his traditions, the assimilation of moral and moral norms of behavior in society. It contributes to the development of speech, thinking of students.
And it is no coincidence that the fairy tale is included in the elementary school curriculum. However, the role of the teacher himself is also great. When a fairy tale comes to the lesson, it is always interesting and unusual. A special holiday, if with a tale
which a smart and talented, enthusiastic, with a great deal of imagination teacher comes to a child. If a teacher cares about educating a thoughtful reader with developed imagination, figurative memory and feeling poetic word, then it is necessary to bring the child closer to understanding the subtext of the fairy tale, its moral content, to help him feel how important it is to be a good, kind, attentive person, able to listen and hear not only himself, but also others.
Work in this direction must be carried out regularly so that children learn to see the world through the eyes of folk wisdom, so that they know and respect the traditions and way of life of their people.
Bibliography
1. Gusev D. A. Pedagogical potential folk art in the context historical analysis development educational institutions in the countryside // Humanitarian sciences and education. - 2015. - No. 1 (21). - S. 44-47.
2. Zhestkova E.A., Tsutskova E.V. Extra-curricular work on literary reading as a means of developing the reader's interests of younger students // Contemporary Issues science and education. - 2014. - No. 6. - S. 1330.
3. Zhestkova E.A., Kazakova V.V. Teaching junior schoolchildren to write a review about a read work of art. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 8-2 - S. 355-358.
4. Zhestkova E.A., Klycheva A.S. Spiritual and moral development of younger students in the classroom literary reading through the Russian folk tale// Intern. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 1-1 - S. 126130.
5. Zhestkova E.A., Kazakova V.V. Web quest technology at the lessons of literary reading in elementary school. magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2015. - No. 9-4 - S. 723-725.
6. Luchina T. I. moral education modern schoolchildren // IV Silvestrovskie ped. Thu. Spirituality and morality in the educational space in the light of the civilizational choice of the baptism of Rus': materials of ped. Thu. - Omsk, 2015. -S. 70.
O. N. Krasnikova
Space and time in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Mad Money"
A. N. Ostrovsky carefully worked on each of his plays, the playwright also repeatedly turned to the manuscript of the comedy in question. Initially, the text was called "Scythe on a stone", then "Not all that glitters is gold." Only by the time the final position of all the characters of the comedy is formalized does the writer find a modern
the play's alternate title, abandoning the naive morality of the proverb in favor of a sharp-sounding social definition - "Mad Money".
There were several versions of the manuscript with rough notes, the final, white version was marked with the date of completion of work on the play and the signature: "January 18, 1870. A. Ostrovsky."
First published in the magazine Domestic notes”(1870, No. 2, pp. 391-489), the play caused very controversial responses. It was noted that the playwright's talent had already dried up, numerous reviews were superficial and unfair. The dignity of the play was assessed by critics only five years later.
Ostrovsky is often called "everyday playwright". Indeed, social contradictions are usually refracted in his plays in the sphere of family relations. Hence the importance of describing everyday life, every detail of it. In a family, a person pretends the least, he is best recognized. The number of masks worn by a person in his usual life is minimal.
In our article we will try to consider the main categories of life writing, namely space and time. It is important for us to establish why in a particular chronotope the characters behave in accordance with the roles indicated to them. Are spatial and temporal characteristics important for understanding a play? Could the action of the play unfold in other spatio-temporal relations? To begin with, we will try to consider in detail the chronotope of comedy.
“The entire organization of the action time in Ostrovsky’s “life plays” is subject to the search for such solutions that would allow, on the one hand, to absorb the richness and diversity of reality and, on the other hand, would meet the specific features of dramaturgy as a concentrated reproduction of life in the forms of life itself. » .
The duration of the play "Mad Money" is about three weeks, but the action in it is really extremely concentrated: between the first and last act, Vasilkov managed to get acquainted, get married, get consent to marriage, marry, divorce his wife and get back together with her again.
In general, having written the first two phenomena (in the final text - d. II, yavl. 3 and 4), Ostrovsky felt the need to explain the background of the action and characterize the figure of Vasilkov in more detail. He writes a new beginning - a conversation between Telyatev and Vasilkov. The text of the first action becomes the second action. Thus, the subtitle “Instead of a prologue” appears in the play, which we find in the first act and which increases the time limits of the text. The main dramatic action takes place in the plays by A.N. Island-
usually within a few days. Consider the chronological milestones of this play.
The first act, in its essence, is the acquaintance of the reader (or the theatrical spectator) with the characters. All dialogues take place within one day and in one location.
The second act shows the interchangeable exterior with the interior, and the development of the plot takes place, apparently, the next day after the end of the first act.
In the lists of acting characters in the third act, we read: "Lydia, Vasilkov's wife." Reflecting on the time during which Vasilkov's matchmaking and their wedding with Lydia could take place, as well as the preliminary furnishing of the Cheboksarovs' apartment, we come to the conclusion that approximately 3-5 days passed between the second and third acts.
At the beginning fourth act there is a clear indication of the time that has elapsed since the move to a new apartment, and the time of the events described is 3 days.
At the end of the fourth act (on the day described), the Cheboksarovs, on the advice of Kuchumov, return to their former apartment.
Finally, at the beginning of the fifth act, Nadezhda Antonovna says that Kuchumov promised to bring money for the housewarming. And instead of forty thousand rubles he gave six hundred rubles exactly a week ago.
Thus, the action of the play takes place in the interval of 2-3 weeks. As mentioned above, the action of the play is very intense. But let's look not only at the external manifestation of the temporal relations of the play, but also at the feeling of time by the characters themselves.
Repeatedly the characters of the play talk about their time, talk about the century in which they live.
Vasilkov. Because, moreover, it is at the present time that it is very possible to get rich.
Glumov. All this sour talk about virtue is stupid because it is impractical. Today is a practical age.
Vasilkov. Honest calculations are still modern. In a practical age, being honest is not only better, but also more profitable.
It can be noted that already in the first appearance of the first act, the characters talk about the central problems of this play. Vasilkov and Glumov (later Telyatev) speak of a practical age. And later, in the fifth act, they will return to this topic. Crazy money just comes and goes just as quickly, it is impossible to keep it. And only a prudent, active, businesslike, in other words, practical person, that is, a person of his age, can make up real capital.
But along with thrifty people, at the same time, wasteful people also live, for whom only big money is of interest, for the sake of which it is not necessary to work at all. About this in
In the fifth act, Telyatev says: “What are you afraid of? Take comfort! Yesterday they described furniture from two of my friends, today from you, tomorrow from me, the day after tomorrow from your Kuchumov. It's such a craze these days."
It is interesting to trace the temporary indications found in Mr. Kuchumov's speech. Grigory Borisovich Kuchumov is constantly trying to emphasize his social position, which, in his opinion, is stable: it was yesterday, it is today, and it will be tomorrow.
Kuchumov. What a kulebyaka I ate today, gentlemen, just delicious! Mille e tre... .
Kuchumov. Mille e tre... Yes, yes, yes! I forgot. Imagine what a case: yesterday I won eleven thousand.
Kuchumov.<...>And on Sunday I will feed you dinner at home, I will give you fresh stellate sturgeon, they brought me alive from Nizhny, great snipes and such a Burgonian that you ... .
He also tries to join the central theme of the play's dialogues - to reflections on the present and the state.
Kuchumov. Interprets everything: "the present time, yes the present time"<...>After all, you can get bored. Speak where you want to be heard. And what is the present time, is it better than the former? .
And a real gentleman sums up that it used to be much better, and people of the practical, prudent and thrifty age “should be driven”.
It is also interesting to assess how deftly and without a twinge of conscience Kuchumov "solves" all the money problems of the Cheboksarovs.
Lydia.<...>But do you really send money to your father?
Kuchumov. Tomorrow. And further: “Tomorrow I am writing to your father that I am buying an estate from him, and I will send him thirty thousand as a deposit. What is money to me! .
KUCHUMOV (taking his pockets). Oh my god! This only happens to me. I deliberately put my wallet on the table and forgot about it. Child, forgive me! (He kisses her hand.) I'll bring them to you tomorrow for a housewarming party. I hope you move today<...> .
He simply says about the money sent to Cheboksarov: “They didn’t get it. (Counts on fingers.) Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday. He received them last night or this morning.
In the fifth act, Lydia still believes in Kuchumov's constant "breakfasts", although her mother is already beginning to doubt the honesty of his promises.
What is remarkable for us is how Kuchumov disposes of his time: he is resolutely ready to do everything possible for the Cheboksarovs. But then - in half an hour, tonight or tomorrow.
Kuchumov.<...>After all, I tell you, in half an hour ... well ... circumstances may come up there: the necessary contributions; suddenly there is not so much money in the office; well, in a day or two ... in extreme cases, in a week
you will have everything, more than what is impossible to wish for.
But at the same time, he visits Lydia regularly, without getting confused in the temporary space.
Lydia. I live without a husband, you visit me every day famous hour; what will they think, what will they say? .
Speaking about the central character of the play, it should be noted that Vasilkov knows not only the price of labor and the cost of money, but also understands the value of time.
Vasilkov. How can they not?! After all, in half a year you will live twenty-five thousand.
Vasilkov. I have an estate, I have small money, I have business; but all the same, I cannot live more than seven, eight thousand a year.
Concluding the conversation about the chronological boundaries of the play and temporary references in it, let's say that this play appeared in its own time and was extremely relevant for this time. But she worries people even now, because, notes the theater expert and theater critic E.G. Kholodov, "the great Russian playwright, reflecting his time, managed to pose enormous universal problems, managed to clothe his vision of life in a masterful artistic form" .
Now let's take a closer look at the space in which the action of the play takes place.
In general, as you know, the play "Mad Money" belongs to the number of Moscow plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, who make up the so-called Moscow text. Researchers of Ostrovsky's work note that the playwright did not blindly and dogmatically follow the rule of three unities regarding spatial restrictions. However, as in the case with time, A.N. Ostrovsky concentrated the depicted space to the utmost, because, firstly, he did not want to disperse the attention of theatrical spectators, secondly, he preferred not to amaze the viewer with surprises, but to prepare him in advance for the upcoming changes in the scene, and thirdly, he understood the complexity of the decorative design of the production of each plays on stage.
The space in which the playwright places his characters is, in fact, ordinary, standard. And this typical interior or exterior is called upon by "the realist Ostrovsky to characterize the typical circumstances in which his characters live."
Consider the organization of the scene in the play Mad Money.
The first act of the play is accompanied by a remark: “In Petrovsky Park, in Sax's garden; to the right of the audience is the gate to the park, to the left is the coffee shop.
Petrovsky Park is a place of constant festivities for Muscovites, where there were various entertainment establishments, including summer theater, and so-
the same orchestra, whose owner was Sachs. In Petrovsky Park, Telyatev first met Vasilkov walking along the alley. Here, the characters make guesses about the state and type of activity of Vasilkov.
If we analyze other plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, we note that the playwright often acquaints readers with his characters on an open stage: in a garden, park, square or boulevard. This is done in order to introduce viewers into the social atmosphere in which his characters live.
The second action takes place in the Cheboksarovs' house. In the remark we read: “A richly furnished living room, with paintings, carpets, draperies. Three doors: two on the sides and one entrance.
Since the living room is the main plot space of the play under consideration, let us recall one of the main chronotopes identified by M.M. Bakhtin, namely, about the living room.
"Living room-salon". From the position of the plot and composition, “meetings take place here (no longer having the former specifically random nature of meetings on the“ road ”or in the“ alien world ”), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, and finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place, acquiring exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, "ideas" and "passions" of the characters are revealed.
In the same second act, Lydia also speaks about the living room, arguing that they don’t preach in drawing rooms: “Agree, maman, that the living room is not an audience, not Institute of Technology, not an engineering corps".
Act Three: “The same living room as in Act II, but more richly furnished. To the right of the audience is the door to Vasilkov's office, to the left - to Lydia's rooms, in the middle - the day off.
In the third act, another interesting to-pos appears for us, namely, a conversation halfway. Lydia and Vasilkov accidentally meet in the middle of the road, walking towards each other. Lydia asks her husband where to go next; Vasilkov: "Let's stop halfway for now." And this answer by Vasilkov is extremely important for us, because the point is not only in the spatial arrangement of the heroes, but also in their
further relationships. At this point, they really look at each other.
At the end of the third act, the reader learns that Vasilkov and his young wife need to cut the budget. Therefore, he looked after for the family "a one-story house with three windows to the street", in which the fourth act begins.
The space of the fourth act contrasts sharply with the living room in which the action took place earlier: “A very modest hall, it is also an office; on the sides of the window, on the back wall, to the right of the audience,
a door to the front room, to the left - to the inner rooms, between the doors there is a tiled stove; the furnishings are poor: a desk, an old piano."
If Vasilkov speaks of a new place " new flat”, then Lydia does not skimp in expressions. She "languishes" (as in a fortress or in prison) in this "kennel", she strives to leave this "miserable shack" as soon as possible. Kuchumov is absolutely in solidarity with her. He calls the room "inn", "chicken coop" and "hut". Even Telyatev calls this new place "a vile apartment."
It is interesting, however, that in the third apparition of the fifth act, we again return to the description of a modest dwelling.
Telyatev: At the gate stands / Tiny house; / He looks at everyone / Through three little windows. / That's where the money is.
The interiors of the two described apartments are not just some space. It's like the participants in the clashes of heroes. They are a reflection of the points of view of the key characters of the play on money, wealth, the habit of living in luxury and thoughtless spending.
In the fifth act, the Cheboksarovs return to their original place. “The boudoir in the former apartment of the Cheboksarovs; to the right of the audience is the door to the hall, directly the entrance, to the left is a mirrored window.
The description of the space in which the action of the play takes place is no less important for the playwright than the mention of places associated with the life of the central characters.
It is curious to consider how people who met him for the first time characterize Vasilkov. Glumov talks about Vasilkov: “He came from somewhere in Kamchatka,” later he calls him “a shipowner, he has his own ships on the Volga,” further: “Well, a Siberian, probably a Siberian.” And finally: "Now I know, an agent of some trading house in London, and there is nothing to interpret."
Telyatev tells Lydia that Vasilkov is from Chukhloma. In general, Telya-tev and Glumov, of course, like this ambiguity around the name of Vasilkov.
Telyatev: He has been to London, Constantinople, Tetyushi, Kazan; says he has seen beauties, but never like you.<...>He was a prisoner of the Tashkent people for a very long time.
Glumov: Because he is so wild, that everyone lives in the taiga, with the Buryats.
Nadezhda Antonovna also found herself in doubt about where Vasilkov came from.
Nadezhda Antonovna: Judging by your name, were you born in Greece?
Vasilkov: No, I'm in Russia, not far from the Volga.
And then Vasilkov continues that he lives in the village, "otherwise everyone is on the road." It is extremely important for us that Savva Gennadich Vasilkov is a provincial from the banks of the Volga. We know that A.N. Ostrovsky repeatedly visited the banks of the Volga, studied in detail the folklore, language, traditions, life and customs of the inhabitants of this area. He considered the Volga people to be industrious and active. It is interesting to note that Vasily (Vasilkov’s valet. We note, among other things, the commonality of the generating basis of the name of the valet and the surname of Vasilkov), emphasizing the commonality of their case, says “maybe you and I saw need together, maybe they drowned together in the river in our case” (hereinafter, italics are ours - O.K.).
Despite the "provinciality" of the common people, A.N. Ostrovsky admired him, seeing in every hard worker a real Russian peasant.
Such is Vasilkov. He is really a hard worker. However, he is not just a worker. Thanks to his abilities, he was able to graduate from a higher educational institution and understand his specialty. (So, for example, “on the Isthmus of Suez, earthworks also interested me in engineering structures.” He is smart, prudent and hardworking. He studied his business both in Russia and abroad. He knows how to make a fortune and how to competently increase it. money is not "mad", they are "labor".
And with such values of his, Vasilkov comes to Big city, to Moscow. Moscow demands a fortune. It is shameful for a beggar to live here.
In the second act, Lydia says to her mother:
Lydia.<...>After all, we will not leave Moscow, we will not leave for the village; and in Moscow we cannot live like beggars! .
Hope Antonovna.<...>If we stay in Moscow, we will be forced to reduce our expenses, we will have to sell silver, some paintings, diamonds.
Lydia. Oh, no, no, God forbid! Impossible, impossible! All Moscow will know that we are ruined.
Note that in last remark Lydia Moscow is not a city, but the name of the Moscow people, townspeople. Lydia is afraid of public opinion, she is not so much afraid of poverty as what people will say. She doesn't care where the money comes from. She needs to know how to spend it.
In the third act, Vasilkov argues: “If you could spend your whole life driving around Moscow, sometimes with visits, then in the evenings and concerts ... without doing anything; if it were not ashamed to live like this and there would be funds for this. For Vasilkov, these are dreams. He, perhaps, would like to live like this, but for him, a man who earns his own bread, this is unacceptable.
But in the fourth manifestation of the same action we read:
Lydia.<...>Exhausted. (Sits down on an armchair.) Traveled all over Moscow. That is, we conclude that Lydia lives exactly the way Vasilkov would be ashamed to live. And not only the young Cheboksarova leads such a life. There are a majority of such playboys in Moscow, not without reason Telyatev says that he must soon be taken to the Resurrection Gate (where the debtor's prison was located). Yes, and Kuchu-mov, who only splurges with his wealth, actually lives in the care of his own wife. However, to the offer to shoot with Vasilkov, he replies: “Neither, nor, nor, young man! I will not fight with you; my life is too dear to Moscow to put it against yours, perhaps completely useless. Kuchumov sincerely believes that rich people who play cards and visit merchant clubs are more important for Moscow society than individuals like Vasilkov.
Vasilkov, however, also successfully gets along in Moscow. Yes, but now he does not burn through his capital, but tries to earn it. Hence the places he visits are appropriate: the stock exchange and the meeting, where among the rich people there is a conversation about business.
Luxurious Moscow, which requires the waste of the capital of its inhabitants, is presented to us by the following institutions and locations: the already mentioned Petrovsky Park (also known as Petrovka in the text of the comedy), a theater, a coffee shop, a merchant club, a hotel, an English (club), Troitsky (restaurant). In the ninth scene of the third act, Glumov and Telyatev agree that home-cooked meals are much worse than in hotels or clubs. And for unstoppable spending, there is an opportunity to get into the Resurrection Gate and the Moscow Pit.
The remarks of Glumov, who is going to go to Paris with his confidant, are also curious. Paris, the city of dreams, appearing before us in a halo of luxury and wealth, beauty and pathos, really beckons. But it also requires funds, like any other large city, like Moscow. But will Glumov really end up in Paris?
A few years after the publication of Mad Money, A.N. Ostrovsky will write "Dowry". One of her heroes invites another to go with him to Paris. He wonders what he will do there without knowing French. And further:
Vozhevatov. What a capital (of France)! What are you, in your mind! What Paris are you thinking about? We have a tavern on the square "Paris", that's where I wanted to go with you.
Tavern "Paris". Isn't that where Glumov is going to go? And, perhaps, Telyatev, saying goodbye to Glumov, also recalled this place: “Farewell, Glumov. Have a good trip! Remember me in Paris:
there, at every crossroads, my shadow still wanders.
Also ephemeral, in our opinion, is America, where Kuchumov's man leaves with all his money. Telyatev immediately (not without irony) notes that it would not be enough to get that kind of money even to Zvenigorod (we have already talked about Kuchumov's financial condition earlier).
In the last line of the play, Telyatev sums up his reflections on the life of people around him in Moscow: “Would you like to lend me money? Don't go, don't. They're gone, by God, they're gone. Moscow, Savva, is such a city that we, the Telyatevs and the Kuchumovs, will not perish in it. We will have both honor and credit without a penny. For a long time to come, every merchant will be happy to consider that we are having dinner and drinking champagne at his expense.
In order not to die in Moscow, you need to be able to count money. How to learn this, Vasilkov explains in the last action of Lydia, offering her his help. We will not consider Vasilkov's remark in full here. We will only note those spatial milestones that Lydia needs to go through in order to change her views: a village - a provincial city - Petersburg. Telyatev notes that Lydia will have "a brilliant prospect from a village basement to a St. Petersburg salon." But, perhaps, only such a path can teach a girl who does not think about anything to appreciate labor and the means acquired by this labor.
Concluding our conversation about the scene of the comedy, we note that with all the variety of proposed spatial solutions, “the playwright in all cases subordinates these solutions to the task of the most complete, unconstrained, and at the same time internally expedient development of a single dramatic action» .
The peculiarities of the organization of time and place of action of the play "Mad Money" are caused by the very originality of the plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, their everyday content and everything that allows you to call them "plays of life".
Bibliography
1. Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. Researches of different years. -M.: Hood. lit., 1975. - 504 p.
2. Mosaleva G.V. "Unread" A.N. Ostrovsky: poet of iconic Russia: monograph. - Izhevsk: Udmurt. un-t, 2014. - 296 p.
3. Ostrovsky A.N. Complete Works: in 12 volumes / ed. ed. G.I. Vladykina and others. T. 3. Plays (1868-1871). - M.: Art, 1974. - 560 p.
4. Ostrovsky A.N. Complete Works: in 12 volumes / ed. ed. G.I. Vladykina and others. T. 5. Plays (1878-1884). - M.: Art, 1975. - 543 p.
5. Kholodov E.G. Mastery Ostrovsky. - M.: Art, 1967. - 544 p.
Spatial features of the text. Space and image of the world. Physical point of view (spatial plans: panoramic image, close-up, mobile - a motionless picture of the world, external - internal space, etc.). Features of the landscape (interior). Space types. Valuable value of spatial images (spatial images as an expression of non-spatial relations).
Temporal features of the text. Action time and story time. Types of artistic time, the meaning of temporary images. Vocabulary with temporary meaning. The main chronotopes of the text. Space and time of the author and the hero, their fundamental difference.
Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal: nature, things, events, people in their external and inner being etc. The natural forms of existence of this world are time and space. However art world, or world of art, always to some extent conditional: it is image reality. Time and space in literature are thus also conditional.
Compared to other arts, literature is the most free to deal with time and space.(It can compete in this area, perhaps, only with the synthetic art of cinema). The "non-materiality of ... images" gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space to another. In particular, events that occur simultaneously in different places can be depicted; for this, it is enough for the narrator to say: "In the meantime, something happened there." Transitions from one time plan to another are just as simple (especially from the present to the past and back). The earliest forms of such temporal switching were memories in the stories of the characters. With the development of literary self-awareness, these forms of mastering time and space will become more sophisticated, but it is important that they have always taken place in literature, and, therefore, constituted an essential element of artistic imagery.
Another property of literary time and space is their discontinuity. With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature turns out to be able not to reproducethe wholeflow of time, but choose the most significant fragments from it, marking the gaps with formulas like: “several days have passed”, etc. Such temporal discreteness (which has long been characteristic of literature) served as a powerful means of dynamization, first in the development of the plot, and then in psychologism.
Fragmentation of space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly it has an independent character.
Characterconventions of time and space highly dependent onfrom the family literature. The lyrics, which represent the actual experience, and the drama, played out before the eyes of the audience, showing the incident at the moment of its completion, usually use the present tense, while the epic (basically a story about what has passed) is in the past tense.
Conditionality is maximum atlyrics it may even completely lack the image of space - for example, in A.S. Pushkin's poem “I loved you; love still, perhaps ... ". Often the space in the lyrics is allegorical: the desert in Pushkin's "Prophet", the sea in Lermontov's "Sail". At the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing object world in its spatial realities. So, in Lermontov's poem "Motherland" a typical Russian landscape is recreated. In his poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd ...” the mental transfer of the lyrical hero from the ballroom to the “wonderful kingdom” embodies the oppositions that are extremely significant for the romantic: civilization and nature, artificial and natural man, “I” and “crowd” . And not only spaces, but also times are opposed.
Conditionality of time and space indrama connected mainly with its orientation towards the theatre. With all the diversity in the organization of time and space, drama retains some general properties: no matter how significant the role of narrative fragments in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action, the drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.
Much more opportunities for epic kind , where the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the depicted life and the reader. The narrator can "compress" and, on the contrary, "stretch" time, or even stop it (in descriptions, reasoning).
According to the peculiarities of artistic convention time and space in literature (in all its varieties) can be divided into abstract and concrete, especially this distinction is important for space.
Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes taking place in it. To analyze a work, it is important to determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator in many cases characterizes style works, writer, direction. For example, Gogol's space is usually filled to the maximum with some objects, especially things. Here is one of the interiors in Dead Souls:<...>the room was hung with old striped wallpaper; pictures with some birds; between the windows there are small antique mirrors with dark frames in the form of curled leaves; behind every mirror there was either a letter, or an old pack of cards, or a stocking; wall clock with painted flowers on the dial...” (ch. III). And in Lermontov's style system, the space is practically not filled: it contains only what is necessary for the plot and the depiction of the inner world of the characters, even in "A Hero of Our Time" (not to mention romantic poems) there is not a single detailed written out interior.
The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events.. Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Mayakovsky have an extremely busy time. Chekhov, on the other hand, managed to sharply reduce the intensity of time even in dramatic works, which, in principle, gravitate towards the concentration of action.
The increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time, and vice versa: a weak saturation of space is combined with time full of events.
Real (plot) and artistic time rarely match, especially in epic works, where playing with time can be a very expressive device. In most cases, artistic time is shorter than "real" time: this is the manifestation of the law of "poetic economy". However, there is an important exception related to the image psychological processes and subjective time character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts, unlike other processes, proceed faster than the speech flow, which forms the basis of literary imagery, moves. Therefore, the image time is almost always longer than the subjective time. In some cases, this is less noticeable (for example, in Lermontov’s Hero of Our Time, Goncharov’s novels, Chekhov’s stories), in others it is a conscious artistic device designed to emphasize the richness and intensity of spiritual life. This is typical for many writers-psychologists: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Faulkner, Hemingway, Proust.
The depiction of what the hero has experienced in just a second of "real" time can take up a large amount of narrative.
In literature as a dynamic, but at the same time visual art, quite complex relationships often arise between “ real and artistic time.« Real» time in general can be equal to zero, for example, with various kinds of descriptions. This time can be called eventless . But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, literature really captures events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationship of people, or the situation as a whole. This plot , or plot , time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable being, actions and deeds that are repeated from day to day, from year to year. Events as such at such a time no. Everything that happens in it does not change either the character of a person or the relationship of people, does not move the plot (plot) from plot to denouement. The dynamics of such a time is extremely conditional, and its function is to reproduce a sustainable way of life. This type of artistic time is sometimes called "Chronically-everyday" .
The ratio of eventless and eventful time largely determines tempo organization of artistic time of the work , which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception. So, Gogol's Dead Souls, in which eventless, "chronicle-everyday" time, give the impression of a slow pace. A different tempo organization in Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment, in which eventful time (not only externally, but also internal, psychological events).
The writer sometimes makes time last, stretches it to convey a certain psychological state of the hero (Chekhov's story "I want to sleep"), sometimes stops, "turns off" (L. Tolstoy's philosophical excursions in "War and Peace"), sometimes makes time move back.
Important for analysis iscompleteness andincompleteness artistic time. Writers often create in their works closed time, which has both an absolute beginning and, more importantly, an absolute end, which, as a rule, represents both the completion of the plot and the resolution of the conflict, and in the lyrics, the exhaustion of a given experience or reflection. Starting from the early stages of the development of literature and almost up to the 19th century. such temporal completeness was practically obligatory and constituted a sign of artistry. The forms of the completion of artistic time were varied: this was the return of the hero to his father's house after wanderings (literary interpretations of the parable about prodigal son), and the achievement of a certain stable position in life, and the "triumph of virtue", and the final victory of the hero over the enemy, and, of course, the death of the protagonist or the wedding. At the end of the XIX century. Chekhov, for whom the incompleteness of artistic time became one of the foundations of his innovative aesthetics, spread the principle open final and unfinished time on dramaturgy, those. to that literary genre in which it was most difficult to do this and which urgently requires temporal and eventual isolation.
Space, like time, can shift at the will of the author. Artistic space is created through the use of an image angle; this happens as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is carried out: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa. Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial.
The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a definite tendency towards complication. in the 19th and especially in the 20th century. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic device; begins a kind of "game" with time and space. Its meaning is to compare different times and spaces, to reveal both the characteristic properties of "here" and "now" and the general, universal laws of being, to comprehend the world in its unity. Each culture has its own understanding of time and space, which is reflected in literature. Since the Renaissance, culture has been dominated by linear concept time associated with the concept progress.Art time too for the most part linearly, although there are exceptions. For culture and literature late XIX- early 20th century had a significant impact natural sciences concepts time and space, associated primarily with the theory of relativity by A. Einstein. Fiction literature reacted to the changed scientific and philosophical ideas about time and space: it began to present deformations of space and time. Most fruitfully mastered new ideas about space and time Science fiction.
Titles denoting time and space.
With all the conventionality of the “new artistic reality” created by the writer, the basis of the artistic world, as well as the real world, is its coordinates - time and place, which often indicated in the titles of works. In addition to cyclic coordinates (names of the time of day, days of the week, months), the time of action can be indicated by a date correlated with a historical event (“The ninety-third year” by V. Hugo), or by the name of a real historical person with whom the idea of a particular era ("Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX" P. Merime).
In the title of a work of art, not only “points” on the time axis can be indicated, but also entire “segments”, marking the chronological framework of the narrative. At the same time, the author, focusing the reader's attention on a certain time period - sometimes it is only one day or even part of a day - seeks to convey both the essence of life and the “clot of life” of his characters, emphasizes the typical nature of the events he describes (“Morning of the landowner” L.N. Tolstoy, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn).
The second coordinate of the artistic world of the work - the place - can be indicated in the title with varying degrees of specificity, a real (“Rome” by E. Zola) or a fictional toponym (“Chevengur” by A.P. Platonov, “Solaris” by St. Lem), defined in in the most general form (“The Village” by I.A. Bunin, “Islands in the Ocean” by E. Hemingway). Fictional toponyms often contain an emotional assessment that gives the reader an idea of the author's concept of the work. So, for the reader, the negative semantics of the Gorky toponym Okurov (“Okurov Town”) is quite obvious; the town of Okurov near Gorky is a dead backwater in which life is not seething, but barely glimmering. The most common place names, as a rule, testify to the extremely wide meaning of the image created by the artist. So, the village from the story of the same name by I.A. Bunin is not only one of the villages of the Oryol province, but also a Russian village in general with a whole complex of contradictions associated with the spiritual disintegration of the peasant world, the community.
Titles denoting the scene of action can not only model the space of the artistic world (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. Radishchev, “Moscow - Petushki” by V. Erofeev), but also introduce the main symbol of the work (“Nevsky Prospekt” by N.V. Gogol, "Petersburg" by A. Bely). Toponymic titles are often used by writers as a kind of bond that unites individual works into a single cycle or book (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol).
Main literature: 12, 14, 18, 28, 75
Further reading: 39, 45, 82
Artistic time and art space the most important characteristics artistic image, providing holistic perception artistic reality and organizing the composition of the work. The art of the word belongs to the group of dynamic, temporal arts (in contrast to the plastic, spatial arts). But the literary and poetic image, formally unfolding in time (as a sequence of text), with its content reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological, value aspect. Such traditional spatial landmarks as “house” (an image of a closed space), “space” (an image of an open space), “threshold”, “window”, “door” (the border between one and the other) have long been the point of application of comprehending forces in literary and artistic (and more broadly cultural) models of the world (the symbolic richness of such spaces, images is obvious, such as the house of Gogol's "old-world landowners" or Raskolnikov's coffin-like room in Crime and Punishment, 1866, F.M. Dostoevsky, like a steppe in "Taras Bulba", 1835, N.V. Gogol or in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov). symbolic and artistic chronology(movement from spring and summer heyday to autumn sadness, characteristic of the world of Turgenev's prose). In general, the ancient types of value situations, realized in spatiotemporal images (chronotope, according to M.M. Bakhtin), are “idyllic time” in father's house, "adventurous time" of trials in a foreign land, "mystery time" of descent into the underworld of disasters - one way or another preserved in a reduced form by the classical literature of the New Age and modern literature(“station” or “airport” as places of decisive meetings and clearings, choice of path, sudden recognition, etc. correspond to the old “crossroads” or roadside tavern; “laz” - to the former “threshold” as a ritual crossing topos).
In view of the iconic, spiritual, symbolic nature of the art of the word spatial and temporal coordinates of literary reality are not fully concretized, discontinuous and conditional (the fundamental unrepresentability of spaces, images and quantities in mythological, grotesque and fantastic works; uneven course of plot time, its delays at the points of descriptions, reversals, parallel flow in different storylines). However, here the temporary nature of the literary image, noted by G.E. Lessing in Laocoön (1766), makes itself felt - the convention in the transfer of space is felt weaker and is realized only when trying to translate literary works into the language of other arts; meanwhile, the conventionality in the transfer of time, the dialectic of the discrepancy between the time of the narration and the time of the events depicted, the compositional time with the plot are being mastered literary process as an obvious and meaningful contradiction.
Archaic, oral and generally early literature is sensitive to the type of temporal confinement, orientation in the collective or historical account of time (as in the traditional system literary genera lyric is “present”, and epic is “long gone”, qualitatively separated from the life time of the performer and listeners). The age of myth for its keeper and narrator is not a thing of the past; the mythological narrative ends with the correlation of events with the present composition of the world or its future fate (the myth of Pandora's box, of the chained Prometheus, who will someday be released). The time of a fairy tale is a deliberately conditional past, a fictitious time (and space) of unheard-of things; ironic ending (“and I was there, drinking honey-beer”) often emphasizes that there is no way out of the time of a fairy tale during its rendering (on this basis, one can conclude that more late origin fairy tales versus myths).
With the disintegration of archaic, ritual models of the world, marked by features of naive realism (observance of the unities of time and place in ancient drama with its cult and mythological origins), a measure of conventionality grows in the spatio-temporal representations that characterize literary consciousness. In an epic or fairy tale, the tempo of the narration could not yet sharply outstrip the tempo of the events depicted; an epic or fairy-tale action could not unfold simultaneously (“in the meantime”) on two or more sites; it was strictly linear and, in this respect, remained faithful to empiricism; the epic narrator did not have a field of vision expanded in comparison with the usual human horizon; at each moment he was in one and only one point of the plot space. "Copernican coup" produced by the modern European novel in spatio-temporal organization of narrative genres, consisted in the fact that the author, along with the right to unconventional and frank fiction, acquired the right to dispose of novel time as its initiator and creator. When fiction removes the mask of a real event, and the writer openly breaks with the role of a rhapsodist or chronicler, then there is no need for a naive-empirical concept of event time. Temporal coverage can now be arbitrarily wide, the pace of narration can be arbitrarily uneven, parallel “theatres of action”, reversal of time and exits to the future known to the narrator are acceptable and functionally important (for purposes of analysis, explanation or entertainment). The boundaries between the compressed author's presentation of events, which speeds up the flow of plot time, the description, which stops its course for the sake of an overview of space, and dramatized episodes, the compositional time of which "keeps pace" with plot time. Accordingly, the difference between the unfixed (“omnipresent”) and the spatially localized (“witness”) position of the narrator, which is characteristic mainly of “dramatic” episodes, is felt more sharply.
If in a short story of a novelistic type (the classic example is The Queen of Spades, 1833, by A.S. Pushkin), these moments of the new artistic time and artistic space are still brought to a balanced unity and are completely subordinate to the author-narrator, who talks with the reader as If it were “on the other side” of fictional space-time, then in the “big” novel of the 19th century, such unity noticeably fluctuates under the influence of emerging centrifugal forces. These "forces" are the discovery of everyday time and inhabited space (in the novels of O. Balzac, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov) in connection with the concept public environment, which forms the human character, as well as the discovery of a multi-subject narrative and transferring the center of space-time coordinates to the inner world of the characters in connection with the development psychological analysis. When long-term organic processes come into the narrator's field of vision, the author runs the risk of facing the impossible task of reproducing life "from minute to minute." The way out was to transfer the sum of everyday circumstances that repeatedly affect a person beyond the time of action (exposition in Father Goriot, 1834-35; Oblomov’s dream is a lengthy digression in Goncharov’s novel) or distribution throughout calendar plan works of episodes shrouded in the course of everyday life (in the novels of Turgenev, in the "peaceful" chapters of the epic of L.N. Tolstoy). Such an imitation of the “river of life” itself with particular persistence requires the narrator to have a guiding supra-event presence. But, on the other hand, the opposite, in essence, process of “self-elimination” of the author-narrator is already beginning: the space dramatic episodes increasingly organized from the "observation position" of one of the characters, the events are described synchronously, as they play out before the eyes of the participant. It is also significant that chronicle-everyday time, in contrast to the event-based (in the source - adventure) does not have an unconditional beginning and an unconditional end ("life goes on").
In an effort to resolve these contradictions, Chekhov, in accordance with his general idea of the course of life (the time of everyday life is the decisive tragic time of human existence), merged eventful time with everyday time to an indistinguishable unity: episodes that happened once are presented in a grammatical imperfect - as repeatedly repeated everyday scenes that fill a whole segment of everyday life. (This folding of a large “piece” of plot time into a single episode, which simultaneously serves as both a summary story about the past stage and an illustration to it, a “test” taken from everyday life, is one of the main secrets of Chekhov’s famous brevity.) From the crossroads In the classic novel of the mid-19th century, the path opposite to Chekhov's was paved by Dostoevsky, who concentrated the plot within the boundaries of a critical, crisis time of decisive trials, measured in a few days and hours. The chronicle gradualness here is actually depreciated in the name of the decisive disclosure of the characters in their fateful moments. In Dostoevsky’s intense turning point corresponds to the space illuminated in the form of a stage, extremely involved in events, measured by the steps of the characters - the “threshold” (doors, stairs, corridors, lanes, where you can’t miss each other), “accidental shelter” (tavern, compartment), “ hall for a gathering, ”corresponding to situations of crime (crossing), confession, public trial. At the same time, the spiritual coordinates of space and time embrace the human universe in his novels (the ancient golden age, French revolution, "quadrillions" of cosmic years and versts), and these instantaneous mental slices of world existence encourage us to compare the world of Dostoevsky with the world " Divine Comedy"(1307-21) Dante and "Faust" (1808-31) I.V. Goethe.
In the spatio-temporal organization of a work of literature of the 20th century, the following trends and features can be noted:
- The symbolic plane of the realistic spatio-temporal panorama is accentuated, which, in particular, is reflected in the inclination towards nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, by M.A. Bulgakov; the county of Yoknapatofa in the south of the USA, created by the imagination of W. Faulkner; the generalized "Latin American" country of Macondo in the national epic of the Colombian G. Garcia Marquez "One Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967). However, it is important that artistic time and artistic space in all these cases require real historical and geographical identification, or at least convergence, without which the work is incomprehensible;
- The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable is often used, which is excluded from the historical account, which often corresponds to the uncertainty of the scene (“The Trial”, 1915, F. Kafka; “The Plague”, 1947, A. Camus; “Watt”, 1953, S. Beckett );
- A remarkable milestone in modern literary development- appeal to the character's memory as an internal space for the development of events; the intermittent, reverse and other course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall (this takes place not only in M. Proust or W. Wolf, but also in writers of a more traditional realistic plan, for example, in H. Böll, but in modern Russian literature by V.V. Bykov, Yu.V. Trifonov). Such a setting of the hero's consciousness makes it possible to compress the actual time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection;
- Modern literature has not lost the hero moving in the objective earthly expanse, in the multifaceted epic space of collective historical destinies - what are the heroes of The Quiet Don (1928-40) by M.A. Sholokhov, The Life of Klim Samgin, 1927-36, M. Gorky.
- The “hero” of a monumental narrative can become itself historical time in its decisive "nodes", subordinating the fate of the heroes as private moments in an avalanche of events (A.I. Solzhenitsyn's epic "The Red Wheel", 1969-90).
In the works of N. V. Gogol, the structure of time and space becomes one of the main means of expression. In Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, real and fantastic spaces collide. Closed in its geographical specificity, "Petersburg Tales" become a metaphor for the world, destructive for a person, and the city depicted in "The Inspector General" appears as an allegory of bureaucratic Russia. Space and time can manifest themselves in domestic scenes or in marking the boundaries of the existence of characters. In Dead Souls, the image of the road as a form of space is identical to the idea of the path as the moral norm of human life.
I. A. Goncharov in the novel "Oblomov", emphasizing the slowness of the calendar of patriarchal existence, refers to the comparison of the hero's life with the "slow gradualness with which the geological modifications of our planet occur." The novel is based on the principle of open time. The author deliberately neglects the clear metrics of the narrative, slows down the passage of time, persistently returning to the description of the patriarchal idyll.
The depicted time and the time of the image in artistic texts may not coincide. So, the novel "Oblomov" reproduces several episodes from the life of the protagonist. Those points on which the author considered it important to dwell are presented in detail, others are only indicated. Nevertheless, this principle of organizing a work results in the creation of complete picture human life.
L. N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace”, reflecting on the laws of human society, refers to the mythopoetic tradition, which is based on the idea of the cyclical development of the universe. The philosophical purpose of such a decision is the idea that everything in the world, chaotic and contradictory, is subject to the eternal human desire to comprehend harmony.
In the novel "War and Peace" the flow of time is determined by the law of non-linear transformations, which is embodied in the intersection of "real time" and "literary time". In the work of L. N. Tolstoy, a special role is played by chronological order. The writer carefully dates each chapter and even notes the time of day.
In the scenes describing the experiences of the characters, the author of the epic manages to achieve the rhythmic tension of the narration and the dynamic change emotional states. The thoughts of the heroes either speed up, or seem to freeze, and, accordingly, time itself accelerates its movement or petrifies in anticipation.
A work of art belongs to special types of exploration of reality. Artistic image only indirectly connected with the image of reality. The writer must always take into account in his work the spatio-temporal boundaries of reality, correlate them with the chronology of the text being created. Often in a literary work, physical time and plot time do not coincide.
As an example, one can refer to the poetics of the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky. The writer puts his characters in crisis situations, the implementation of which requires an exceptionally long time. The events described in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, especially some scenes, do not fit into the framework of real time. But it is precisely such a chronotope of the novel that conveys the tension of the thoughts and will of the characters, caught up in the drama of life situations.
Readers may get the impression that the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky are based on different time plans. This feeling stems from a tense intertwining of events, discussions, confessions, facts, internal monologues and internal dialogues. In fact, the writer's works are marked by the unity of time, and all artistic material is offered in an integral space of simultaneous implementation.
The aesthetics of naturalism in the reproduction of space and time chooses the technique of a rigid spatio-temporal presentation of the material. E. Zola, E. and J. Goncourt record the facts of reality, correlate them with the voice of nature, revealing the conditionality of the intuitive actions of the characters by the eternal laws of nature.
Symbolism overcomes the objectivity of phenomenal existence, metaphors and symbols expand the horizons of human existence. With the help of "lyrical alchemy" C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé compare reality with the irrational meanings of the world, prove that the symbol embodies the ideal plan, the essence of things that were, are or someday will certainly declare yourself.
Yu. M. Lotman noted that “the artistic space in a literary work is a continuum in which characters are placed and an action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space. There is some truth in such a perception, because even when its function of modeling extra-spatial relations is exposed, the artistic space necessarily retains, as the first plane of the metaphor, the idea of its physical nature.
According to the degree of conventionality, the categories of space and time can be relative and specific in a literary work. So, in the novels of A. Dumas, the action takes place in France XVII century, but the real historical place and time indicated by the writer is only an excuse for recreating heroic types. According to U. Eco, the main thing in this approach to the past is that it is “not here and not now”.
Gogol's principles of realistic typification belong to the "concrete" principle of mastering reality. Image provincial city N. is not at all a symbol of the Russian province, it is a symbol of bureaucratic Russia, an allegory of widespread lack of spirituality.
For the perception of a literary work, the difference between the fictional and the real is not fundamental. The main thing is that Petersburg in the Russian novel, and the city of S. (A.P. Chekhov's story "The Lady with the Dog"), and the city of Kalinov (A. Ostrovsky's play "Thunderstorm") - all of them artistically embody the author's idea and are symbols of peace who have lost the concept of morality.
The conventionality and stereotype of literary time is manifested in the calendar of seasonal preferences. Winter is the most dangerous time of the year for the embodiment of intimate emotions. Many characters of romanticism reflect inconsolably in winter and recall the old glorious time that has gone into oblivion. A rare hero of romanticism will be taken out of the house in winter for love needs. Time and space are subject to the laws of strict regulation. Images of a blizzard, a winter cold in the literature are correlated with the struggle of infernal forces and often become, especially in realistic literature, allegories of social violence. No less common are winter landscape sketches, the purpose of which is to glorify the intrinsic value of life.
The normative nature of classicism in the depiction of resurgent nature - the appeal to ancient images, pathetic comparisons - is overcome by a sentimentalist conviction in the identity of nature and soul. Romanticism saturates the description of the awakening world with objectivity, expressive details, and a rich color palette.
Nature awakening from its winter sleep provides convincing interiors for revealing the first feeling. Spring favors the birth of love. A hubbub reigns in the forests, restless birds are absorbed in the construction of housing. The world tirelessly prepares for a date with passion.
The heroes of romantic poetry, faithful to the imperative call of nature, with a heart full of hope, rush into the whirlwind of spring delusions. Lyrical poetry ascribes the most sincere and exciting emotions to spring. In the spring, as literature proves, it is simply necessary to fall in love. Heroes feel their belonging to the general unrest. Nature and the soul awaken from sorrow. The time has come to experience for yourself what you read, saw in a dream and cherished in dreams. Leading in literary plots become descriptions of the joy of innocent love sensations, languid nights, long-talking sighs. The metric of experiences is formed in accordance with the violent natural metamorphoses. Poetry enthusiastically describes the first thunder, the May thunderstorm - signs of a symbolic exposition of the renewal of nature and the birth of love.
Summer in literary works, as a rule, comes unnoticed and does not give the promised joys. Literature does not favor mise-en-scenes lit by bright sunlight. Everyone sincerely is afraid of publicity. For a love story, twilight is preferable. Evening walks evoke thoughts of eternity. Distant stars - the only witnesses of timid feelings - are watching the lucky ones. The very mise-en-scene of the evening meeting, as the works of romantics and A.P. Chekhov show, is built in such a way that the plot of recognition could come true.
The autumn plot declares the need to complete everything started in the spring and summer. The love-everyday mythology of literature warns of this. English cemetery poetry is permeated with autumn moods. It is at this time of the year that the most painful events occur in the works of neo-romanticism. The range of "autumn" activity of the heroes is extremely poor. Realistic poetry condemns social injustice, a romantic heroes in autumn, they tend to put an end to love punctuation.
The literary category of time is marked by a wide range of artistic solutions. Literature actively uses images that are symbols of the measurement of time: an instant, a minute, an hour, a pendulum, a dial. In poetry, the opposition of the symbols of the measurable and the exorbitant - the moment and eternity - is widespread.
The interpretation of the space-time continuum in the works of the last century is ambiguous.
20th century literature marked special treatment to the category of time, to the phenomenon of reconstruction of what happened. Beginning with the "Confessions" of Blessed Augustine, the introduction of present and future plans into the past becomes one of the methods of confessional and memoir literature. Integration of the future into the present allows you to analyze what happened, to see it in a time perspective. V. Shklovsky, reflecting on the nature of the memoir genre, noted: “A person who begins to write memoirs has two dangers. The first is to write, inserting yourself today. Then it turns out that you always knew everything. The second danger is remembering, to remain only in the past. Run through the past the way a dog runs along a wire with its dog chain on it. Then a person always remembers the same thing: he remembers small things. Trampling the grass of the past, he is attached to it. He has no future. We must write about the past, not inserting ourselves today into the past, but seeing the past from today.
Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005
The categories of time and space are the determining factor in the existence of the world: through the awareness of space-time coordinates, a person determines his place in it. The same principle is transferred to the artistic space of literature - writers, voluntarily or involuntarily, place their heroes in a reality created in a certain way. Literary critics, in turn, seek to understand how the categories of space and time are revealed in works.
Bakhtin: chronotope
Until the 20th century, the spatio-temporal organization of a work was not perceived as a problem in literary criticism. But already in the first half of the century, the most important studies in this area were written. They are associated with the name of the Russian scientist M. M. Bakhtin.
In the work "The Author and the Hero in Aesthetic Activity" (1924, published in 1979), the researcher introduces the concept of the hero's spatial form, speaking of the need to study spatial values, which are transgredient to the consciousness of the hero and his world, his cognitive and ethical attitude in the world and complete him from the outside, from the consciousness of another about him, the author-contemplator.
In the work “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics» (1937-1938, publication 1975) Bakhtin makes a revolutionary discovery in the artistic understanding of the categories of time and space: the scientist develops a theory chronotope. The researcher borrowed the term from A. Einstein's theory of relativity. M. M. Bakhtin gives the concept the following definition: “We will call the essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations artistically mastered in literature a chronotope (which means, literally, “time-space”).”
The idea is important for a scientist inseparable connection space and time. Chronotop Bakhtin understands it as a "formally-substantial category of literature". Time and space are correlated into a single concept of the chronotope and enter into relationships of interconnection and interdependence: "The signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time."
Time and space are correlated into a single concept of the chronotope and enter into relationships of interconnection and interdependence
The chronotope underlies the definition of the aesthetic unity of a work of art in relation to primary reality.
Researcher notes and connection genre forms of a work of art with a chronotope: the genre is, as it were, determined by the chronotope. The scientist presents the characteristics of various novel chronotopes.
Art, according to Bakhtin, is permeated chronotopic values. The following types of chronotope are distinguished in the work (in relation to the genre of the novel):
- Chronotop meetings , in which the "temporal shade" predominates and which "differs a high degree emotional value intensity"
- Chronotop roads , which has "a wider volume, but somewhat less emotional and value intensity"; the chronotope of the road connects the ranks of lives and destinies, concretizing social distancing, which are overcome within the chronotope of the road. The road becomes a metaphor for the passage of time
- Chronotop " Castle" , “which is saturated with time, moreover, in the narrow sense of the word, that is, the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (hence, the historical figures of the past), traces of centuries and generations were deposited in it in a visible form.
- Chronotop " living room» , where “meetings take place (no longer having the former specifically random nature of meetings on the“ road ”or in the“ foreign world ”), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, here, finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in novel, the characters, "ideas" and "passions" of the characters are revealed.
- Chronotop " provincial town» , which is the "place of cyclic household time". With such a chronotope, there are no events, “but there are only repeated “occurrences”. Time is deprived here of a progressive historical course, it moves in narrow circles: the circle of the day, the circle of the week, the month, the circle of all life.<…>
Time here is eventless and therefore seems to have almost stopped. There is no "meeting" or "parting". It's thick, sticky, space-crawling time."
- Chronotop threshold filled with chronotope crisis and life fracture. Chronotop threshold always "metaphorical and symbolic<…>Time in this chronotope, in essence, is an instant, as if having no duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time.
M. M. Bakhtin notes that each type of chronotope can include an unlimited number of small chronotopes. Key meanings of the considered chronotopes: plot("They are the organizational centers of the main plot events of the novel") and pictorial(“The chronotope provides an essential basis for showing and depicting events”).
Bakhtin's concept has become a key one in understanding spatio-temporal connections and relationships. However, until now, its comprehension does not always find a proper solution among researchers: often the “chronotope” is simply replaced by the concept of space-time relations in the text, without implying either the interdependence of the components of time and space, or the belonging of the analyzed text to the genre of the novel. The use of the designated term in the understanding of Bakhtin is incorrect in relation to non-novel genres.
Likhachev: organization of the action of the work
Sections on space and time also appear in the work of D. S. Likhachev (chapters "Poetics of Artistic Time" and "Poetics of Artistic Space" in the study "Poetics ancient Russian literature", 1987). In the chapter “The Poetics of Artistic Time”, Likhachev examines the artistic time of a literary work, noting the significance of the category of time in the perception of the structure of the world.
It is the author who decides whether to slow down or speed up time in his work, whether to stop it, “turn it off” from the work.
In the understanding of the researcher, artistic time is "a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a literary work, subordinating both grammatical time and its philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks."
Paying attention to the subjectivity of human perception of time, the scientist notes that a work of art makes subjectivity one of the forms of depicting reality, at the same time using objective time: unity, emphasizing differences, leading the story primarily in the subjective aspect of time. The scientist notices that to these two forms (subjective and objective) of time a third one can be added: the depicted time of the reader.
A significant role in the work is played by the author's time, which can be either motionless, “as if concentrated at one point”, or mobile, striving to move independently, to develop its own storyline.
Time in a work of art is perceived through a causal or psychological, associative relationship.
Likhachev considers the question of “the unity of the temporal flow in a work with several storylines” to be the most difficult issue in the study of artistic time.
The researcher notes that time can be “open”, included in a “wider flow of time” and “closed”, closed in itself, “occurring only within the plot, not connected with events occurring outside the work, with historical time”. It is the author who decides whether to slow down or speed up time in his work, whether to stop it, “turn it off” from the work. The scientist sees a close connection between the problem of time and the problem of the timeless and "eternal".
The ideas of slowing down and speeding up time are already in many respects correlated with the theory of the modeling structure of the world put forward later. Analyzing the poetics of artistic space, Likhachev notes that the world of a work of art is not autonomous and depends on reality, artistically transformed. The writer, being the creator of his work, creates a certain space, which can be both large and narrow, both real and unreal, imaginary. Whatever the space, it has certain properties and organizes the action of the work. This property of the organization of action is “especially important for literature and folklore”: it is this property that determines the connection with artistic time.
Lotman: an artistic model of the world
Yu. M. Lotman emphasizes the conventionality of the space of art. In a number of works ("Artistic space in Gogol's prose", "The plot space of the Russian novel 19th century”), the scientist notes that the language of “spatial relations” is primary.
Artistic space is a model of the author's world, which is expressed through the language of spatial representations
Lotman sees a clear relationship between space and genre: “switching to another genre changes the “platform” of artistic space.” The space in a work of art largely determines the connections of the picture of the world (temporal, ethical, social, etc.): “in the artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically assumes the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.” Thus, the scientist concludes that artistic space is a model of the author's world, which is expressed through the language of spatial representations, and "artistic space is not a passive receptacle for heroes and plot episodes. Correlating it with actors and the general model of the world created artistic text, convinces that the language of artistic space is not a hollow vessel, but one of the components of the common language spoken by a work of art.
This is how the comprehension of the most important categories - time and space - in literary criticism developed. Their study allows discovering new meanings in works and finding solutions to the problem of genre definition. Through studies of space and time, scholars can take a different look at the history of literature.
Therefore, the analysis of the work through consideration of the spatio-temporal level of the artistic whole can be found in a number of works by modern researchers. Works on time and space can be found in V.G. Shchukin (“On the Philological Image of the World”), Y. Karyakin (“Dostoevsky and the Eve of the 21st Century”), N.K. H. Torop, I. P. Nikitina (“Artistic space as a subject of philosophical and aesthetic analysis”) and many, many others. ■
Evgenia Guruleva
