. Such was the situation with the idea of ​​a chronotope, akin aesthetic concept artistic space. Bakhtin speaks in most detail about the chronotope in his book on the work of Rabelais and in an article devoted to the analysis of the chronotopes of the early European novel.

Since the "chronotope" refers to the deep ideas of literary criticism, it is to some extent metaphorical, it captures only certain aspects of the symbolic ambiguity of the world. The idea of ​​the space-time continuum is formulated mathematically, but "it is really impossible to visualize such a four-dimensional world" . The chronotope underlies the artistic images of the work. But he himself is a special type of image, one might say, a prototype.

Its originality lies in the fact that it is perceived not directly, but associatively-intuitively - from the totality of metaphors and direct sketches of time-space contained in the work. As a "usual" image, the chronotope must be recreated in the mind of the reader, and recreated with the help of metaphorical similes.

In literature, the leading principle in the chronotope is, Bakhtin points out, not space, but time.

In novels of different types, real historical time is displayed in different ways. For example, in a medieval chivalric novel, the so-called adventurous time is used, which breaks up into a number of segments-adventures, within which it is organized abstractly and technically, so that its connection with space also turns out to be largely technical. The chronotope of such a novel is a wonderful world in an adventurous time. Every thing in this world has some miraculous properties or is simply enchanted. Time itself also becomes somewhat miraculous. A fabulous hyperbolism of time appears. Hours sometimes stretch, and days shrink to an instant. Time can even be bewitched. He is influenced by dreams and so important in medieval literature visions similar to dreams.

The subjective game with time and the violation of elementary temporal relationships and perspectives in the chronotope of the wonderful world corresponds to the same subjective game with space, the violation of elementary spatial relations and perspectives.

Bakhtin says that since a serious study of the forms of time and space in literature and art has recently begun, it is necessary to focus on the problem of time and everything that is directly related to it. Space reveals time, makes it visible. But space itself becomes meaningful and measurable only thanks to time.

This idea of ​​the dominance of time over space in the chronotope seems to be true only in relation to literary chronotopes, but not to the chronotopes of other art forms. In addition, it should be borne in mind that even in the chronotopes of literature, time does not always act as a leading principle. Bakhtin himself gives examples of novels in which the chronotope is not primarily the materialization of time in space (some novels by F. M. Dostoevsky).

The chronotope is, according to Bakhtin, "a certain form of the sensation of time and its certain relation to the spatial world." Considering that not even in any literary chronotope time clearly dominates space, it seems more successful not to oppose space and time to each other. general characteristics chronotope as a way of linking real time (history) with a real location. The chronotope expresses a form of the sense of time and space, typical of a particular era, taken in their unity.

In his “Concluding Remarks” written in 1973 to his article on chronotopes in literature, Bakhtin singles out, in particular, the chronotopes of a road, a castle, a living room, a provincial town, as well as the chronotopes of a staircase, an entrance hall, a corridor, a street, a square. It is difficult to say that in such chronotopes time obviously prevails over space and that the latter acts only as a way of the visible embodiment of time.

The chronotope defines, according to Bakhtin, the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. Because of this, the Chronotope always includes a value moment, which can be singled out, however, only in an abstract analysis. “All temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally and value-based... Art and literature are permeated with chronotopic values ​​of various degrees and volumes. Every motive, every single moment of a work of art is such a value.

Focusing on large typologically stable chronotopes that define the most important genre varieties of the European novel on early stages of its development, Bakhtin at the same time notes that large and significant chronotopes can include an unlimited number of small chronotopes. "...Each motive can have its own chronotope". It can thus be said that large chronotopes are composed of constituent elements, which are "small" chronotopes. In addition to the more elementary chronotopes of the road, castle, stairs, etc., already indicated, Bakhtin mentions, in particular, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, the chronotope of a labor idyll, etc. “Within the limits of one work and within the limits of the work of one author we observe many chronotopes and complex relationships between them, specific to a given work or author, and one of them is inclusive or dominant ... Chronotopes can be included in each other, coexist, intertwine, change, compare, contrast or be in more relationships ... The general nature of these relationships is dialogic (in the broadest sense of the term) ". The dialogue of chronotopes, however, cannot enter into the reality depicted in the work. He is outside of it, though not outside of the work as a whole. Dialogue enters the world of the author, the performer, and the world of listeners and readers, and these worlds themselves are also chronotopic.

Literary chronotopes are primarily of plot significance, they are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. “In the chronotope, plot knots are tied and untied. It can be said directly that they have the main plot-forming significance.

Undoubtedly also pictorial meaning chronotopes. Plot events in the chronotope are concretized, time acquires a sensually visual character. You can mention an event with an exact indication of the place and time of its completion. But in order for an event to become an image, a chronotope is needed that gives ground for its display-image. He in a special way condenses and concretizes the signs of time - the time of human life, historical time - in certain areas of space. The chronotope serves as the primary point for the development of "scenes" in the novel, while other "connecting" events, located far from the chronotope, are given in the form of a dry information and message. “... The chronotope, as the predominant materialization of time in space, is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All the abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and effects, etc. - gravitate to the chronotope, through it they are filled with flesh and blood.

Bakhtin emphasizes that every artistic and literary image is chronotopic. The language itself is essentially chronotopic, being the initial and inexhaustible material of images. The internal form of the word is chronotopic, i.e., that mediating sign, with the help of which the original spatial meanings are transferred to temporal relations. The chronotopes of the author of the work and the listener-reader should also be taken into account.

The boundaries of chronotopic analysis, Bakhtin notes, go beyond art and literature. In every field of thought, including science, we are dealing with semantic moments that, as such, are not amenable to temporal and spatial definitions. For example, the mathematical concepts used to measure spatial and temporal phenomena do not themselves have spatial and temporal definitions and are only the subject of our abstract thinking. artistic thinking, like abstract scientific thinking, also deals with meanings. Artistic meanings are also not amenable to spatio-temporal definitions. But any meanings, in order to enter into our experience (moreover, social experience) must take on some spatio-temporal expression, i.e., take on a sign form, audible and visible to us. Without such a spatio-temporal expression, even the most abstract thinking is impossible. "... Any entry into the sphere of meanings is made only through the gates of chronotopes" .

Special interest presents Bakhtin's description of the chronotopes of three types of novel: the medieval chivalric novel; The Divine Comedy by Dante, which foreshadows the crisis of the Middle Ages; F. Rabelais' novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel", which marks the formation of the worldview of a new historical era, moreover, in direct struggle with the old medieval worldview.

In a chivalric romance, the hero wonderful world in which he acts are made of one piece, there is no discrepancy between them. The world is not national homeland, he is equally a stranger everywhere. The hero moves from country to country, makes sea ​​travel, but everywhere the world is one, it is filled with the same glory, the same idea of ​​achievement and shame. The adventurous time of a chivalric romance does not coincide with real time at all, days are not equal to days, and hours are not equal to hours. The subjective play with time, its emotional-lyrical stretching and contraction, its fabulous and dreamlike deformations reach the point where entire events disappear as if they had never happened. Violation of elementary temporal relationships in the chivalric romance is accompanied by subjective play with space. There is not just a folklore-fairy-tale freedom of a person in space, but an emotional-subjective, partly symbolic distortion of space.

Analysis medieval painting also shows that free circulation medieval artist with elementary spatial relations and perspectives was subject to a certain system and was ultimately aimed at representing the invisible, non-material celestial world in visible earthly images. The influence of the medieval otherworldly vertical was so strong that the entire space-time world was subjected to symbolic rethinking.

Dante's shaping aspiration is also aimed at building an image of the world along a pure vertical, replacing all temporal-historical divisions and connections with purely semantic, timeless-hierarchical divisions and connections.

Dante gives an amazing plastic picture of the world, living tensely and moving vertically up and down: nine circles of hell below the earth, above them seven circles of purgatory, above them ten heavens. Below - the rough materiality of people and things, above - only light and voice. The temporal logic of this world is the pure simultaneity of everything, coexistence in eternity. Everything that is divided by time on earth converges in eternity in pure simultaneity. The divisions "earlier" and "later" introduced by time are not essential. They need to be removed. To understand the world, it is necessary to compare everything in one time and see the world as one moment. Only in pure simultaneity or, what is the same, in timelessness, the true meaning of the existing is revealed, because what separated them - time, is devoid of true reality and comprehending power.

At the same time, in Dante, who vaguely feels the end of his era, the images of people inhabiting his vertical world are deeply historical and bear the signs of their time. Images and ideas are filled with a powerful desire to break out of the vertical world and enter a productive historical horizontal line, to position themselves not upwards, but forward. “Each image is full of historical potential and therefore tends with its whole being to participate in historical event in the temporal-historical chronotope". Hence the exceptional intensity of Dante's world. It is created by the struggle of living historical time with timeless otherworldly ideality; The vertical, as it were, compresses in itself a powerful horizontal rushing forward. It is this struggle and the intensity of its artistic resolution that make Dante's work exceptional in terms of the power of expression of his era, more precisely, the boundary of two eras.

It is necessary to note the dual reality of the medieval image, which, on the one hand, is intended to display the “top” of the medieval vertical in earthly, material images and thereby throw a system of otherworldly connections on earthly life, and, on the other hand, to prevent excessive “landing” of the “top”, direct identification of it with earthly objects and their relations.

The work of Rabelais marked the beginning of the destruction of medieval novel chronotopes, distinguished not only by distrust, but even disregard for earthly space and time. The pathos of real spatial and temporal distances and expanses, characteristic of Rabelais, was also characteristic of other great representatives of the Renaissance (Shakespeare, Camões, Cervantes).

Repeatedly returning to the analysis of Rabelais' novel Gargantua and Pantagruel, Bakhtin describes the chronotope of this novel in this way, which is in sharp contradiction with the typical chronotopes of medieval novels. In the Rabelaisian chronotope, extraordinary spatio-temporal expanses are striking. A person's life and all his actions are associated with the spatio-temporal world, while a direct proportionality of the qualitative degrees ("values") of objects to their spatio-temporal values ​​(sizes) is established. Everything valuable, everything qualitatively positive must realize its qualitative significance in spatio-temporal significance, spread as far as possible, exist for as long as possible, and everything really positive is inevitably endowed with the power for such spatio-temporal expansion. On the other hand, everything qualitatively negative - small, miserable and powerless - must be completely destroyed, and it is not able to resist its death. For example, if pearls and precious stones are good, then there should be as many of them as possible, and they should be everywhere; if any abode is worthy of praise, there are almost ten thousand toilets in it, and in each of them hangs a mirror in a frame of pure gold, trimmed with pearls. “... Everything good grows, grows in all respects and in all directions, it cannot but grow, because growth belongs to its very nature. The bad, on the contrary, does not grow, but degenerates, becomes impoverished and perishes, but in this process it compensates for its real decrease with a false otherworldly ideality. In the Rabelaisian chronotope, the category of growth, moreover, real space-time growth, is one of the most fundamental categories.

This approach to the ratio of goodness and its magnitude in space and time is directly opposite to the medieval worldview, according to which values ​​are hostile to space-time reality as a vain, mortal and sinful principle. The connections of things seen by the Middle Ages are not real, but symbolic, so that the big can be symbolized by the small, the strong - by the weak and weak, the eternal - in an instant.

The task of Rabelais is the purification and restoration of the real world and man. Hence the desire to free the spatio-temporal world from the elements of the otherworldly worldview that decompose it, from the symbolic and hierarchical understanding of this world. It is necessary to destroy and rebuild the false medieval picture of the world, for which it is necessary to break all false hierarchical connections between things and ideas, to destroy the separating ideal layers between things and to give the latter the opportunity to enter into free combinations inherent in their nature. On the basis of the new neighborhood of things must unfold new picture world, imbued with real inner necessity. In Rabelais, the destruction of the old picture of the world and the construction of a new one are inextricably intertwined with each other.

Another feature of the Rabelaisian chronotope is a new meaning, a new place for human corporeality in the real spatio-temporal world. The human body becomes a specific measure of the world, a measure of its real weight and value for a person. In relation to concrete human corporality, the rest of the world acquires new meaning and concrete reality, enters not into a medieval symbolic connection with a person, but into a material spatio-temporal contact with him.

Medieval ideology perceived the human body only under the sign of perishability and overcoming. In real life practice, coarse and dirty bodily unbridledness dominated. In Rabelais' picture of the world, polemically directed against medieval world, human corporality (and the world in the zone of contact with this corporality) is opposed not only to medieval ascetic otherworldly ideology, but also to medieval unbridled and rude practice.

The medieval integrity and roundness of the world, still alive in the time of Dante, gradually collapsed. Rabelais' task was to assemble the decaying world on a new, no longer religious, but material basis. The historical concept of the Middle Ages (the creation of the world, the fall, the first coming, redemption, the second coming. Last Judgment) has devalued time and dissolved it into timeless categories. Time has become only a destructive, annihilating and nothing-creating beginning. Rabelais seeks new form time and a new relation of time to space. He creates a chronotope that opposes eschatologism with productive creative time, measured by creation, growth, and not destruction. “Spatio-temporal world of Rabelais is a re-open space of the Renaissance. First of all, it is a geographically distinct world of culture and history. Further, it is the astronomically illuminated Universe. Man can and must conquer this entire spatio-temporal world.

Comparison of the Rabelaisian chronotope in Bakhtin's description with the chronotope of the chivalric novel and the chronotope of Dante allows one to more clearly feel the uniqueness of the medieval chronotopes and the peculiarities of the culture they spawned.

Dostoevsky's time, as well as the features of the category of space in his novels, are explained by polyphonic dialogue: "The event of the interaction of full-fledged and internally incomplete consciousnesses requires a different artistic concept time and space, using the expression of Dostoevsky himself, the “non-Euclidean” concept”, i.e. chronotope. The category of space in Dostoevsky is revealed by Bakhtin on pages written not only by a scientist, but also by an artist: “Dostoevsky “jumps” over the habitable, arranged and durable, far from the threshold, the interior space of houses, apartments and rooms<...>Dostoevsky was least of all an estate-home-room-apartment-family writer.

A feature of the description by M. M. Bakhtin of the categories of space and time, the study of which in different models the world later became one of the main areas of study of secondary modeling semiotic systems, is the introduction of the concept of "chronotope". In his report, read in 1938, M. M. Bakhtin derived the properties of the novel as a genre to a greater extent from a “revolution in the hierarchy of times”, a change in the “temporal model of the world”, and an orientation towards an unfinished present. Consideration here - in accordance with the ideas discussed above - is both semiotic and axiological, since the “value-temporal categories” are explored that determine the significance of one time in relation to another: the value of the past in the epic is opposed to the value of the present for the novel. In terms of structural linguistics, one could speak of a change in the ratio of times in terms of markedness (attribute) - non-markedness.

Recreating the medieval picture of the cosmos, Bakhtin came to the conclusion that “this picture is characterized by a certain value accentuation of space: the spatial steps going from bottom to top strictly corresponded to value steps” . The role of the vertical is associated with this (ibid.): “That concrete and visible model of the world that underlay medieval figurative thinking was essentially vertical,” which can be traced not only in the system of images and metaphors, but, for example, in the image of the path to medieval descriptions of travel. P. A. Florensky came to close conclusions, noting that “Christian art put forward the vertical and gave it a significant predominance over other coordinates.<.„>The Middle Ages increases this stylistic feature Christian art and gives the vertical a complete predominance, and this process is observed in the Western medieval fresco,<...>"The choice of the dominant coordinate determines the most important basis of stylistic originality and the artistic spirit of the century."

This idea is confirmed by M. M. Bakhtin’s analysis of the chronotope of the novel of the transitional period to the Renaissance from the hierarchical vertical medieval picture to the horizontal, where the movement in time from the past to the future became the main one.

The concept of "chronotope" is a rationalized terminological equivalent to the concept of that "value structure", the immanent presence of which is a characteristic of a work of art. Now it is already possible to state with a sufficient degree of certainty that Bakhtin contrasted the pure "vertical" and pure "horizontal", unacceptable because of their monotony, with a "chronotope" that combines both coordinates. The chrontop creates a special "volumetric" unity of Bakhtin's world, the unity of its value and temporal dimensions. And the point here is not in the banal post-Einstein image of time as the fourth dimension of space; Bakhtin's chronotope in its value unity is built on the intersection of two fundamentally different directions of the subject's moral efforts: the direction to the "other" (horizontal, time-space, the reality of the world) and the direction to the "I" (vertical, "big time", the sphere of the "given" ). This gives the work not just physical and not only semantic, but artistic volume.

1. Bakhtin M.M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics / In the book. Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1976

2. Vakhrushev V. S. Time and space as a metaphor in G. Miller's Tropic of Cancer (On the problem of the chronotope) // Dialogue. Carnival. Chronotop. 1992, No. 1, p. 35-39

3. L. A. Gogotishvili, Variants and invariants of M. M. Bakhtin. //Questions of Philosophy. 1992, No. 1, p. 132-133

4. Ivanov Vyach. Sun. The significance of the ideas of M. M. Bakhtin for modern semiotics. // Uchen. app. Tartu. Univ. 308, Tartu, 1973

5. Isupov K. T. From the aesthetics of life to the aesthetics of history (traditions of Russian philosophy by M. M. Bakhtin) // Dialogue. Carnival. Chronotop. 1993, No. 2

6. M. M. Bakhtin as a Philosopher. M, 1982

7. M. M. Bakhtin: pro et contra. St. Petersburg, 2001

8. Florensky P. A. Spatial analysis in artistic and visual works. //Works on sign systems. T. 5

Ibid, p. 307

Bakhtin M. M. Collected works in 8 vols, vol. 3, p. 228

Bakhtin M.M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics / In the book. Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1976, p. 395

Ibid, p. 436

Florensky P. A. Spatial analysis in artistic and visual works. //Works on sign systems. T. 5, p. 526