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Famous doctors of ancient India. Features of medicine in ancient India (3rd millennium BC - IV century

Famous doctors of ancient India. Features of medicine in ancient India (3rd millennium BC - IV century

04.04.2019

India is one of the oldest centers of civilization that emerged at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Indus River. Its original culture is not inferior to the culture of Ancient Egypt and the states of Mesopotamia.

Ancient India is often called the country of sages, and this is a great merit of healers, whose fame has spread far beyond the borders of the country. Buddhist traditions have preserved the glory of the three most famous healers of antiquity - Jivak, Charak and Sushruta.

The art of healing called "Ayurveda" (which means "the doctrine of long life") reached its greatest perfection in that period of history, when the center of ancient Indian civilization moved from the Indus River valley to the Gangang River valley. At the end of this period, outstanding monuments of Ayurvedic literature were written - "Charvaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samhita". An earlier first book is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than 600 Indian medicines. The second is a treatise on surgery, which describes more than 300 operations, more than 120 medical instruments and more than 650 medicines.

The art of surgical treatment in India was the highest in the history of the ancient world - not a single people of antiquity achieved such perfection in this area. Information about the structure of the human body in India was the most complete in the ancient world, because it was the only country where there was no religious prohibitions for the autopsy of the dead. Therefore, the knowledge of doctors in the field of anatomy was very significant and played a big role in the formation and development of ancient Indian surgery.

Indian surgeons, having no idea about asepsis and antiseptics, managed to achieve meticulous cleanliness during operations. They were distinguished by courage, dexterity and excellent command of tools. Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times. The tools were kept in special wooden boxes and sharpened so sharply that they could cut hair.

According to the medical texts that have come down to us, the doctors of ancient India performed amputations, stone cuts, herniotomies, plastic surgery on the face. They were able to restore ears, noses, lips, lost or crippled in battle or by court order. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century, and European surgeons even studied under indian art rhinoplasty (i.e. restoration of a lost nose). This method, described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name of the “Indian method”.

The operation to remove a cataract, i.e., a clouded lens of the eye, was just as jewelry. It must be said that the lens ancient india was considered one of the most important parts of the body, so this operation was given special importance. In addition to cataracts, 75 more eye diseases and methods of their treatment were described in Sushruta's treatise.

The ancient Indians considered man in close connection with the surrounding world, which, in their opinion, consisted of "five elements" - earth, air, fire, water, esrir. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of "three substances" - air, fire, water, the carriers of which in the body were considered "three fluids" (mucus, bile and air). In accordance with this, health was understood as the result of a uniform mixing of fluids and a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, normal state sense organs and clarity of mind, and illness as a violation of these correct relationships; accordingly, the tactics of treatment were aimed primarily at restoring the disturbed balance. For this purpose, diet, evacuating agents (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics) and surgical methods of treatment were widely used.

Diagnosis of ancient Indian doctors was based on a survey of the patient, the study of body temperature, skin color and tongue, the nature of the discharge, the timbre of the voice, and noises in the lungs.

Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine and which was not known even to the ancient Greeks.

Obstetrics was considered a special area of healing among the Indians. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, methods for extracting the fetus in its wrong position, a caesarean section (which was used only after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby).

Great importance in ancient India was given to hygiene, both public (beautification of dwellings and populated areas, the creation of water supply, sewerage and other sanitary facilities), and personal (beauty and neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home). Hygienic habits were enshrined in the "Regulations of Manu":

"... You should never eat the food of the sick, neither one on which hair or insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.

It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing the feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing ceremonies far from the dwelling.

In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, wipe your eyes and honor the gods.

The traditions of ancient Indian medicine are enshrined in the rules of medical ethics. The Raja gave the right to practice medicine in India. He closely followed the activities of doctors and the observance of medical ethics, which required that the healer, "who wants to be successful in

In practice, he was healthy, neat, modest, patient, wore a short-cropped beard, diligently cleaned, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, left the house only with a stick or an umbrella, and especially avoided chatter ... "

Incorrect treatment was especially severely pursued. According to the “Regulations of Manu” that existed at that time, a doctor paid a low fine for improper treatment of animals, an average fine for improper treatment of middle-class people, and a high fine for royal officials. It was forbidden to demand a reward for treatment from the disadvantaged, friends of the healer and brahmins (clergymen); and vice versa, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the doctor was awarded all their property.

So, what is new in the medicine of the slave-owning society in comparison with the medicine of the primitive communal system?

* On the basis of traditional medicine, temple medicine arises

* ethnoscience develops into a professional

professional doctors occupy a prominent place in society and receive recognition from the state

* The first family medical schools appear, in which the head of the family, who has medical experience, passes it on to his children. Each school has its own secret medicines and medical practices. The material accumulates, it becomes more and more difficult to keep it in the head, and therefore it is written on papyri and clay tablets, which can be considered the first medical literature in the history of mankind.

* There is an accumulation of data on the structure human body

* Completely new ideas about the causes of diseases appear

* There is a birth theoretical foundations medicine

* Ideas about human nature are changing

* Improving the treatment of internal diseases

* Develops hygiene activities

Thus, the peoples inhabiting the territory of the Ancient East possessed considerable knowledge and practical skills in the field of therapy, surgery, obstetrics, hygiene, therapeutic use medicinal plants. Ancient doctors received new information about the structure of the human body, changed ideas about human nature, developed peculiar forms medical care and thus had a great influence on the further development of medicine.

The medical knowledge of the ancient Hindus traditionally included information about the diseases of people, plants and animals. Medical writings contain detailed discussions about the youth and maturity of plants, about the treatment of their diseases during wakefulness and "drowsiness", the causes of wilting and falling leaves, about the influence of climate, wind and heat on plant health. It was prescribed to take care of the plant like a person: cover its roots with healing clay, pour water with milk. Describing the grafting of the shoots of one tree onto another is like describing surgical operations.

Traditionally, the system of medical knowledge of ancient India included veterinary medicine; medical treatises often contained recommendations for the treatment of livestock, especially cows. Many Indian drawings are known, in which hermits living in mountain huts are depicted surrounded by birds, snakes and various animals, mountains and forests.

For the first time in the century AD, hospitals were opened in India not only for people, but also for animals. Later, special writings appeared on the treatment of horses and elephants. Indian writings on veterinary medicine were translated into Arabic and spread to different countries of the East.

It was believed that the forgiveness of Varuna could bring sacrifices and magic spells, as well as the performance of "hymns of healing." Here is a fragment of one of them: “You have a hundred, a thousand medicines, O king. In your waters is the nectar of immortality, in them is the mighty power of healing. Varuna, endowed with colossal power, personified not only the forces of nature, but also justice. Appeals to him, known as the "repentant hymns" of the Rigveda, are imbued with the spirit of repentance and a thirst for forgiveness: "Do not allow me, O king, to suffer for the sins of others!" As the highest happiness, friendship with a deity is sung in them, which takes a person into his heavenly boat:

“When the two of us go up to the ship: Varuna and I, When we take the ship to the middle of the ocean, When we move along the surface of the waters, We will swing together on a swing ...”

"The waters are full of healing, the waters drive out sickness." says the Atharva Veda. It was believed that the demons, whose invasion into the human psyche the Hindus explained mental illness, mental disorders and loss of reason, after the recovery of a person go into the water. According to Hindu beliefs, the waters of the sacred river Ganges cleanse from sins, relieve diseases.

The ancient Indian myth speaks of a golden age, when people lived indefinitely and did not eat earthly food. But one person somehow ate a substance that appeared on the surface of the earth and fell ill. Hearing his wailing, Brahma advised him to drink water, and the man was cured. Since then, Brahma has been considered the first physician, and water the first medicine.

Water treatment was characteristic of the medical teachings of different countries. Ancient authors wrote that Egyptian priests healed with the help of water even serious illnesses. After the translation of Indian medical texts into Arabic, this method of treatment was widely used in oriental medicine. The great ruler of India, Babur (1483-1530), in his memoirs (“The Book of Babur” or “Babur-name”), recalled how he was treated by court doctors during the siege of Samarkand: “... I fell ill very seriously, so my tongue was taken away for four days, and they gave me water drop by drop from a piece of cotton ... Those who remained with me ... lost hope that I would survive ... After four or five days, my situation improved a little, but the tongue-tiedness remained, and a few days later I returned to my usual state.

Ancient legends tell that Brahma himself did not invent anything during the treatment, but simply recalled the ancient medical texts told to him. So it was, for example, during the battle between the gods and demons, when Brahma was wounded in the cheek. The pain was so intense that he lost consciousness. When he woke up, he remembered the ancient medical text and cured himself.

In accordance with the natural philosophy of the Hindus, all three elements have both an organic and a cosmic aspect. For example, the wind in nature is the carrier of light, coolness; invisible, it carries within itself powerful secret forces. In the human body, the wind correlates with systems associated with movement: this is, first of all, the nervous system, as well as blood circulation, digestion, excretion and metabolism. Bile is represented in nature by fire, and in the body it regulates "natural heat" and maintains a constant body temperature. It provides the activity of the heart, the main source of "natural warmth", or "warmth within the body." So called the heat that occurs in the process of digestion and proper metabolism. Its source is "life-giving juices" obtained with food. Phlegm in human nature is associated with soft substances and is considered to be like a lubricating oil that coats solid substances.

In the Indian doctrine of "life-giving juices" that maintain body heat, the hematopoietic function of the spleen is indicated: these juices, passing through the liver and spleen, are colored in pink color and turn into blood. Further, from the blood arise the five bases of the organism - flesh, fat, bones, marrow and semen.

Vedic texts contain references to various diseases of the eyes, ears, heart, stomach, lungs, skin, muscles and nervous system. About three hundred different parts and organs of the human body are listed. A sudden illness is considered a manifestation of an evil inclination, coming either from demons or from worms penetrating the body. Great importance is attached to diet, with milk, honey and rice occupying a special place in dietary prescriptions. Later medical writings called milk a sacred drink, which preserved the strength and mind of a person, protected from diseases. Honey has traditionally been part of prescription drugs that cure many diseases. It was considered the main antidote for poisoning with mineral, plant and animal poisons.

In the mythology of ancient India, bees occupied a place of honor, since the god Vishnu, personifying the sky and the life of the universe, was often depicted as a small bee resting in a cup of a lotus flower. Honey as a nutritious and delicious food has attracted the attention of people since ancient times. Among the Stone Age drawings, there is an image of a man surrounded by bees extracting honey from a tree hollow.

Often, extracts of medicinal plants were used for the preparation of medicines. Their parts corresponded with the three elements. Thus, stems and branches corresponded to water, since liquid juices pass through them, flowers to fire, which has light and color, leaves to air, setting the plant in motion. The healing properties of Indian medicines prepared on the basis of plants were known far beyond the borders of Ancient India: they were transported by sea and land trade routes to the Mediterranean, Central Asia and China, and to many other countries. ancient world. The best medicinal plants were brought from the Himalayas.

The harmonious combination of air, fire and water is observed only in a few people. In most, one thing predominates, but this does not yet entail a disease. Many reasons can lead to imbalance between the elements, first of all - unrighteous actions. Uncleanliness, overeating lead to contamination of the body, are the causes of many diseases, make a person defenseless against temptations.

If, due to unfavorable circumstances, one of the elements in the body begins to predominate excessively, illness sets in. The doctor's task is to restore health to the patient, bringing all the elements into the necessary balance. Carriers of air, fire and water in the human body were considered respectively prana, bile and mucus.

The art of healing (Sanskrit Ayurveda - the doctrine of long life) was highly valued in ancient India. Buddhist legends and texts have preserved the glory of the miraculous healers Jivaka (VI-V centuries BC), Charaka and Sushruta (first centuries AD). The main directions of traditional ancient Indian medicine of the classical period are reflected in two outstanding monuments ancient Ayurvedic literature: "Charaka-samhita" (dated from the 1st-2nd centuries AD) and "Sushruta-samhita" (dated from the 4th century AD). The earlier "Charaka Samhita" is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than 600 medicines of plant, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of diseases of the head area; treatment of diseases of the whole organism; treatment of mental illness; treatment of childhood diseases; antidotes; elixirs against senile decrepitude; drugs that increase sexual activity.

"Sushruta-samhita" is mainly devoted to surgical treatment; it describes more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical instruments and at least 650 medicines.

The knowledge of Indian healers about the structure of the human body was the most complete in the ancient world. Despite the imperfection of the research method, which was based on the maceration of the body of the deceased in running water, the ancient Indians distinguished: 7 membranes, 500 muscles, 900 ligaments, 90 tendons, 300 bones (this includes teeth and cartilage), which are divided into flat, round and long , 107 joints, 40 main vessels and 700 of their branches (for blood, mucus and air), 24 nerves, 9 sense organs and 3 substances (prana, mucus and bile). Certain areas of the body (hands, soles, testicles, groin, etc.) were highlighted as "especially important". Their damage was considered life-threatening. The knowledge of Indian doctors in the field of the structure of the human body was an important milestone in the history of anatomy and played a significant role in the development of ancient Indian surgery.

Here it should be noted that the comparison of the achievements of the ancient Indians with the knowledge of the ancient Egyptians and Aztecs is very conditional: Egyptian texts of medical content were recorded in the 2nd millennium BC. e. (i.e., almost two millennia earlier), and the flowering of Aztec medicine falls on the middle of the II millennium BC. e. (i.e. more than a millennium later). In the classical period of the history of ancient India, healers moved away from the supernatural ideas about the causes of diseases that prevailed in the Vedic period. Religious-philosophical systems, on which they were based in search of the foundations of the universe, also revealed elements of natural science knowledge. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world, which, according to the ancient Indians, consisted of five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The different quality of objects was explained by the different combination of the smallest particles of anu ("atoms"). The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water (the carriers of which in the body were considered prana, bile and mucus). Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, the normal state of the sense organs and clarity of mind, and illness was understood as a violation of these correct ratios and the negative impact on a person of the five elements (the influence of the seasons, climate, indigestible food, unhealthy water and so on.).

The well-known words of Sushruta testify to the versatility of the skills and knowledge of the ancient Indian healer: "A healer who is familiar with healing properties roots and herbs - a person; a demon familiar with the properties of a knife and fire; he who knows the power of prayer is a prophet; but he who is familiar with the properties of mercury is a god!" The best medicinal plants were delivered from the Himalayas. Only healers were involved in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites): for those bitten by an Indian snake there was no healing if he did not turn to Indian healers ..

The fame of the healing properties of Indian plants spread widely beyond the borders of ancient India; By sea and land trade routes they were brought to Parthia, the countries of the Mediterranean and Central Asia, the basins of the Caspian and Black Seas, South Siberia, and China. The main export items were nard, musk, sandalwood, cinnamon, aloe and other plants and incense. In the Middle Ages, the experience of Indian medicine was borrowed by Tibetan healers, as evidenced by the well-known treatise of Indo-Tibetan medicine "Chzhud-shi" (8th-9th centuries AD, see p. 169).

Obstetrics in ancient India was considered an independent field of healing. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, embryotomy (which was recommended in cases where it was impossible to turn the fetus on a leg or head), caesarean section (used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby ) and turning the fetus on the leg.

The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India was the highest in the ancient world. Sushruta considered surgery "the first and best of all medical sciences, a precious work of heaven. Still having no idea about antiseptics and aseptics, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, achieved meticulous cleanliness during operations. They were distinguished by courage, dexterity and excellent command of tools .

Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times, sharpened so that they could easily cut hair, they were stored in. special wooden boxes.

The healers of ancient India carried out amputations of limbs, hernia repair, and plastic surgery. They "knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or mutilated in battle or by court verdict. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European until the 18th century, when the surgeons of the East India Company did not consider it humiliating to learn from the Indians the art of rhinoplasty.

The method of rhinoplasty, described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name of the "Indian method". A skin flap for the formation of the future nose was cut on the vascular pedicle from the skin of the forehead or cheek. Other reconstructive operations on the face were performed in a similar way.

Disease prevention was one of the most important areas of Indian medicine. Already in ancient times, attempts were made to prevent the disease of smallpox, which is widespread in India.

So, in the text, which is attributed to the legendary healer of antiquity Dhanvantari (dated to the 5th century AD), it says: "Take smallpox matter with a surgical knife either from the udder of a cow or from the hand of an already infected person, make a puncture between the elbow and shoulder on the hand of another person to the blood, and when the pus enters with blood into the body, a fever will be found. (In Europe, vaccination against smallpox was discovered by the English physician E. Jenner in 1796).

Hygienic traditions contributed to the development of medical science. The Mauryan Empire (4th-2nd centuries BC) had strict rules that forbade the discharge of sewage into the streets of the city and regulated the place and methods of burning the corpses of the dead; in doubtful cases of human death, an autopsy was ordered; the body of the deceased was examined and covered with special oil in order to prevent decomposition. Severe penalties were also established for mixing poisons in food, medicines and incense.

During the time of Ashoka (268-231 BC), the most outstanding ruler of ancient India, almshouses and rooms for the sick were built at Buddhist temples - dharma-shala (hospital), which appeared in India several centuries earlier than in Europe . Ashoka also encouraged the cultivation of medicinal plants, the construction of wells, and the landscaping of roads.

Post-text assignments:

1. Features of healing in ancient India.

2. Hygienic traditions in ancient India.

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Introduction

Medical ethics in ancient India. Pretty interesting topic.

Thus, the high social and material status of a doctor was combined with great responsibility for his work. Certain professional requirements, behavior rules.

It is clear that medical ethics plays an important role in establishing the relationship, mutual trust between the doctor and the patient in the treatment process. Ancient physicians knew this.

We must now consider the etiquette of ancient Indian physicians.

For a better understanding, we will first get acquainted with the medical traditions of those times, the patterns of development of certain branches of medicine. At the same time, thanks to the sources, we will find out what etiquette standards were established for the then doctors.

In general, medicine was given great importance in ancient India. The basic moral principles of a doctor are contained in the treatise Ayurveda (Science of Life), in the teachings of ancient Indian doctors, primarily Sushruta.

According to the teachings of Sushruta, the doctor must master all the subtleties of the healing art: he must be a good practitioner and know theoretical medicine.

These and other subtleties of medical etiquette in ancient India will be discussed below.

1. The development of medicine in ancient India

Ancient India did not fully answer in terms of territory and population modern India, therefore, it is more correct, bearing in mind antiquities from the III millennium AD. i.e., talk about Hindustan, or the South Asian subcontinent. This subcontinent covered four modern states: India proper, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan. The slaveholding system in ancient India developed towards the end of the 4th-beginning of the 3rd millennium AD. e. The history of ancient India can be divided into several periods, each of which has its own specifics. Accordingly, the state of medicine in each of these periods had its own characteristics.

The most ancient was the period of the so-called Harappan culture - from the name of the city of Harappa in the territory of modern Pakistan. This highly developed urban culture was formed in the Indus Valley in the III millennium AD. e., continued its development in the II millennium, significantly exceeding the level of culture of the cities of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The excavations of the city of Mohenjo-Daro testify to the planned development: all the streets are precisely oriented to the four cardinal points - north - south and east - west. This is the first example of such city planning in history. The level of improvement that was quite high at that time, in particular, artificial irrigation, wells, baths, and a sewerage system, is striking - these sanitary facilities are the oldest known today. The unique large pool in the city center had a depth of 3 m, size 12X7 m. The water in it did not stagnate, it was fluid. Wells in the city were lined with burnt bricks. Each stone house had a washing room with a brick floor and a slope towards one of the corners. As the English scientist A. Besham notes in a book entitled “The Miracle That Was India” (Russian translation. - M., 1977), “... drain pipes and a sewer system are one of the most impressive achievements Indian civilization. None other ancient civilization, even the Roman one, did not have such a perfect plumbing system.

Each street and alley in Mohenjo-Daro had a separate brick-lined channel about 60 cm deep and about 50 cm wide. Before entering the canals, sewage and sewage passed through cesspools and settling tanks covered with tightly ground covers. The system of construction of residential buildings - two - or three-story - was also well thought out. high culture cities of the Indus Valley managed 2 thousand years before ancient rome to create the most perfect example of sanitary and hygienic construction in antiquity. According to archaeologists, about 100 thousand people could live in Mohenjo-Daro. The writing of the Harappan culture has not yet been fully deciphered, which makes it difficult to determine the reasons for its decline at the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennium BC. e.

The next after the Harappan was the Vedic period in the history of Ancient India, from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. At this time, several slave-owning states were formed in the Ganges valley, little connected or, more precisely, not at all connected with the state formations of the Harappan period in the Indus basin. Initially, as an oral tradition, later, with written fixation in the Ganges basin, the priests began compiling texts of the Vedas - revelations or sacred teachings, as well as samhitas - collections of hymns and prayers. There were also samhitas of medical content. Thus, collections of medical advice compiled by prominent doctors - Charaka (I-II century AD) and Sushruta (IV century AD) - were also called samhita: Charaka-samhita, Sushruta-samhita.

Among the Vedas, the following are known: Rig Veda - the Veda of hymns and mythological plots; Samaveda - Veda of songs; Yajurveda - Veda of sacrificial spells; Atharvaveda - the Veda of conspiracies and spells, in particular, against diseases. Later, by the beginning of our era, Ayurveda was compiled - the art of healing, the doctrine of a long healthy life. As the researchers note, in particular the well-known Indologist A. Bosch, already mentioned in his book “The Miracle That Was India”, “the Indian system of medical knowledge is similar in some respects to the system of Hippocrates and Galen, and in some respects it has gone far ahead.”

In the Rig Veda we also find texts about healing rites. During the Vedic period of Indian history, treatment and medical ideas were closely intertwined with religious rites and ideas. In the Rigveda, we also meet such critical remarks of doctors: “Our desires are different: the driver desires firewood, the doctor desires diseases, and the priest desires sacrificial libations.”

In the Vedic period in India, the Ashvan twins, doctors and Rudra, the owner of medicinal plants, were revered as medical deities. At the same time, evil demons were also recognized, bringing diseases to people, depriving them of their offspring.

At the end of the Vedic period, the population of Ancient India was finally divided into the main social classes - varnas, which was already planned: brahmins - "knowing the sacred doctrine", that is, priests, kshatriyas - "endowed with power", i.e. military nobility and members of royal families , vaishyas - “free community members” (farmers, cattle breeders, merchants); sudra, or dasa, are the disenfranchised poor. Each varna also consisted of castes and podcasts - related groups of people, of the same origin. And there were still - outside the castes, as if outside the law - the lowest, most rightsless people - pariahs, who were used in the dirtiest jobs, the very communication with which was considered humiliating. Only the three highest varnas had the right to study the Vedas and engage in treatment: brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas.

The next, highest, period in the history of Ancient India was the classical period, divided into two half-periods: the second half and the millennium AD. e. and I-VI centuries. n. e. In the classical period in India, knowledge was significantly developed in many areas: in mathematics (in particular, the creation of a decimal number system, now accepted throughout the world); in astronomy; in philosophy - here the yoga system occupied a special place, combining physical exercises (hatha yoga) with ethics and an appropriate way of life (raja yoga). On this grateful soil of the multilateral cultural development Significant advances in the field of medicine were also natural. First of all, they found their expression in the writings of Charaka and Sushruta.

Ancient Indian philosophy is a complex mixture different views in which both materialistic and idealistic tendencies are seen. Predominantly, these views are based on the idea of the world soul, which, in the process of self-development, induces the basis of everything that exists - the primordial matter - to the creation of the material world, including man. The soul of a person is immortal, the body is only the outer shell of the soul, which is a particle of the world spirit, but very attached to earthly existence, therefore a person is imperfect by nature.

Since ancient times, Indian doctors have studied the macerated corpses of people and with their knowledge of anatomy surpassed the knowledge of doctors of all other countries. They were the first to consider knowledge of anatomy as an obligatory step for everyone who devoted himself to medical business. It is possible that the ancient Indian scientists, who knew obstetrics well, most of all studied the anatomy of the human fetus and therefore believed that the center of life is the navel, from which all vessels and nerves begin. The immortal soul that is in it, according to their ideas, gives life to the body. In the descriptions of the body, places were distinguished, the damage of which is dangerous or safe for life.

The first treatise on normal human anatomy, based on autopsy data from human corpses, was written only at the end of the 10th century AD. e. Bhaskare Bhate.

Ancient Indian scientists considered the main substances in the human body to be bile (the carrier of vital heat), mucus and air (prana). Health depends on their correct interchange. Most diseases (80) are caused by disturbances in relation to air, less (40) - bile and even less (20) - mucus. Such manifestations of the state of mind as sadness, anger and fear are very conducive to the onset of the disease. In Ayurveda there are clear descriptions of malaria, anthrax, elephantiasis and bloody diarrhea, as well as plague and cholera epidemics that destroyed entire cities and regions. Consumption was considered the same dangerous disease for others as leprosy. Brahmins were forbidden to marry a girl whose family included tuberculosis, epilepsy, leprosy and stomach patients. At temples and monasteries there were schools of doctors, which were led by priests.

According to Sushruta, "the student must perceive science from the teacher not only with the ear, but also with the mind, so as not to be like a donkey that carries sandalwood on its back, knows its weight, but does not know its value." The central medical schools were in the cities of Benares and Taxila. Physicians were educated to be aware of their high purpose. The doctor should be disinterested, treat all patients equally, regardless of their position in society and material wealth, be the most trusted person for the patient. “You can be afraid of your father, mother, friends, teacher, but you should not be afraid of the doctor: for the patient, he is a father, mother, friend and mentor.” In schools, much attention was paid to the recognition of diseases - diagnosis. It was advised to take into account the age of the patient, to know his profession, to get acquainted with his habits, and during the examination to pay attention to the structure of the body, the nature of breathing, pulse, to feel the stomach, to determine the size of the liver and spleen.

Lifetime therapeutic trepanation. (From excavations of ancient Peruvian burials).

At medical schools there were large hospitals, libraries. There were also hospitals in large port cities, on trade routes.

Since disorders in the juices of the body were considered the cause of diseases, laxatives and emetics, bloodletting were of primary importance in the treatment. At the same time, it was advised to pay special attention to the cleanliness of the body, linen, to the selection of dishes that the patient likes, to creating a pleasant environment for him, for which they used music, singing and poetry reading, since a good mood and surrounding beauty in a broad sense contribute to recovery.

Of the medical sciences, surgery was most revered in ancient India - "a precious gift from heaven and an inexhaustible source of glory." The doctor must know surgery, the surgeon must be well acquainted with medical science. For Sushruta, “a doctor who does not understand operations, at the bedside of a patient, is lost, like a warrior who first got into battle. A doctor who only knows how to operate, but does not have theoretical knowledge, does not deserve respect. Each of them owns only half of his science and is like a bird with one wing.

Ancient Indian surgeons noted crepitus in case of fractures, knew how to stop bleeding with ligatures, performed amputations, vitini stones, trepanations, cataract removal, laparotomy to save the fetus in the event of the death of the mother, and made a turn on the head and leg in the case of a transverse position of the fetus. Cutting off the nose, which was widely practiced at that time as an execution and to denote a slave state, forced Indian doctors to develop methods of plastic surgery, some of which have survived in surgical use to this day. Instrumentation of ancient Indian surgery has about 200 samples. Having no idea about antiseptics and asepsis, Indian doctors demanded that cleanliness be carefully observed during operations.

Here is a description of the nose plastic surgery from Ayurvedic Sushruta. “First of all, the surgeon must draw on the sheet the size of the part of the nose that it is missing. He should cut out this drawing and attach it to the cheek next to the nose. Then you need to cut out a piece of cheek skin in accordance with the attached sketch, but do not cut the joints with the skin of the cheek. This scrap is now to be turned over and sewn to the remains of the nose, in accordance with the shape of the part that is missing; this grill needs to be refreshed first. Two branches of a castor tree or lotus or hollow grass should also be inserted into the nostrils. With their help, the surgeon can lift the attached skin as high as needed. The attached piece should be sewn to the remains of the nose and then sprinkled with wound powder. A strip of cotton is superimposed on top, which should be sprayed more often with cold sesame oil ... When it turns out that the transferred skin has taken root well, it is necessary to cut its connection with the cheek.

Ayurvedic medicine for health promotion recommends doing gymnastics, getting up before sunrise, widely using water procedures, dancing, games that maintain a good mood, make a person strong and dexterous.

During excavations in northwestern India, a large ancient city Mohenjo-Daro was found to contain as early as 3,000 years BC. e. there was a city sewer with pipes about 2 m in diameter, pools near the houses.

Ancient Indian medicine compared with the medicine of other countries, she knew more medicines. Only medicinal plants were known about a thousand names; organic and chemical substances, especially mercury, were widely used; made an elixir with gold to continue life. Scientists in India, in particular doctors, maintained relations and shared their experience with doctors in China and Iran. IN Kievan Rus camphor, antlers, musk and other medicinal substances and spices were imported from India.

In Ayurveda, the image of an exemplary doctor is depicted in this way: “A doctor who wants to be successful in practice must be healthy, neat, modest, patient, have a short beard, diligently cleaned and trimmed nails, wear white perfumed clothes, leave the house only with stick or umbrella. Especially he should avoid chatting and joking with women and not sit next to them on the same bed. His speech should be quiet, pleasant and invigorating. He should have an open, sympathetic heart, a strictly truthful character, a calm temperament, be moderate, respectable, and always try to do good. good doctor is obliged to visit often and closely examine the sick, should not be timid and indecisive. If a doctor thoughtlessly undertakes to cure patients with incurable diseases, he risks losing his reputation, friends and big profits.

It is known that the experience of ancient Indian medicine was borrowed by the doctors of Tibet, as evidenced by the treatise of Tibetan medicine "Chzhud-Shi" (VIII-IX centuries AD).

Sources for the study of Indian medicine are written monuments - Ayurveda (science of life) and the laws of Manu.

In India, dissection of corpses has become widespread.

The theoretical ideas of Indian physicians were as follows: the human body consists of bile, mucus and air, as well as five cosmic elements: earth, water, fire, air, ether. Of these elementary particles seven organic products are formed, namely: chyle, blood, meat, fatty tissue, bones, brain, family. Each next product is formed from the previous one. This is how a physiological cycle develops, which lasts a month and creates a vital force that can be excited by food and medicinal products.

Medical care was provided by priestly doctors and doctors who studied in secular medical schools. The schools had hospitals and libraries.

From Ayurveda we learn about the requirements that applied to the doctor, and the attitude of the environment towards him. “The doctor whose practice is to be successful must be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed and trimmed nails, white, perfumed clothes. His speech should be quiet, pleasant and invigorating. He must have an open, sympathetic heart, a strictly truthful character, a calm temperament, and be moderate. Always try to do good. A good physician must frequently visit and closely examine the sick. Don't be timid and indecisive. If a doctor thoughtlessly undertakes to cure a patient with an incurable disease, he risks losing his reputation, friends and big profits.

It is no coincidence that Ayurveda states that “one can be afraid of a father, mother, friends, teacher, but one should not feel fear of a doctor: he is also a father, mother, friend and mentor for the patient.”

Among the therapeutic agents, Indian doctors preferred laxatives and emetics, bloodletting. Medicines were prescribed in the so-called. critical days(when the interaction of juices was disturbed): emetic - once every two weeks, laxatives - once a month, and bloodletting - twice a year.

Their pharmaceutical arsenal included more than 700 names of herbal medicines (the lotus flower was sacred), as well as many minerals and metals (mercury, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, zinc, arsen).

Metals were broken into thin ribbons, baked, and then quenched in oil, milk or other liquids. Used as a tonic. There were also stimulants and cooling agents.

One of the authors of Ayurveda, the doctor Sushruta, wrote: "In the hands of the ignorant, medicine is poison; in the hands of the knowledgeable, they are equivalent to a drink of immortality." The ancient Indians suffered from snake bites, so they learned to prepare antidotes from asafoetida, citrus fruits mixed with salts, peppers and the like.

The ancient Indians were distinguished by the scope of surgical work. From surgical methods Treatments included cesarean section, turning the fetus on a leg in the lumbar position, stones from the bladder, cataract removal, craniotomy, amputation of limbs, and stopping bleeding with ligatures. sushrut doctor medicine india

In ancient India, slaves were punished by cutting off their ears and nose. This forced Indian doctors to develop plastic surgeries and related surgical instruments (more than 200 samples have come down to us).

Among hygienic measures, preference was given to getting up before sunrise, water procedures, dancing, and games. According to the laws of Manu, only healthy couples were allowed to marry.

2. Organization of health care in ancient India

Medical practice was of great importance in ancient India. The basic moral principles of a doctor are contained in the treatise Ayurveda (Science of Life), in the teachings of ancient Indian doctors, primarily Sushruta. The high position of a doctor in ancient India can be judged by the legends, according to which one of the 14 precious creatures created by the gods by mixing the earth and the sea was a scientist-healer.

The essence of the ancient Indian treatises was that the doctor must have high moral and physical qualities, show sympathy for the patient, be patient and calm, instill confidence in the patient in a favorable outcome of the disease. Namely: he should be healthy, neat, modest, patient, cleaned and trimmed nails, white, scented with incense, clothes, leaving the house with a stick or umbrella, in particular avoid chatter. According to the teachings of Sushruta, the doctor must master all the subtleties of the healing art: he must be a good practitioner and know theoretical medicine. In his treatise, Sushruta wrote: “A doctor who is not strong in operations becomes embarrassed near the patient’s bed, like a cowardly soldier who first got into battle. A doctor who only knows how to operate and neglects theoretical information does not deserve respect and can endanger even the life of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with one wing."

The behavior of the ancient Indian doctor was regulated depending on what kind of treatment is being carried out, it differed in the pre- and postoperative periods. There were ethical norms for the behavior of a doctor in relation to the one who is dying, and their relatives. The preservation of medical secrecy, which consisted of intimate information about the patient, his family, and the prognosis of his disease, was considered especially important.

At the graduation ceremony, the teacher of the art of healing proclaimed a sermon on the moral duty of the doctor. It is given in the treatise Charaka-samhita: "You should wholeheartedly strive for the recovery of the patient, you should not betray your patients even at the cost of your own life, you should not get drunk, you should not do evil or have evil comrades, you should be reasonable and always strive to improve your knowledge "When you go to a sick person's house, you must direct your words, thoughts, mind and feelings to nothing else but the patient and his treatment. Nothing that happens in the sick person's house needs to be said..." .

The raja gave the right to medical practice. He also oversaw the fulfillment of medical duty, the fulfillment ethical principles when doctors receive payment for their work, using a collection of instructions on the rules of conduct for an Indian in private and public life in accordance with the religious dogmas of Brahmanism (the law of Manu). According to these laws, a doctor paid a low fine for improper treatment of animals, an average fine for improper treatment of people of the middle classes, and high royal officials were forbidden to demand remuneration for the treatment of the destitute, friends of the doctor and Brahmins - ministers of worship.

The Code of Ethics of doctors of Ancient India established the following duties for them: “Day and night, no matter how busy you are, you should try with all your heart and soul to alleviate the suffering of your patients. You should not leave or insult your patients, even to save your own life or saving livelihoods.

So, we were convinced that medicine was given great importance in ancient India.

The basic moral principles of a doctor are contained in the treatise Ayurveda (Science of Life), in the teachings of ancient Indian doctors, primarily Sushruta, and also in the laws of Mana.

According to the legends, according to which one of the 14 precious creatures created by the gods by mixing the earth and the sea was a scientist-healer. This testifies to high position doctor in the society of ancient India.

There were ethical norms for the behavior of a doctor in relation to the one who is dying, and their relatives. The preservation of medical secrecy, which consisted of intimate information about the patient, his family, and the prognosis of his disease, was considered especially important.

To instill a sense of duty moral principles In ancient India, there were certain traditions in the training of doctors. The training of doctors was carried out by special mentors. At a special ritual for accepting students to a doctor, the mentor said: "Now you leave your passions, anger, selfishness, madness, vanity, pride, envy, rudeness, jokes, falseness, laziness and other vices of behavior ...".

So, we see that in ancient India, etiquette norms not only existed, but rather strict requirements were put forward for doctors.

List of used literature

1. Baeva O.V. Management in the field of health / A.V. Baeva.-K: Center educational literature, 2008 -- 640 p.

2. Verkhratsky S. A. History of medicine / Sec. A. Verkhratsky; artistic formal. Verstka-Studio. - K.: Health, 2011. - 351 p.

3. Medicine. Interesting. Access point: http://pidruchniki.ws/

4. Ancient civilizations / S. S. Averintsev, V. P. Alekseev, V. G. Ardzinba and others; Under total ed. G. M. Bongard-Levina.-- M.: Thought, 1989.-479 p.

5. Bychko A.K., Bychko By.I. Bondar N.A. Theory and history of the world and national culture: Course of lectures / Textbook. allowance.- K .: Lybid, 1993.

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5.3. MEDICAL TREATIES OF ANCIENT INDIA

Indian texts tell of the successes of the legendary doctors of antiquity. One of the most famous was Jivaka. According to tradition, he studied at Taxila, a city in northwest India famous for its medical school. At the exam, he received the task: to examine the area around the city and determine which of the herbs do not have medicinal properties. After much experimentation, Jivaka came to the conclusion that such herbs did not exist. Buddhist literature contains many stories about amazing art healing for which Jivaka became famous. He performed complex surgical operations, studied the influence of climate on human health, and treated the Buddha himself.

A variety of medicines used by Indian medicine were prepared from products of plant, mineral and animal origin. Precious metals played an important role in the art of healing. The composition of ointments often included zinc, lead, sulfur, antimony, ammonia, but mercury and its salts were most often used. “A doctor who is familiar with the healing properties of roots is a person who knows the power of prayers is a prophet, and who knows the properties of mercury is a god,” an old Indian proverb teaches. Already in the Vedic texts, a recipe for mercury ointment was given, which was prepared from metallic mercury, sulfur and animal fat. The widespread use of mercury in ancient Indian medicine was associated with a high level of development of alchemy. The role of mercury and its compounds in alchemical transformations is indicated by the medieval name of Indian alchemy - "rasayana" ("the path of mercury"). The combination of mercury with sulfur was supposed to open the way to obtaining the elixir of immortality. Alchemical information was contained mainly in medical texts, which described in detail the "rasashala" - a room for chemical experiments. The spacious laboratory, equipped with sinks, a variety of glassware, drying ovens, devices for washing compositions, inflatable bellows for a forge, and much more, was decorated with numerous images of gods and religious symbols. Mercury, intended for the production of medicines and alchemical compounds, was freed from impurities, "treated" with the help of medicinal herbs - aloe, lemon and red mustard.

Charaka and Sushruta - the great doctors of ancient India

The main directions of the art of healing the ancient Hindus are reflected in the medical treatises "Charaka-samhita" - about internal diseases(I-II centuries BC), and "Sushruta-samhita" - about surgery (IV century AD). The first treatise belongs to Charaka, the great physician of ancient India. Much attention in this work is paid to the diagnosis of the disease: the doctor had to take into account the age of the patient, his physical characteristics, living conditions, habits, profession, nutrition, climate and terrain. It was necessary to carefully examine the urine and excretions of the body, check the sensitivity to various stimuli, muscle strength, voice, memory, pulse. It is interesting to note that the Charaka Samhita mentions such cases when a drop of blood taken from a patient should be examined, and also describes methods of actively influencing the body in order to exacerbate the disease for a short time to reveal its symptoms.

Historical parallels: An active influence on the body in order to exacerbate the disease in order to identify its symptoms was used in cases where the doctor found it difficult to make an accurate diagnosis. This method was later transferred to Tibetan medicine, which prescribes special remedies for those cases when it is necessary to "lure" the disease, to "raise" it. This can be seen as the beginning of the "provocation method" used by modern medicine.

Charaka gave detailed description methods of treatment of internal diseases, including plague, smallpox, malaria, cholera, tuberculosis. The treatise contains sections on anatomy and the art of bloodletting.

Historical parallels:

The Indian word "samhita" means not only "treatise", "composition", but also "commentary". Ancient medical books were often commentaries on even earlier writings. Thus, the papyri of Ebers and Smith contain comments on fragments of the Egyptian "Book of the Heart" that has not come down to us. The title of the Chinese medical treatise "Answers to Difficult Questions", usually attributed to Bian Qiao, reflects the nature of the book: it is a commentary on difficult-to-understand fragments of ancient medical writings. Later, in the middle

The author of the treatise "Sushruta Samhita" was another great Indian physician - Sushruta. Tradition associates his name with the medical school in Benares. Probably, after her graduation, Sushruta was a teacher at this school, which graduated doctors and surgeons. All his life he lived and practiced in this city. The medical information in his treatise consisted of six sections, the first of which contains a special section on surgery: the author considered it the most important part of medicine. In addition, the treatise contains information on anatomy, therapy, the doctrine of poisons and antidotes, as well as the treatment of eye diseases.

Sushruta wrote that many diseases are the result of damage to the three main

substances - air, bile and mucus. Damage to the air in the body can be

caused by overwork or rich food, it leads to 80 different

diseases; corruption of bile comes from anger, sadness or fear and entails 40

diseases; mucus corruption and 20 diseases can be caused by inaction, apathy and

prolonged sleep.

In addition, the causes of the disease were considered violations of the natural balance between the three elements of the body. The treatise Sushruta identifies three reasons for the possible violation of this balance:

Pathological changes within the body itself, due to either

natural deviations from the norm, or unfavorable to health

the scope of a person's life;

External circumstances (climate effects, injuries, poisoning, snake bites and

other similar reasons)

Action supernatural forces- gods and demons, as well as "inevitable

processes accompanying aging.

Historical parallels:

In medicine in many countries of the Ancient World, antiquity and the Middle Ages, diseases originating from natural and supernatural causes were distinguished. Information about this is contained in cuneiform tablets and Egyptian papyri, Roman encyclopedias and medieval Christian manuscripts. The art of healing included knowing which methods to apply in different cases. In this regard, an episode from the life of the famous Chinese philosopher "perfectly wise" Mo Tzu (V-Wee. BC) is interesting. When he fell ill, a disciple came to him and asked: “Sir, you say that the spirits are intelligent and manage disasters and blessings. They reward good and punish evil. You are wise, how can you be sick? Does this mean that your teaching is not entirely correct, or that the spirits are not so intelligent after all? Mo Zi answered him, “Even if I am sick, why shouldn’t the spirits be intelligent? There are many ways in which a person can catch a disease. Some diseases are contracted from heat or cold, others from fatigue. If only one door out of a hundred is closed, will the thieves not be able to enter?

Let's turn to another piece of historical evidence. Christian Bishop Gregory of Tours (Vie.) tells in his notes about how one day, feeling a strong headache, he went to church and prayed at the tomb of the saint - the pain subsided. However, he did not stop there and, assuming that the cause of the pain was an excess of blood, he made himself a bloodlet. The pain immediately returned. “Every person can draw a lesson from this incident,” concludes the bishop, “that one should not resort to earthly means who once had the good fortune to experience healing by heavenly means.”

Here is Sushruta's instruction for caring for the teeth: “Getting up early from sleep, you should brush your teeth with a brush. The brush is made from a fresh tree branch untouched by worms, which is split with teeth at the end in the form of a brush. Depending on the time of year and the temperament of a person, a tree of sour, bitter or astringent taste is chosen. In addition to the brush, a paste containing honey is also applied daily, vegetable oils and a number of aromatic ingredients. Each tooth is cleaned separately, and damage to the gums should be avoided.

Historical Parallels: Similar devices for cleaning teeth have been described in Chinese hygienic and medical treatises. They are also used by many modern peoples.

Indian doctors knew that rabies comes from the bite of rabid animals, they were famous for their antidotes for snake bites. Sushruta writes about 80 types of poisonous snakes and three types of antidotes: water, emetics and laxatives, as well as the need to immediately pull the bitten body part above the wound. Suction was also practiced, and a piece of a fish bladder was laid between the lips and the wound.

Historical Parallels: In a similar way, Egyptian doctors treated the sting of a scorpion. Blood was sucked out of the wound and a tight bandage was applied above the wound so that the poison did not spread.

In the treatises of Charaka and Sushruta, great importance is attached to medical ethics (from the Greek "ethos" - custom, character). According to ancient legends, the gods mixed heaven and earth and created 14 "precious things", one of them was a doctor. His position in society was relatively high, but the demands on him were also great. Sushruta wrote in his treatise: “A doctor who is inexperienced in operations becomes confused at the bedside of a patient ... A doctor who knows only how to operate and neglects theoretical information does not deserve respect and can endanger even the lives of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with one wing.

Medical treatises constantly emphasize that a real doctor, in addition to a good knowledge of theory and practice, must have moral virtues: disinterestedness, honesty, courage, self-control. Medicine requires more moral fortitude from a person than other professions. Duty to the patient should be prioritized over self-interest. When incurable disease the doctor must honestly admit his impotence. The prescriptions of medical ethics also concerned the appearance of a doctor: it was required that “a doctor who wants to be successful in practice should be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently cleaned, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, leave the house not otherwise than with a stick and an umbrella, and in particular he avoided chatter.

In ancient India, there was a concept of medical secrecy: information received from the patient was not disclosed if they could make a heavy impression on loved ones. The doctor was not supposed to inform the patient about those of his observations that could adversely affect the mental state of the patient and thus interfere with recovery. This was consistent with Ayurvedic ideas about the need for peace of mind to maintain health.

Famous doctors of ancient India. Features of medicine in ancient India (3rd millennium BC - IV century

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5.3. MEDICAL TREATIES OF ANCIENT INDIA